History of California

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Contents
Articles
Introducing California's history
History of California History of California to 1899 California Gold Rush California in the American Civil War History of California 1900 to present 1 1 22 36 53 66 76 76 107 121

History of California cities

History of Los Angeles History of San Francisco History of San Diego

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 125 127

Article Licenses
License 129

Introducing California's history

History of California
The history of California can be divided into several periods: the Native American period; European exploration period from 1542 to 1769; the Spanish colonial period, 1769 to 1821; the Mexican period, 1821 to 1848; and United States statehood, which continues to the present day. The early history of California is characterized by being surrounded by barriers nearly isolating the state: the Pacific Ocean to the west, the Sierra Nevada mountains backed by the nearly barren Great Basin in the east, the Mojave Desert and Sonora Desert areas in the southeast and RedwoodDouglas fir forests to the northwest. The near isolation of the California Indian tribes led them to develop cultures different than the other Indian cultures in the Americas. California Indians tribes had essentially no agriculture (with the exception of the Colorado River Indians) and were hunter-gatherers. The Indians had no crops, advanced cities, accumulated wealth or organized civilizations to exploit. The Spaniards, after initial explorations, left Alta California alone for over 200 years. Relative isolation continued even after church state Spanish Mission, Presidio and pueblo settlements began in 1769. The only easy communication with the rest of New Spain (Mexico) was by ship as the Quechan (Yuma) Indians shut down the Anza Trail in 1781. This trail (discovered 1776) across Arizona along the Gila and the Colorado River crossing (Yuma Crossing) was the only "easy" way by land from Mexico to California. Essentially the only communication from Mexico to California was via a 30-50 day sailing ship voyage against the south bound California Current and the often opposing winds. The sailing ship trip from California to Mexico was much easier but you had to get to California before you could take it. Since California initially had very few settlers and essentially no exports and could afford only a very few imports for its few inhabitants ships to and from California were few. The average number of ships going to Alta California from 1770 to 1821 was 2.5 ship/year with 13 years showing no recorded ships.[1] These few of ships brought even fewer new residents and increases in the Californio population were nearly all by internal growth of the original settlers. After Mexico acquired the Province of California in 1821 the Californios started developing approximately 500 large (over 18000 acres (73km2) each) Ranchos of California, most granted on former Mission lands for little or no money to friends and family of the California authorities. The Californios lived mostly on their ranchos or at the five pueblos (towns) in California. These ranchos raised cattle, sheep, horses and other livestock that more or less raised themselves. The Californios did little work themselves relying on the former Mission Indians to do the vast majority of all agricultural sowing and harvesting of crops, irrigation, cattle herding, fence building, building construction, laundry, cleaning, cooking, etc. work in town or rancho. Nearly all males rode to where ever they were going at nearly all times making them excellent riders. They indulged in many fiestas, fandangos, rodeos and roundups as the rancho owners often went from rancho to rancho on a large horse bound party circuit. Weddings, christenings, funerals and other church activities were all "celebrated" with large gatherings.[2] California in this period has been described as a large unfenced pasture. The only fences were those required to protect crops from cows or horses eating or trampling them. Starting about 1825 the Mission population started decreasing rapidly as Indian deaths far exceeded births. The Mission Indian population decreased from over 80,000 in 1820 to only a few thousand in 1840. The rancho's hide-and-tallow trade finally gave the Californio residents something to trade. A few ships a year brought manufactured goods like glass windows, nails, hinges, fancy shawls, boots, elaborate belts, capes etc. from Boston, Massachusetts and Britain to California and exchanged them for their hide-and-tallow "crop". By 1846 the mostly American whaling industry was being developed in the Pacific Ocean again leading to a few whaling ships stopping in California for fresh water, wood and vegetables they could get in exchange for a few trade goods. Most Pacific whaling ships stopped at the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii) which had over 100 whaling vessels temporarily

History of California based there by 1845. To avoid the high custom duties (tariffs) of 40-100% imposed by the Californio authorities in Monterey, California many preferred to first land in the San Francisco Bay area to get the most for their imported trading goods. Smuggling and bribery were common. The various acquired diseases and abuse of the Mission Indian population caused them to decline from over 80,000 in 1820 to only a few thousand by 1846. This process was speeded up when in 1834-1836 the Mexican government, responding to complaints that the Catholic Church owned too much land (over 90% of all settled land in California), secularized (dismantled) the Spanish Missions in California and essentially turned the Indians loose to survive on their own. Most of the Indians went from doing unpaid labor at the Missions to doing unpaid labor as servants in the Pueblos or workers on the ranchos. Other Indians returned to small Indian settlements in the unsettled Central Valley and Sierra Mountains of California. As the Mission Indians rapidly declined in population and their Missions were dismantled most of the agriculture, orchards, vineyards, etc. raised by the Mission Indians rapidly declined. By 1850 the Hispanic (Spanish speaking) population had grown to about 9,000 with about 1,500-2,000 adult males.[3] [4] By 1846 there were about 2,000 emigrant non-Hispanics (nearly all adult men) with from 60,000 to 90,000 California Indians throughout the state. Beginning in about 1844 the California Trail was established and started bringing new settlers to California as its relative isolation started to break. The Mexican-American War began in May 1846 and the few marines and bluejacket sailors of the Pacific Squadron and the California Battalion of volunteer militia had California under U. S. control by January 1847 as all the Pueblos in California surrendered without firing a shot. In February 1848 the war was over, the 25 years of Mexican misrule with over 40 different Mexican Presidents was over and the boundary disputes with Texas and the territorial acquisition of what would become several new states was paid for with a $15,000,000 settlement. The California Gold Rush, beginning in January 1848, increased Californias non Indian, non-Hispanic population to over 100,000 by 1850.[5] [6] This increased population and prosperity eventually led to the Congressional Compromise of 1850 which admitted California in 1850 as a free statethe 31st. One hundred sixty one years of rapid progress began. See also: Spanish Missions of California, Maritime history of California, California Trail, Californio, California Battalion, Pacific Squadron, California Gold Rush, Women in the California Gold Rush

History of California to 1899

Pre-contact period
Different tribes of California Indians have lived in the area which is now California for 13,000 to 15,000 years. Over 100 tribes and bands inhabited the area.[7] Without agriculture, hunter gatherer groups have to be small to get enough food for everyone. Various estimates of the Native American population in California during the pre-European period range from 100,000 to 300,000.

European exploration
California was the name given to a mythical island populated only by beautiful Amazon warriors, as depicted in Greek myths, using gold tools and weapons in the popular early 16th-century romance novel Las Sergas de Esplandin (The Adventures of Esplandin) by Spanish author Garci Rodrguez de Montalvo. This popular Spanish fantasy was printed in several editions with the earliest surviving edition published about 1510. In exploring Baja California the earliest explorers thought the Baja Peninsula was an island and applied the name California to it.[8] Mapmakers started using the name "California" to label the unexplored territory on the North American west coast.

History of California

European explorers flying the flags of Spain and of England explored the Pacific Coast of California beginning in the mid-16th century. Francisco de Ulloa explored the west coast of present-day Mexico including the Gulf of California, proving that Baja California was a peninsula,[9] but in spite of his discoveries the myth persisted in European circles that California was an island. Rumors of fabulously wealthy cities located somewhere along the California coast, as well as a possible Northwest passage that would provide a much shorter route to the Indies, provided an incentive to explore further. The first European to explore the California coast was Portuguese explorer and adventurer Joo Rodrigues Cabrilho (Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo). Cabrillo was commissioned by the Viceroy of New Spain and in 1542 he sailed into what is now San Diego, California. He continued north as far as Pt. Reyes California.[10]

The 1562 map of Americas, which applied the name California for the first time.

On November 23, 1542, the little fleet limped back to "San Salvador" (Santa Catalina Island) to overwinter and make repairs. There, around Christmas Eve, Cabrillo stepped out of his boat and splintered his shin when he stumbled on a jagged rock. The injury developed gangrene and he died on 3 January 1543 and was buried there. His second-in-command brought the remainder of the party back to Barra de Navidad, where they arrived 14 April 1543. They had found no wealth, no advanced Indian civilization, no agriculture and no Northwest passage. As a result California was of little further interest. The Indians they encountered were living at a bare subsistence level typically located in small rancherias of extended family groups of 100 to 150 people.[11] They had no agriculture, no domesticated animals except dogs, no pottery, and their only tools or weapons were made out of wood, leather, woven baskets and netting, stones and horns. Most lived in rudimentary shelters made of branches and mud with a hole in the center to allow smoke to escape. Some homes were built by digging into the ground two to three feet and then building a brush shelter on top covered with animal skins, Tules and/or mud. Their clothing was minimal in the summer, with animal skins and coarse woven articles of grass clothing used in winter. Some tribes around Santa Barbara, California and the Channel Islands (California) were using large canoes to fish and trade. It would be found over 200 years later that some Indians in the California delta were using Tule rafts and some Indians on the Northwest coast were using dugout canoes. The isolation of the California tribes and the poor conditions for growing food without irrigation explains in part the lack of agriculture. Despite the fact that California now grows almost every food crop,[12] the staple foods then used by other American Indian tribes, corn and/or potatoes, would not grow without irrigation in the typically short three to five month wet season and nine to seven month dry seasons of California (see Mediterranean climate). Indians survived by catching and eating deer, Tule elk, small game, fish, mollusks, grass seed, berries, insects, edible plants and roots, making it possible to sustain a subsistence hunter-gatherer economy without any agriculture. Without agriculture or migratory herds of animals or fish there are no known ways to support villages, towns or citiessmall tribes and extended family groups are the typical hunter-gatherer grouping. A dietary staple for most Indian tribes in interior California was acorns, which were dried, shelled, ground to flour, roasted and soaked in water to leach out their tannin. The holes they ground into large rocks over centuries of use are still visible in many rocks today.[13] The ground and leached acorn flour was then usually cooked into a tasteless mush. This was a very labor intensive process nearly always done by the women in the tribe. There are estimates that some Indians might have eaten as much as one ton of acorns in one year.[14] A major advantage of acorns is that they grew wild, could be easily gathered in large quantities, and could be easily stored over a winter for a reliable winter food source.[15] Almost none of these Indian food supplies were in a typical European's diet.

History of California Basket weaving was the highest form of art and utility, and canoes were the peak in man made products. Local trade between Indian tribal groups enabled them to acquire seasonings such as salt, or foodstuffs and other goods that might be rare in certain locales, such as flint for making spear and arrow points. But the high and rugged Sierra Nevada mountains located behind the Great Basin Desert east of California, extensive forests and deserts on the north, the rugged and harsh Sonoran Desert and Mojave Desert in the south and the Pacific Ocean on the west effectively isolated California from any easy trade or tribal interactions with Indians on the rest of the continent. The Indians located in the core of California are much different in culture than any other Indian cultures in North America. Cabillo and his men found that there was essentially nothing for the Spanish to easily exploit in California, and located at the extreme limits of exploration and trade from Spain it would be left essentially unexplored and unsettled for the next 234 years. In 1565 the Spanish developed a trading route where they took gold and silver from the Americas and traded it for goods and spices from China and other Asian areas. The Spanish centered their trade in the Philippines at first around Cebu, which they had recently conquered, and later in Manila. The trade between the Philippines and Mexico involved using an annual passage of Manila galleon(s). These galleons returning to Mexico from the Philippines went north to about 40 degrees Latitude and then turning East they could use the westerly trade winds and currents. These galleons, after crossing most of the Pacific Ocean, would arrive off the California coast from 60 to over 120 days later somewhere near Cape Mendocino (about 300 miles (480km) north of San Francisco) at about 40 degrees N. latitude. They then could turn right and sail south down the California coast utilizing the available winds and the south flowing (about 1mi/hr(1.6(km/h)) California Current. After sailing about 1500 miles (2400km) south on they eventually got to their port in Mexico. This highly profitable trade with an almost annual trip by one to two ships (number of ships limited by Spanish Crown) down the California coast was continued for over 200 years. The maps and charts were poor and the coast was often shrouded in fog, so most journeys were well off shore. One of the greatest bays on the west coastSan Francisco Bayescaped discovery for centuries till it was finally discovered by land exploration on 4 November 1769. The English explorer and privateer Francis Drake sailed along the coast of California in 1579 after capturing two Spanish treasure ships in the Pacific. It is believed that he landed somewhere on the California coast. There his only surviving ship, the Golden Hind, underwent extensive repairs, and needed supplies were accumulated for a trip across the Pacific. Leaving California he followed Ferdinand Magellan on the second recorded circumnavigation of the world and the first English circumnavigation of the world, being gone from 1577 to 1580. Its believed Drake put ashore somewhere north of San Francisco. The exact location of Drake's landing is still undetermined, but a prominent bay on the California coast, Drakes Bay, bears his name. He claimed the land for England, calling it Nova Albion. The term "Nova Albion" was often used on many European maps to designate territory north of the Spanish settlements. Spanish maps, explorations etc., of this and later eras were generally not published, being regarded as state secrets. As was typical in this era, there were conflicting claims to the same territory, and the Indians who lived there were never consulted. In 1602, 60 years after Cabrillo, the Spaniard Sebastin Vizcano explored California's coastline from San Diego as far north as Monterey Bay. He named San Diego Bay and held the first Christian church service recorded in California on the shores of San Diego Bay.[6] He also put ashore in Monterey, California and made glowing reports of the Monterey bay area as a possible anchorage for ships with land suitable for growing crops. He also provided rudimentary charts of the coastal waters, which were used for nearly 200 years.

History of California

Spanish colonial period

The Spanish divided California into two parts, Baja California and Alta California as provinces of New Spain (Mexico). Baja or lower California consisted of the Baja Peninsula and terminated roughly at San Diego, California where Alta California started. The eastern and northern boundaries of Alta California were very indefinite, as the Spanish claimed essentially everything in the western United States, even though they did not occupy most of it for over 200 years after first claiming it. The first permanent mission in Baja California, Misin de Nuestra Seora de Loreto Conch, was founded on October 15, 1697, by Jesuit Friar Juan Maria Salvatierra, (16481717) accompanied by one small boat's crew and six soldiers. After the establishment of Missions in Alta after 1769 the Spanish treated Baja California and Alta California as a single administrative unit, part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, with Monterey, California, as its capital. Nearly all the missions in Baja California were established by members of the Jesuit order supported by a few soldiers. After a power dispute between Charles III of Spain and the Jesuits, the Jesuits were ordered expelled and their colleges closed at gunpoint from Mexico and South America in 1767 and deported back to Spain. After the forcible expulsion of the Jesuit order, most of the missions were taken over by Franciscans and later Dominican friars. Both of these groups were under much more direct control of the Spanish monarchy. Many missions were abandoned in Sonora Mexico and Baja California. After the conclusion of the Seven Year War between Britain and France and their allies (in U. S. called the French and Indian War) (17541763) France was driven out of North America, and Spain and Britain were the only colonial powers left. Britain, as yet, had no North American Pacific colonies. The Bourbon King Charles III of Spain was driven to establish missions and other outposts in Alta California out of fear that the territory would be claimed by the British, who had not only colonies on the East Coast, but also several islands in the Caribbean Sea and had recently taken over Canada from the French. One of Spains rewards for helping Britain in the Seven Years War was the French Louisiana Territory. Another potential colonial power already established in the Pacific was Russia, whose Maritime Fur Trade of mostly sea otter and fur seals were pressing down from Alaska to the Pacific Northwest's lower reaches. These furs could be traded in China for large profits. The Spanish settlement of Alta California was the last colonization project to expand Spain's vastly over-extended empire in North America, and they tried to do it with minimal cost and support. Approximately half the cost of settling Alta California was borne by donations and half by funds from the Spanish crown. Massive Indian revolts in New Mexico's Pueblo Revolt among the Pueblo Indians of the Rio Grande valley in the 1680s as well as Pima Indian Revolt in 1751 and the ongoing Seri conflicts in Sonora Mexico provided the Franciscan friars with arguments to establish missions with fewer colonial settlers. The remoteness and isolation of California, lack of large organized tribes, lack of agricultural traditions, no domesticated animals larger than a dog, and a main food supply of mostly acorns (unpalatable to most Europeans) meant the missions in California would be very difficult to establish and sustain and made the area unattractive to most potential colonists. A few soldiers and friars financed by the Church and State would form the backbone of the proposed settlement of California.

History of California

In 1769, the Spanish Visitor General, Jos de Glvez, proceeded to plan a five part expedition, Three by sea and two by land to start settling Alta California. Gaspar de Portola volunteered to command the expedition. The Catholic Church was represented by Franciscan friar Junipero Serra and his fellow friars. All five detachments of soldiers, friars and future colonists were to meet at the site of San Diego Bay. The first ship, the San Carlos, sailed from La Paz on January 10, 1769, and the San Antonio sailed on February 15. The first land party, led by Fernando Rivera y Moncada, left from the Franciscan Mission San Fernando Velicata on March 24, 1769. The third vessel, the San Jos, left New Spain later that spring but was lost at sea with no survivors. With Rivera was Father Juan Crespi,[16] famed diarist of the entire expedition. The expedition led by Portol, which included Father Junpero Serra, the President of the Missions, along with a combination of missionaries, settlers, Statue of Gaspar de Portol, by the and leather-jacket soldiers, including Jos Raimundo Carrillo, left Velicata on sculptor Josep Maria Subirachs May 15, 1769 accompanied by about 46 mules, 200 cows and 140 horsesall that could be spared by the poor Baja Missions. Fernando de Rivera was appointed to command the lead party that would scout out a land route and blaze a trail to San Diego.[17] Food was short, and the Indians accompanying them were expected to forage for most of what they needed. Many Indian neophytes died along the wayeven more deserted. On the 15th of May 1769, the day after Rivera and Crespi reached San Diego, California Portola and Serra set out from Velicata. The two groups traveling from Lower California on foot had to cross about 300 miles (480km) of the very dry and rugged Baja Peninsula. The overland part of the expedition took about 4051 days to get to San Diego. All five detachments were to meet at San Diego Bay. The contingent coming by sea, encountered the south flowing California Current and strong head winds and were still straggling in three months after they set sail. After their arduous journeys, most of the men aboard the ships were ill, chiefly from scurvy, and many had died. Out of a total of about 219 men who had left Baja California, little more than 100 now survived. July 14, 1769, an expedition was dispatched to find the port of Monterey. Not recognizing the Monterey Bay from the description written by Sebastin Vizcano almost 200 years prior, the expedition traveled beyond it to what is now the San Francisco, California area. The exploration party, led by Don Gaspar de Portol arrived on November 2, 1769, at San Francisco Bay.,[18] One of the greatest ports on the west coast of America had finally been discovered by land. The expedition finally returned to San Diego on Jan. 24, 1770. Without any agricultural crops or experience eating the food the Indians subsisted on, the shortage of food at San Diego became extremely critical during the first few months of 1770. They subsisted on some of their cattle, wild geese, fish, and other food exchanged with the Indians for clothing, but the ravages of scurvy continued for there was no understanding of the cause or cure of scurvy then. A small quantity of corn they had planted grew wellonly to be eaten by birds. Portol sent Captain Rivera and a small detachment of about 40 men to the Baja California missions in February to obtain more cattle and a pack-train of supplies. This temporarily eased the drain on San Diego's scant provisions, but within weeks, acute hunger and increased sickness again threatened to force abandonment of the port. Portol resolved that if no relief ship arrived by March 19, 1770 they would leave the next morning "because there were not enough provisions to wait longer and the men had not come to perish from hunger." At three o'clock in the afternoon on March 19, 1770, as if by a miracle, the sails of the San Antonio loaded with relief supplies were discernible on the horizon. The settlement of Alta California would continue. The survivors established Mission San Diego de Alcal and the Presidio of San Diego (fort) in the San Diego area long inhabited by about 3,000 Kumeyaay Indians. As the first of the presidios and Spanish missions in California, it was the base of operations for the Spanish colonization of California.

History of California

Juan Bautista de Anza leading an exploratory expedition on January 8, 1774, with 3 padres, 20 soldiers, 11 servants, 35 mules, 65 cattle, and 140 horses set forth from Tubac south of present day Tucson, Arizona. They went to across the Sonoran desert to California from Mexico by swinging south of the Gila River to avoid Apache attacks till they hit the Colorado River at the Yuma Crossingabout the only way across the Colorado River. The friendly Quechan (Yuma) Indians (2-3,000) he encountered there were growing most of their food, using irrigation systems and had already imported pottery, horses, wheat and a few other crops from New Mexico. After crossing the Colorado to avoid the impassible Algodones Dunes (clearly visible with Google map satellite view) west of Yuma, Arizona they followed the river about 50 miles (80km) south (to about the Arizonas southwest corner on the Colorado River) before turning northwest to about todays Mexicali, Mexico and then turning north through todays Imperial Valley and then northwest again before reaching Mission San Gabriel Arcngel near the future city of Los Angeles, California. It took Anza about 74 days to do this initial reconnaissance trip to establish a land route into California. On his return trip he went down the Gila River till hitting the Santa Cruz River (Arizona) and continuing on to Tubac. The return trip only took 23 days and he encountered several peaceful and populous agricultural tribes with irrigation system located along the Gila River.[19] In Anzas second trip (17751776) he returned to California with 240 Friars, soldiers and colonists with their families. They took 695 horses and mules, 385 Texas Longhorn bulls and cows with them. The approximately 200 surviving cattle and an unknown number of horses (many of each were lost or ate along the way) started the cattle and horse raising industry in California. In California the cattle and horses had few enemies and plentiful grass in all but drought years and essentially grew and multiplied as feral animalsdoubling roughly every two years. They started from Tubac Arizona on October 22, 1775 and arrived at San Francisco Bay on March 28, 1776. There they established the Presidio of San Francisco, followed by a mission, Mission San Francisco de Ass (Mission Dolores) --the future city of San Francisco, California In 1780 the Spanish established two combination missions and pueblos at the Yuma Crossing: Mission San Pedro y San Pablo de Bicuer and Mission Puerto de Pursima Concepcin. Both these pueblos and missions were on the California side of the Colorado River but were administered by the Arizona authorities. On 1719 July 1781 the Yuma (Quechan) Indians, in a dispute with the Spanish destroyed both missions and puebloskilling 103 soldiers, colonists and Friars and capturing about 80 mostly women and children. In four well supported

Map of the route, Juan Bautista de Anza travelled in 1775-76 from Mexico to today's San Francisco via the Gila River corridor and the Yuma Crossing of the Colorado River.

Mojave and Sororan deserts block easy land travel to California. The easiest way across was to use the Gila River corridor.

Typical sand dunes west of Yuma Arizona

History of California punitive expeditions in 1782 and 1783 against the Quechans the Spanish managed to gather their dead and ransom nearly all the prisoners; but failed to re-open the Anza Trail. The Yuma Crossing was closed for Spanish traffic and it would stay closed till about 1846. California was nearly isolated again from land based travel. About the only way into California from Mexico would now be a 40-60 day voyage by sea. Eventually 21 California Missions were established along the California coast from San Diego to San Franciscoabout 500 miles (800km) up the coast. The missions were nearly all located within 30 miles (48km) of the coast and almost no exploration or settlements were made in the Central Valley (California) or the Sierra Nevada (California). The only expeditions anywhere close to the Central Valley and Sierras were the rare forays by soldiers undertaken to recover runaway Indians who had escaped from the Missions. The "settled" territory of about 15,000 square miles (40,000km2) was about 10% of California's eventual 156,000 square miles (400,000km2)territory. In 1786 Jean-Franois de Galaup, comte de La Prouse led a group of scientists and artists who compiled an account of the Californian mission system, the land and the people. Traders, whalers and scientific missions followed in the next decades. The California Missions, after they were all established, were located about one day's horseback ride apart for easier communication and linked by the El Camino Real trail. These Missions were typically manned by two-three friars and three to ten soldiers. Virtually all the physical work was done by Indians coerced into joining the missions. The padres provided instructions for making adobe bricks, building mission buildings, planting fields, digging irrigation ditches, growing new grains and vegetables, herding cattle and horses, singing, speaking Spanish, and understanding the Catholic faithall that was thought to be necessary to bring the Indians up to be able to support themselves and their new church. The soldiers supervised the construction of the Presidios (forts) and were responsible for keeping order and preventing and/or capturing runaway Indians that tried to leave the missions. Nearly all of the Indians adjoining the missions were induced to join the various missions built in California. Once the Indians had joined the mission, if they tried to leave, soldiers were sent out to retrieve them. Some have compared their Peon status as only slightly better than slaves. The missions eventually claimed about 1/6 of the available land in California or roughly 1000000 acres (4047km2) of land per mission. The rest of the land was considered the property of the Spanish monarchy. To encouraged settlement of the territory, large land grants were given to retired soldiers and colonists. Most grants were virtually free and typically went to friends and relatives in the California government. A few foreign colonists were accepted if they accepted Spanish citizenship and joined the Catholic Faith. The Mexican Inquisition was still in nearly full force and forbid Protestants living in Mexican controlled territory. In the Spanish colonial period many of these grants were later turned into Ranchos. Spain made about 30 of these large grants nearly all several square leagues (1 Spanish league = 2.6 miles (4.2km)) each in size. The total land granted to settlers in the Spanish colonial era was about 800000 acres (3237km2) or about 35000 acres (142km2) each. The few owners of these large ranchos patterned themselves after the landed gentry in Spain and were devoted to keeping themselves living in a grand style. The rest of the population they expected to support them. Their mostly unpaid workers were nearly all Spanish trained Indians or Peons that had learned how to ride horses and raise some crops. The majority of the ranch hands were paid with room and board, rough clothing and housed in rough housing, no salary. The main product of these ranchos were cattle, horses and sheepmost of whom lived virtually wild. The cattle were mostly killed for fresh meat, hides and tallow (fat) which could be traded or sold for money or goods. As the cattle herds increased there came a time when nearly everything that could be made of leather wasdoors, window coverings, stools, chaps, leggings, vests lariats (riata)s, saddles, boots etc. Since there was no refrigeration then often a cow was killed for the day's fresh meat and the hide and tallow salvaged for sale later. After taking the cattle's hide and tallow most of their carcasses were left to rot or feed the California Grizzly bears who roamed wild in California at that time or feed the packs of dogs that typically lived at each rancho. A series of four presidios, or "royal forts," manned by 10 to 100 men, were built by Spain in Alta California. California installations can be founded in San Diego (El Presidio Real de San Diego) founded in 1769, in San

History of California Francisco (El Presidio Real de San Francisco ) founded in 1776, and in Santa Barbara (El Presidio Real de Santa Brbara) founded in 1782. After the Spanish colonial era the Presidio of Sonoma in Sonoma, California was founded in 1834.[20] To support the presidios and the missions about four towns called pueblos were established in California. The pueblos of Los Angeles, San Diego, San Francisco, Santa Barbara, Villa de Branciforte (later abandoned before later becoming Santa Cruz, California) and the pueblo of San Jose, California were all established to support the Missions and presidios in California. These were the only towns (pueblos) in California.

Mexican period
In 1821, Mexico gained its independence from Spain, and Alta California became one of the three interior provinces in the First Mexican Empire north of the Rio Grande, along with Texas and New Mexico. The Franciscans Missionaries and soldiers in Alta California had not been paid in about seven years in 1821. The capital of the Mexican government in Alta California was Monterey, California (originally called San Carlos de Monterrey). Mexico, after independence, continued to be unstable with about 40 changes of government, in the 27 years prior to 1848an average government duration was 7.9 months. In Alta California Mexico inherited a large, sparsely settled, poor, back water province paying little or no net tax revenue to the Mexican State. In addition, Alta California had a rapidly declining Mission system as the Mission Indian population in Alta California continued to rapidly decrease. The number of Alta California settlers, always a small minority of total population, slowly increased mostly by more births than deaths in the Californio population in California. After the closure of the de Anza Trail across the Colorado River in 1781 immigration from Mexico was nearly all by ships. California continued to be a small, nearly isolated province. Even before Mexico gained control of Alta California the onerous Spanish rules against trading with foreigners began to break down as the declining Spanish fleet couldnt enforce their no trading policies. The Californios, with essentially no industries or manufacturing capabilities, were eager to trade for new commodities, finished goods, luxury goods and other merchandise. The Mexican government abolished the no trade with foreign ships policy and soon regular trading trips were being made. The Californios hides and tallow provided the necessary trade articles for a mutually beneficial trade. The first United States, English and Russian trading ships began showing up in California in about 1816. The classic book Two Years Before the Mast by Richard Henry Dana, Jr. provides a good first hand account of this trade.[21] From 1825 to 1848 the average number of ships traveling to California increased to about 25 ships per yeara large increase from the average of 2.5 ships per year from 1769 to 1824.[22] The port of entry for trading purposes was Monterey, California where custom duties (also called tariffs) of about 100% were applied. These high duties gave rise to much bribery and smuggling, as avoiding the tariffs made more money for the ship owners and made the goods less costly to the customers. Essentially all the cost of the California government (what little there was) was paid for by these tariffs. In this they were much like the United States in 1850, where about 89% of the revenue of its federal government came from import tariffs, although at an average rate of about 20%.[23] So many Mission Indians died from exposure to harsh conditions and diseases like measles, diphtheria, smallpox, syphilis etc. that at times raids were undertaken to new villages in the interior to supplement the supply of Indian women. This increase in deaths was accompanied by a very low live birth rate among the surviving Indian population. As reported by Krell, as of December 31, 1832, the mission Franciscan padres had performed a combined total of 87,787 baptisms and 24,529 marriages, and recorded 63,789 deaths. If Krells numbers are to be believed (others have slightly different numbers) the Mission Indian population had declined from a peak of about 87,000 in about 1800 to about 14,000 in 1832 and continued to decline. The Missions were becoming ever more strained as the number of Indian converts drastically declined and the deaths greatly exceeded the births. The ratio of Indian births to deaths is believed to have been less than 0.5 Indian births per death.[24] The Missions, as originally envisioned, were to last only about 10 years before being converted to regular parishes. When the California Missions were abolished in 1834 some missions had existed over 66 years but the Mission

History of California Indians were still not self sufficient, proficient in Spanish or wholly Catholic. Taking people from a hunter-gatherer type existence to an educated, agricultural based existence was much more difficult than the missionaries had originally thought. The severe and continuing decline in Mission Indian populations exacerbated this problem. In 1834 Mexico, in response to demands that the Catholic Church give up much of the Mission property, started the process of secularizing the Franciscan run missions. Mission San Juan Capistrano was the very first to feel the effects of this legislation the following year when, on August 9, 1834 Governor Figueroa issued his "Decree of Confiscation."[25] Nine other Missions quickly followed, with six more in 1835; San Buenaventura and San Francisco de Ass were among the last to succumb, in June and December 1836, respectively.[26] The Franciscans soon thereafter abandoned most of the missions, taking with them almost everything of value they could, after which the locals typically plundered the mission buildings for construction materials, furniture etc. or the Mission buildings were sold off to serve other uses. In spite of this neglect, the Indian towns at San Juan Capistrano, San Dieguito, and Las Flores did continue on for some time under a provision in Governor Echeanda's 1826 Proclamation that allowed for the partial conversion of missions to new pueblos.[27] After the secularizing of the Missions many of the surviving Mission Indians switched from being unpaid workers for the missions to unpaid laborers and vaqueros (cowboys) of the about 500 large Californio owned ranchos. Before Alta California became a part of the Mexican state, about 30 Spanish land grants had already been deeded in all of Alta California to a few friends and family of the Alta California Governors. The 1824 Mexican Colony Law established rules for petitioning for land grants in California; and by 1828, the rules for establishing land grants were codified in the Mexican Reglamento (Regulation). The Acts sought to break the monopoly of the Catholic Franciscan missions while paving the way for additional settlers to California by making land grants easier to obtain. When the Missions were secularized the Mission property and cattle were supposed to be mostly allocated to the Missions Indians. In practice nearly all Mission property and livestock were taken over by the about 455 large ranchos of Californios granted by the Californio governorsmostly to friends and family at low or no cost. The rancho owners claimed about 8600000 acres (35000 km2) averaging about 18900 acres (76km2) each. This land was nearly all distributed on former mission land within about 30 miles (48km) of the coast. The Mexican land grants were provisional until settled and worked on for five years and often had very indefinite boundaries and sometimes conflicting ownership claims. The boundaries of each rancho were almost never surveyed and marked and often depended on local landmarks that often changed over time. Since the government depended on import tariffs for its income there was virtually no property taxthe property tax when introduced with U.S. statehood was a big shock. The grantee could not subdivide or rent out the land without approval. The rancho owners tried to live in a grand manner and expected the rest of the population to support them in their lifestyle. For these few rancho owners and families this was the Californios Golden Age; for the vast majority it was not golden. Much of the agriculture, vineyards and orchards established by the Missions were allowed to deteriorate as the rapidly declining Mission Indian population required less food and the Missionaries and soldiers supporting the Missions disappeared. The new Ranchos and slowly increasing Pueblos mostly only grew enough food to eat and to trade with the occasional trading ship or whaler that put in to a California port to trade, get fresh water, replenish their firewood and obtain fresh vegetables. The main products of these ranchos were cow hides (called California greenbacks) and tallow (rendered fat for making candles and soap) that were traded for other finished goods and merchandise. This hide-and-tallow trade was mainly carried on by Boston based ships that traveled 14000 miles (23000 km) to 18000 miles (29000 km) around Cape Horn to bring finished goods and merchandise to trade with the Californio Ranchos for their hides and tallow. The cattle and horses that provided the hides and tallow essentially grew wild. By 1845, the province of Alta California had a non-native population of about 1,500 Californio adult men along with about 6,500 women and children, who lived mostly in the southern half of the state around Los Angeles.[28] Most immigrants (nearly all of whom were adult males) lived in the northern half of California.

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History of California A large non-coastal land grant was given to John Sutter who in 1839 settled a large land grant close to the future city of Sacramento, California which he called "New Helvetia" (New Switzerland). There he built an extensive fort equipped with much of the armament from Fort Ross--bought from the Russians on credit when they abandoned that fort. Sutter's Fort was the first non-Native American community in the California Central Valley. Sutters Fort from 1839 to about 1848 was a major agricultural and trade colony in California often welcoming and assisting California Trail travelers to California. Most of the settlers at or near Sutter's Fort were new immigrants from the United States.[29] [30]

11

California State Period

Annexation of California Hostilities between U.S. and Mexican troops commenced in April 1846 with Mexican troops killing and capturing a number of U.S. Army troops in the future state of Texas. The Battle of Palo Alto, the first major battle of the Mexican-American War, was fought on May 8, 1846, a few miles from the modern-day city of Brownsville, Texas. A force of some 3,400 Mexican troops (a portion of the Army of The North) led by Mexican General Mariano Arista engaged a force of 2,400 United States troops under General Zachary Taylor. Taylor's forces drove the Mexicans from the field. The United States Congress responded to these hostilities by issuing a Declaration of War against Mexico on May 13, 1846the Mexican-American War had began. The main forces available to the United States in California were the bluejacket sailors and U.S. Marines on board the ships of the Pacific Squadron. Speculating that war with Mexico over Texas and other land was very possible, the U.S. Navy had sent several additional naval vessels to the Pacific in 1845 to protect U.S. interests there. It took about 200 days, on average, for ships to travel the greater than 12000 USSCyane Taking San Diego 1846 miles (19000km) trip from the East coast around Cape Horn to California. Initially as the war with Mexico started there were five vessels in the U.S. Navy's Pacific Squadron near California. In 1846 and 1847 this was increased to 13 Navy vesselsover half the U.S. Navy's available ships. The only other U.S. military force then in California was the about 30 military topographers etc. and 30 mountain men, guides, hunters, etc. in Captain John C. Fremonts United States Army Corps of Topographical Engineers exploratory force. They were exiting California on their way to Oregon when they got word in early June 1846 that war was imminent and a revolt had already started in Sonoma, California. On hearing this, Fremont and his exploratory force returned to California. The former fleet surgeon William M. Wood and John Parrot, the American Consul of Mazatlan, arrived in Guadalajara Mexico on 10 May 1846. There they heard word of the on-going hostilities between the U.S. and Mexico forces and sent a message by special courier back to Commodore Sloat then visiting Mazatlan. On 17 May 1846 this courier's messages informed Commodore Sloat that hostilities between the U.S. and Mexico had commenced.[31] Commodore (Rear Admiral) John D. Sloat, commander of the U.S. Navy's Pacific Squadron and his fleet of four vessels were then at anchor in the harbor of Mazatlan Mexico.[32] On hearing the news Commodore Sloat dispatched his flagship, the Frigate USS Savannah, and the Sloop USS Levant to Monterey harbor where they arrived on 2 July 1846. They joined the Sloop USS Cyane which was already there.[33] There were U.S. fears that the British might try to annex California to satisfy British creditors.[34] The British Pacific Station's ships off California were stronger in ships, guns and men.[32]

History of California Hearing rumors of possible Mexican military action against the newly arrived settlers in California (this had already happened in 1840),[35] some settlers decided to neutralize the small Californio garrison at Sonoma, California. On June 15, 1846, some thirty settlers, mostly former American citizens, staged a revolt and seized the small Californio garrison in Sonoma without firing a shot. Initially there was little resistance from anyone in California as they replaced the dysfunctional and ineffective Mexican governmentwhich already had 40 Presidents in the first 24 years of its existence. Most settlers and Californios were neutral or actively supported the revolt. John A. Sutter and his men and supplies at Sutters Fort joined the revolt. They raised the "Bear Flag" of the California Republic over Sonoma. The republic was in existence scarcely more than a week before Frmont returned and took over on June 23 from William B. Ide the leader of the Bear Flag Revolt. The California state flag of today is based on this original Bear Flag and still contains the words "California Republic". In 1846 the U.S. Navy was under orders to take over all California ports in the event of war. There were about 400500 U.S. Marines and U.S. Navy bluejacket sailors available for possible land action on the Pacific Squadrons ships. Hearing word of the Bear Flag Revolt in Sonoma, California and the arrival of the large British 2,600 ton, 600 man, man-of-war HMS Collingwood (1841), flagship under Sir George S. Seymour, outside Monterey Harbor, Commodore Sloat was finally stirred to action. On 7 July 1846seven weeks after war had been declared, Commodore John D. Sloat instructed the Captains of the ships:USS Savannah and Sloops: USS Cyane and USS Levant of the Pacific Squadron in Monterey Bay to occupy Monterey, Californiathe Alta California capital. Fifty American marines and about 100 bluejacket sailors landed and captured the city without incident--the few Californio troops formerly there having already evacuated the city. They raised the flag of the United States without firing a shot. The only shots fired were a 21 gun salute to the new U.S. Flag fired by each of the U.S. Navy ships in the harbor.[36] The British ships observed but took no action. The abandoned Presidio and Mission San Francisco de Ass (Mission Dolores) at San Francisco, then called Yerba Buena, was occupied without firing a shot on 9 July 1846 by U.S. Marines and U.S. Navy sailors from the Sloop USS Portsmouth (1843). Militia Captain Thomas Fallon led a small force of about 22 men from Santa Cruz, California and captured the small town of Pueblo de San Jose without bloodshed on 11 July 1846. Fallon received an American flag from Commodore John D. Sloat, and raised it over the pueblo on July 14. On 15 July 1846, Commodore (Rear Admiral) John D. Sloat transferred his command of the Pacific Squadron to Commodore Robert F. Stockton when Stockton's ship, the Frigate USS Congress (1841), arrived from the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii). Stockton, a much more aggressive leader, asked Fremont to form a joint force of Fremonts soldiers, scouts, guides etc. and a volunteer militia--many former Bear Flag Revolters. This unit called the California Battalion was mustered into U.S. service and were paid regular army wages. On July 19, Frmont's newly formed "California Battalion" swelled to about 160 men. These men included Fremont's 30 topographical men and their 30 scouts and hunters, U.S. Marine Lieutenant Archibald H. Gillespie, a U.S. Navy officer to handle their two cannons, a company of Indians trained by Sutter and many other permanent California settlers from several different countries as well as American settlers. The California Battalion members were used mainly to garrison and keep order in the rapidly surrendering California towns. The Navy went down the coast from San Francisco, occupying ports without resistance as they went. The small pueblo (town) of San Diego surrendered 29 July 1846 without a shot being fired. The small pueblo (town) of Santa Barbara surrendered without a shot being fired in August 1846. On 13 August 1846 a joint force of U.S. Marines, bluejacket sailors and parts of Fremonts California Battalion carried by the USS Cyane (1837) entered Los Angeles, California with flags flying and band playing. Captain Archibald H. Gillespie, (Fremont's second in command), with a inadequate force of 40 to 50 men were left to occupy and keep order in the largest town (about 3,500) in Alta CaliforniaLos Angeles. A minor Californio revolt broke out in Los Angeles and the United States force there of 4050 men evacuated the city for a time. Later, U.S.forces fought minor scrimmages in the Battle of San Pasqual, the Battle of Dominguez Rancho, and the Battle of Rio San Gabriel. After the Los Angeles revolt started the California Battalion was expanded to a force of about 400 men. In early January 1847 a 600 man joint force of U.S. Marine, U.S. Navy bluejacket sailors, General Stephen W. Kearny's 80 U.S. Army dragoons (cavalrymen) and about two companies of

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History of California Fremont's California Battalion re-occupied Los Angeles after some minor skirmishesafter four months the same U.S. Flag again flew over Los Angeles. The minor armed resistance in California ceased when the Californios signed the Treaty of Cahuenga on January 13, 1847. About 150 Californios who were worried about possible punishment from the Americans rounded up about 300 horses and retreated into Sonora Mexico over the Yuma Crossing Gila River trail. The Californios who had wrested control of California from Mexico in 1845 now had a new government.[37] After the Treaty of Cahuenga was signed, the Pacific Squadron then went on to capture all Baja California cities and harbors and sink or capture all the Mexican Pacific Navy they could find. Baja California was returned to Mexico in subsequent Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo negotiations. After hostilities had ceased, on January 22, 1947 Commodore Stockton's replacement Commodore William B. Shubrick showed up in Monterey in the Razee USS Independence (1814) with 54 guns and ~500 crew. On January 27, 1847 the transport Lexington showed up in Monterey, California with a regular army artillery company of 113 men under Captain Christopher Tompkins.[38] More reinforcements of about 320 soldiers (and a few women) of the Mormon Battalion arrived at San Diego, California on 28 January 1847after hostilities had ceased. They had been recruited from the Mormon camps on the Missouri Riverabout 2000 miles (3200km) away. These troops were recruited with the understanding they would be discharged in California with their weapons. Most were discharged before July 1847. More reinforcements in the form of Colonel Jonathan D. Stevenson's 1st Regiment of New York Volunteers of about 648 men showed up in MarchApril 1847again after hostilities had ceased. After desertions and deaths in transit, four ships brought Stevenson's 648 men to California. Initially they took over all of the Pacific Squadron's on-shore military and garrison duties and the Mormon Battalion and California Battalion's garrison duties. The New York Volunteer companies were deployed from San Francisco in Alta California to La Paz, Mexico in Baja California. The ship Isabella sailed from Philadelphia on 16 August 1847, with a detachment of one hundred soldiers, and arrived in California on 18 February 1848, the following year, at about the same time that the ship Sweden arrived with another detachment of soldiers. These soldiers were added to the existing companies of Stevenson's 1st Regiment of New York Volunteers. Stevenson's troops were recruited with the understanding they would discharged in California. When gold was discovered in late January 1848, many of Stevenson's troops deserted. The exclusive land ownership in California by the approximate 9,000[39] Californios in California would soon end. After some minor skirmishes, California was under U.S. control by January 1847 and formally annexed and paid for by the U.S. in 1848. Twenty-seven years of ineffective Mexican rule ended as 163 years (as of 2011) of rapid and continued advancement under U.S. Federal, State and local government and private development proceeded.[40] After 1847 California was controlled (with much difficulty due to desertions) by a U.S. Army appointed military governor and an inadequate force of a little over 600 troops. Due to the California gold rush, by 1850 California had grown to have a non Indian, non-Californio population of over 100,000[41] Despite a major conflict in the U.S. Congress on the number of slave versus non-slave states the large, rapid and continuing California population gains and the large amount of gold being exported east gave California enough clout to choose its own boundaries, select its representatives, write its Constitution and be admitted to the Union as a free state in 1850 without going through territorial status as required for most other states. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo formally ended the Mexican-American War in February 1848. For $15,000,000 and the assumption of U.S. debt claims against Mexico, the new state of Texas's boundary claims were settled and New Mexico, California, and the unsettled territory of several future states of the American Southwest were added to U.S. control.

13

History of California California Statehood From 1847 to 1850 California had military governors appointed by the senior military commander in California. This arrangement was distinctly unsettling to the military as they had no inclination, precedent or training for setting up and running a government. President James K. Polk in office from March 4, 1845 March 4, 1849, tried to get the 1848 Congress to make California a territory with a territorial government and again in 1849 but was unsuccessful in getting Congress to agree on the specifics of how this was to be donethe number of free states vs. slave state problem.[42] General Bennett C. Riley who had fought in the Siege of Veracruz and Chapultepec during the Mexican-American War and considered an able military commander was the last military governor of California in 1849-1850. In response to popular demand for a better more representative government, General Riley issued an official proclamation dated June 3, 1849 calling for a Constitutional Convention and an election of representatives on August 1, 1849. Convention delegates were chosen by secret ballot but lacking any census data as to Californias population and where they lived its representatives only roughly approximated the rapidly changing state population as later shown in the 1850 U.S. California Census taken a year later.[43] The 48 delegates chosen were mostly pre-1846 American settlers; eight were native born Californios who had to use interpreters. The new miners in El Dorado County were grossly under represented as they had no representatives at the convention despite being the most populated county in California then. After the election the California Constitution Convention met in the small town and former Californio Capital of Monterey, California on September 1849 to write a state constitution.[44] Like all U.S. State's constitutions the California constitution adhered closely to the format and government roles set up in the original 1789 U.S. Constitution--differing mainly in details. The Constitutional Convention met for 43 days debating and writing the first California Constitution. The 1849 constitution[45] copied (with revisions) a lot out of the Ohio and New York constitutions but had parts that were originally several different state constitutions as well as original material. The twenty one Declaration of Rights in the California Constitution (Article I: Sec.1 to Sec.-21) was broader than the original U.S. Constitution's ten Bill of Rights. There were four other significant differences from the U.S. Constitution. The convention chose the boundaries for the stateunlike most other territories whose boundaries were set by Congress (Article XII). Article IX encouraged statewide education and provided for a system of common schools partially funded by the state and provided for the establishment of a University (University of California). They unanimously outlawed slavery except as punishment (Article I Sec. 18) and dueling (Article XI Sec.2). They gave women and wives the right to own and control their own property (Article XI Sec. 14). The debt limit for the state was set at $300,000 (Article VIII). Like all other states they guaranteed the rights of citizens to sue in Civil court to uphold the rights of contracts and property (Article I Sec. 16). They created a court system with a supreme court with judges who had to be confirmed every 12 years.(Article VI) They set up the states original 29 counties (Article I Sec. 4), created a legislature of two houses, set up polling places to vote, set up uniform taxation rules. The 1849 Constitution guaranteed the right to vote to "Every citizen of California, declared a legal voter by this Constitution, and every citizen of the United States, a resident of this State on the day of election, shall be entitled to vote at the first general election under this Constitution, and on the question of the adoption thereof (Article XII Sec. 5)". The California Constitution was ratified by popular vote at an election held on a rainy November 13, 1849 (as specified in Article 12 Sec. 8). The small town of Pueblo de San Jose was chosen as the first state capitol (Article XI Sec. 1). Soon after the election they set up a provisional state government that set up the counties, elected a governor, senators and representatives and operated for 10 months setting up a state government before California was given official statehood by Congress on September 9, 1850 as part of the Compromise of 1850.[46] Thirty eight days later the Pacific Mail Steamship SS Oregon brought word to San Francisco on October 18, 1850 that California was now the 31st statethere was a bang up celebration that lasted for weeks. The state capital was variously at San Jose (18501851), Vallejo (18521853) and Benicia (18531854) until Sacramento was finally selected in 1854. The constitution of 1849 was only judged a partial success as a founding document and was

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History of California superseded by the current constitution, which was first ratified on May 7, 1879. California Gold Rush The first to hear confirmed information of the California Gold Rush were the people in Oregon, the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii), Mexico, Peru and Chile and they were the first to start flocking to the state in late 1848. By the end of 1848, some 6,000 Argonauts had come to California.[47] Americans and foreigners of many different countries, statuses, classes, and races rushed to California for gold. Almost all (~96%) were young men. Women in the California Gold Rush were few and had many opportunities to do new things and take on new tasks in women poor California. Argonauts, as they were often called, walked over the California Trail or came by sea. About 80,000 Argonauts arrived in 1849 aloneabout 40,000 over the California trail and 40,000 by sea. San Francisco was designated the official Port of entry for all California ports where U.S. customs (also called tariffs and Ad valorem taxs) (averaging about 25%) were collected by the Collector of customs from all ships bearing foreign goods. The first Collector of customs was Edward H. Harrison appointed by General Kearny. Shipping boomed California goldfields in the Sierra Nevada and northern from the average of about 25 vessels from 1825 to 1847[48] California [49] to about 793 ships in 1849 and 803 ships in 1850. All ships were inspected for what goods they carried. Passengers disembarking in San Francisco had one of the easier accesses to the gold country since they could from there take another ship to get to Sacramento and several other towns. San Francisco shipping boomed and wharves and piers had to be developed to handle the onslaught of cargo--Long Wharf was probably the most prominent. To meet the demands of the Gold Rush, ships bearing food, liquors of many types, tools, hardware, clothing, complete houses, lumber, building materials, etc. as well as farmers, business men, prospective miners, gamblers, entertainers and prostitutes, etc. from around the world came to San Francisco. Initially the large supplies of food needed were imported from close ports in Hawaii, Mexico, Chile, Peru and the future state of Oregon. The Californios initially prospered as there was a sudden increase in the demand for livestock. These food shipments changed mainly to shipments from Oregon and internal shipments in California as agriculture was developed in both states. Starting in 1849 many of the ship crews jumped ship and headed for the gold fields when they reached port. Soon San Francisco Bay had many hundreds of abandoned ships anchored off shore. The better ships were re-crewed and put back in the shipping and passenger business. Others were bought cheap and hauled up on the mud flats and used as store ships, saloons, temporary stores, floating warehouses, homes and a number of other uses. Many of these re-purposed ships were partially destroyed in one of San Francisco's many fires and ended up as landfill to expand the available land. The population of San Francisco exploded from about 200 in 1846 to 36,000 in the 1852 California Census.[50] In San Francisco initially many people were housed in wooden houses, ships hauled up on the mud flats to serve as homes or businesses, wood framed canvas tents used for saloons, hotels and boarding houses as well as other

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History of California flammable structures. All these canvas and wood structures combined with a lot of drunken gamblers and miners led almost inevitably to many fires. Most of San Francisco burned down six times in six Great Fires between 1849 and 1852.[51] Californios who lived in California who had finally had enough of the Mexican government and seized control of the territory of Alta California in 1846.[37] At the time gold was discovered in 1848 California had about 9,000[52] former Californios and about 3,000 United States citizens including members of Colonel Jonathan D. Stevenson's 1st Regiment of New York Volunteers and discharged members of the California Battalion and Mormon Battalions. The Pacific Squadron secured San Francisco Bay. The state was formally under the military governor Colonel Richard Barnes Mason Merchant ships fill San Francisco harbor in 1850 or 1851 who only had about 600 troops to govern Californiamany of these troops deserted to go to the gold fields. Before the Gold Rush almost no infrastructure existed in California except a few small Pueblos (towns), secularized and abandoned Missions and about 500 large (averaging over 18000 acres (73km2)) ranchos owned the Californios who had mostly taken over the Missions land and livestock. The largest town in California prior to the Gold Rush was the Pueblo de Los Angeles with about 3,500 residents. The sudden massive influx into a remote area overwhelmed the state infrastructure which in most places didn't even exist. Miners lived in tents, wood shanties, wagons, or deck cabins removed from abandoned ships.[53] Wherever gold was discovered, hundreds of miners would collaborate to put up a camp and stake their claims. With names like Rough and Ready and Hangtown (Placerville, California), each camp often had its own saloon, dance hall and gambling house.[54] Some of the first Argonauts, as they were also known, traveled by the all sea route around Cape Horn. Ships could take this route year round and the first ships started leaving East Coast ports as early as November 1848. From the East Coast, a sailing voyage around the southern tip of South America would typically take five to eight monthsaveraging about 200 days by standard sailing ship.[55] This trip could easily cover over 18,000nautical miles (33,000km) depending on the route chosensome even went by way of the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii). When Clipper Ships began to be used starting in early 1849 they could complete this journey in an average of only 120 days; but they typically carried few passengers. They specialized in high value freight. Starting in 1848 Congress had subsidized the Pacific Mail Steamship Company to set up regular packet ship, mail, passenger and cargo routes in the Pacific Ocean. This was to be regular route from Panama, Nicaragua and Mexico to and from San Francisco and Oregon. The Atlantic Ocean mail contract from East Coast cities and New Orleans, Louisiana to and from the Chagres River in Panama was won by the United States Mail Steamship Company whose first steamship, the SS Falcon (1848') was dispatched on December 1, 1848. The SS California (1848), the first Pacific Mail Steamship Company steamship, showed up in San Francisco on February 28, 1849 on its first trip from Panama and Mexico after steaming around Cape Horn from New York. Other steamships soon followed and by late 1849 paddle wheel steamships like the SS Mckim (1848)[56] were carrying miners the 125 miles (201km) trip from San Francisco up the Sacramento River to Sacramento and Marysville, California. Steam powered tug boats started working in the San Francisco Bay soon after this. Agriculture and irrigation expanded throughout the state to meet the needs of the settlers. At the beginning of the Gold Rush, there was no law regarding property rights in the goldfields and a system of "staking claims" was developed. The Gold Rush also had negative effects: Native Americans were pushed off traditional lands and gold

16

History of California mining caused environmental harm. In the early years of the California Gold Rush, placer mining methods were used, from panning to "cradles" and "rockers" or "long-toms", to diverting the water from an entire river into a sluice alongside the river, and then dig for gold in the newly-exposed river bottom. This placer gold had been freed by the slow disintegration, over geological time, that freed the gold from its ore. This free gold was typical found in the cracks in the rocks found at the bottom of rivers or creeks as the gold typically worked down through the gravel or collected in stream bends. Some 12-million ounces[57] (370t) of gold were removed in the first five years of the Gold Rush. This gold greatly increased the available money in the United States which was on the gold standard at that timethe more gold you had the richer you were. As the easier gold was recovered the mining became much more capital and labor intensive as the hard rock quartz mining, 'hydraulic" and dredging mining evolved. By the mid-1880s it is estimated that 11-million ounces (340t) of gold (worth approximately US$6.6billion at November 2006 prices) had been recovered via "hydraulicking," a style of hydraulic mining that later spread around the world despite its drastic environmental consequences. By the late 1890s dredging technology had become economical,[58] and it is estimated that more than 20million ounces (620t) were recovered by dredging (worth approximately US$12billion at November 2006 prices). Both during the Gold Rush and in the decades that followed, hard-rock mining wound up being the single largest source of gold produced in the Gold Country.[59] By 1850 the U.S. Navy started making plans for a west coast navy base at Mare Island Naval Shipyard. The greatly increased population along with the new wealth of gold caused: roads, bridges, farms, mines, steamship lines, businesses, saloons, gambling houses, boarding houses, churches, schools, towns mercury mines, and other components of a rich modern (1850) I.S. culture to be built. The sudden growth in population caused many more towns to be built throughout Northern and later Southern California and the few existing towns to be greatly expanded. The first cities started showing up as San Francisco and Sacramento exploded in population. Maritime history of California Maritime history of California is a term used to describe significant past events connected to the ships and boats in the Pacific Ocean in what became the U.S. state of California. These include Native American dugouts, tule canoes and sewn canoes (Tomols); early European explorers; Colonial Spanish and Mexican California maritime history; Russians and Aleut Eskimo kayaks in the Maritime Fur Trade. U.S. Naval Activity including: Pacific Squadron, Mexican-American War. California Gold Rush shipping includes paddle steamers, Clippers, sailing ships, passage via Panama, Nicaragua, Mexico and Cape Horn and the growth of the Port of San Francisco. Also included are sections on California naval installations, California Shipbuilding, California shipwrecks, and California lighthouses. Slavery Tribes in northwest California practiced slavery long before the arrival of Europeans.[60] There were never black slaves owned by Europeans, and many free men of African ancestry joined the California Gold Rush (18481855). Some returned east with enough gold to purchase their relatives.[61] The California Constitution of 1849 outlawed any form of slavery in the state, and later the Compromise of 1850 allowed California to be admitted into the Union, undivided, as a free state.

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History of California California in the American Civil War The possibility of splitting off Southern California as a territory or a state was rejected by the national government, and the idea was dead by 1861 when patriotic fervor swept California after the attack on Fort Sumter. California's involvement in the American Civil War included sending gold east, recruiting or funding a limited number of combat units, maintaining numerous fortifications and sending troops east, some of whom became famous. Following the split in the Democratic Party in 1860, Republican supporters of Lincoln took control of the state in 1861, minimizing the influence of the large southern population. Their great success was in obtaining a Pacific railroad land grant and authorization to build the Central Pacific as the western half of the transcontinental railroad. California was settled primarily by Midwestern and Southern farmers, miners and businessmen. Though the southerners and some Californios tended to favor the Confederacy, the state did not have slavery, and they were generally powerless during the war itself. They were prevented from organizing and their newspapers were closed down by denying them the use of the mail. Former Sen. William M. Gwin, a Confederate sympathizer, was arrested and fled to Europe. Nearly all the men who volunteered as Union soldiers stayed in the West, within the Department of the Pacific to guard forts and other facilities, occupy secessionist regions, and fight Indians in the state and the western territories. Some 2,350 men in the California Column marched east across Arizona in 1862 to expel the Confederates from Arizona and New Mexico. The California Column then spent most of the remainder of the war fighting hostile Indians in the area. Transportation Ships provided easy, cheap, slow links among the coastal towns within California and on routes leading there. The Panama route provided a shortcut for getting from the East Coast to California and a brisk maritime trade developed, featuring fast clipper ships.[62] Steamboats (which needed fresh water and wood every day) plied the Bay Area and the rivers that flowed from the goldfields, moving passengers and supplies. With few roads, pack trains brought supplies to the miners. Soon a system of wagon roads, bridges, and ferries was set up. Large freight wagons replaced pack trains, and crude roads made it easier to get to the mining camps, enabling express companies to deliver mail and packages to the miners. Stagecoach lines eventually created routes connecting Missouri to California. Before the 1870s, stagecoaches provided the primary form of local transportation between inland towns, with sailing ships connecting port cities. Even when railroads arrived, stages were essential to link more remote areas to the railheads. Top of the line in quality, with least discomfort was the nine-passenger Concord, but the cheaper, rougher mud wagons were also in general use. The Wells Fargo company contracted with independent lines to deliver its express packages and transport gold bullion and coins. Stagecoach travel was usually uncomfortable as passengers shared limited space. Drivers were famous for their skill in driving six horses down winding roads at top speed, rarely overturning. Competition reduced fares to as little a two cents per mile on some routes. Bandits found robbing coaches a profitable if risky venture. U.S. government mail subsidies provided essential base income, but running a stage line was a financially unstable business enterprise.

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History of California California and the railroads Prior to the railroad, travel between California and the East Coast usually involved a hazardous, six-month-long sea voyage or overland journey from the East. Most 49ers joined groups that walked overland across the plains, deserts and mountains; 17,000 to 25,000 took the southern route from Texas through Arizona, and 25,000 to 30,000 walked the better-known northern route from Kansas. When the Central Pacific (built east from San Francisco using Chinese laborers) reached Utah in 1869, it linked with the Union Pacific Railroad, built west from Omaha using Irish labor. The transcontinental route meant it was no longer necessary to travel for six or more months by ship or on foot to reach the golden state; travel from Chicago to San Francisco took less than six days. The plunge in the cost and time of travel ended the state's isolation, and brought in cheap manufactured goods, along with more migrants. The establishment of America's transcontinental rail lines in 1869 securely linked California to the rest of the country, and the far-reaching transportation systems that grew out of them during the century that followed contributed to the states social, political and economic development. In recent years, passenger railroad building has picked up steam, with the introduction of services such as Metrolink, Caltrain, Amtrak California, and others. This is expected to continue, thanks to the passing of various rail-construction measures on November 4, 2008, including Proposition 1a.

19

References
[1] Seventy-five Years in San Francisco ship records (http:/ / www. sfgenealogy. com/ sf/ history/ hb75yap6. htm) accessed 11 May 2011 [2] Two Years Before the Mast, Two Years Before the Mast; eBook (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 4277) at Project Gutenberg [3] U.S. 1850 California Census asks state of birth of all residents and lists 7300 residents as born in California. Adding the approximate 200 Hispanics known to be in San Francisco (1846 directory) and an unknown (but small as shown in 1852 CA Census recount) number in Contra Costa and Santa Clara county whose census was lost gives less than 9,000 Californios state wideincluding less than 2,000 adult men. [4] The Seventh Census of the United States: 1850 (http:/ / www. census. gov/ prod/ www/ abs/ decennial/ 1850. html) (The census document 1850a-31 pdf gives the California and 1850 and 1852 Census. To get this document download the full 1850a zip file.) Accessed 22 Mar 2011 [5] U.S. 1850 California Census counts 92,597 residents but omits the residents of San Francisco (Alta California newspaper estimated at about 21,000 in 1850) whose census records were destroyed by fire. Contra Costa County (estimated at about 2,000 residents) and Santa Clara County (estimated at about 4,000 residents) 1850 records were "lost" and also not included. This totals a 1850 population of at least 119,000. [6] California 1850 federal and 1852 state census records (http:/ / www. census. gov/ prod/ www/ abs/ statab. html) Accessed 22 Mar 2011 [7] State of California, Native American history (http:/ / ceres. ca. gov/ nahc/ califindian. html) [8] Chapman, Charles " a History of California: the Spanish Period"; Macmillan Company 1939, pp57-69 [9] Gutierrez, Ramon A, and Richard J. Orsi, Contested Eden: California before the Gold Rush, University of California Press,1998, ISBN 0-520-21273, p. 81-82 [10] Bankston, John; "Juan Rodgriquesz Cabrillo"; Mitchell Lane Publishers; 2004; ISBN 1-58415-199-4 [11] (http:/ / www. fourdir. com/ california_cultures. htm)| California Indians [12] (http:/ / www. beachcalifornia. com/ california-food-facts. html), California crops today [13] (http:/ / capitolmuseum. ca. gov/ VirtualTour. aspx?Content1=1416& Content2=1434& Content3=1326)|Acorn grinding rocks [14] Acorn consumption (http:/ / www. archives. gov/ pacific/ education/ curriculum/ 4th-grade/ acorn. html) [15] Acorn preparation (http:/ / www. archives. gov/ pacific/ education/ curriculum/ 4th-grade/ acorn-photographs. html) [16] Crespi, Juan, ed. By Brown, Alan; A description of distant roads: Original journals of the first expedition into California, 1769-1770; San Diego State University Press; (2001), in Spanish and English; ISBN 978-1879691643 [17] Rivera's explorations (http:/ / pages. sbcglobal. net/ havnar/ documents/ ortega/ riveramo. html) [18] "Visitors: San Francisco Historical Information" (http:/ / www. sfgov. org/ site/ visitor_index. asp?id=8091). City and County of San Francisco. n.d.. . Retrieved 2008-06-10. [19] Guerro, Vladimir; The Anza Trail: The Settling of California; Heyday Books; (2006); ISBN 978-1597140263 [20] For the Revillagigedo Census of 1790 listing the inhabitants of Monterey and the other presidios and pueblos, see The Census of 1790, California (http:/ / sfgenealogy. com/ spanish/ cen1790. htm), California Spanish Genealogy. Retrieved on 2008-08-04. Compiled from William Marvin Mason. The Census of 1790: A Demographic History of California. (Menlo Park: Ballena Press, 1998). 75-105. ISBN 9780879191375. [21] Dana, Richard; Two Years Before the Mast: A Personal Narrative of Life at Sea Republished by CreateSpace (2010) ISBN 978-1456472825 [22] California ships to 1847 (http:/ / www. sfgenealogy. com/ sf/ history/ hb75yap6. htm) Accessed 6 Mar 2011 [23] U.S. federal tax rates 1850 (http:/ / usgovernmentrevenue. com/ index. php?year=1850#usgs302a) accessed 6 Mar 2011

History of California
[24] Krell, Dorothy (ed.) (1979). The California Missions: A Pictorial History; p. 316; Sunset Publishing Corporation, Menlo Park, California. ISBN 0-376-05172-8 [25] Engelhardt, Zephyrin, O.F.M. (1922); San Juan Capistrano Mission;p. 114; Standard Printing Co., Los Angeles, California [26] Yenne, Bill (2004). The Missions of California; pp. 83, 93; Advantage Publishers Group, San Diego, California. ISBN 1-59223-319-8 [27] Robinson, W.W. (1948); Land in California; p. 42; University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, California [28] Californios (http:/ / en. citizendium. org/ wiki/ California,_history_to_1845) Accessed 25 July 2009 [29] John Sutter Biography John Sutter Biography (http:/ / www. linecamp. com/ museums/ americanwest/ western_names/ sutter_john/ sutter_john. html) [30] Fort State Historical Park Information Sutter's Fort State Historical Park Information (http:/ / www. parks. ca. gov/ ?page_id=485) [31] Bancroft, Hubert H.; "History of California Vol. XXII 1846-1848";p. 201; The History Company Publishers, San Francisco, 1882 (Google eBook) [32] Bancroft, Hubert H.; "History of California Vol. XXII 1846-1848";p. 199; The History Company Publishers, San Francisco, 1882 (Google eBook) [33] Cleland, Robert Glass; "The History of California"; p. 205; The Macmillan Company New York, 1922; Goggle eBook [34] Cleland, Robert Glass; "The History of California"; p. 180; The Macmillan Company New York, 1922; Goggle eBook [35] Cleland, Robert Glass; "A History of California"; The Macmillan Company 1922; p. 191;(Google eBook) [36] Bancroft, Hubert H.; "History of California Vol. XXII 1846-1848";p. 252; The History Company Publishers, San Francisco, 1882 (Google eBook) [37] Californios revolt 1845 (http:/ / calrepublic. tripod. com/ history. html) Accessed 25 July 2009 [38] Harlow, Neal; "California Conquered"; p. 247; University of California Press; 1989; ISBN 978-0520066052 [39] U.S. 1850 California Census asks state of birth of all residents and gets about 7300 residents born in California. Adding the approximate 200 Hispanics in San Francisco (1846 directory) and an unknown (but small as shown in 1852 CA Census recount) number in Contra Costa and Santa Clara county whose census was lost gives less than 9,000 Hispanics state wide. [40] Historical Statistics of the United States: Millennial Edition (http:/ / www. cambridge. org/ us/ americanhistory/ hsus/ reviews. htm) [41] U.S. 1850 California Census counts 92,597 residents but omits the residents of San Francisco (estimated at about 21,000) whose census records were destroyed by fire. Contra Costa County (estimated at about 2,000 residents) and Santa Clara County (estimated at about 4,000 residents) 1850 records were "lost" and also not included. The total non-Indian (Indians were not counted) population was over 120,000. See: "Historical Statistical Abstracts - U.S. Census Bureau"; [www.census.gov/prod/www/abs/statab.html] [42] California and New Mexico: Message from the President of the United States .By United States. President (1849-1850 : Taylor), United States. War Dept (Ex. Doc 17 page 1) Google eBook [43] Historical Statistics of the United States, 17891945 (http:/ / www. census. gov/ prod/ www/ abs/ statab. html) Accessed 9 Apr 2011 [44] Report of the debates in the Convention of California on the formation of By California. Constitutional Convention, John Ross Browne; Google eBook [45] Constitution of the State of California (http:/ / www. sos. ca. gov/ archives/ collections/ 1849/ full-text. htm) Accessed 9 Apr 2011 [46] Richard B. Rice et al., The Elusive Eden (1988) 191-95 [47] Starr, Kevin and Richard J. Orsi (eds.) (2000). "Rooted in barbarous soil: people, culture, and community in Gold Rush California; p.48; Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22496-5 [48] California Ships to 1774-1848. Seventy-five Years in San Francisco Appendix N (http:/ / www. sfgenealogy. com/ sf/ history/ hb75yap6. htm) Accessed 2 Apr 2011 [49] Ship Arrivals in the Port of San Francisco (http:/ / www. maritimeheritage. org/ inport/ 1849. htm) Accessed 1 Apr 2011 [50] San Francisco Population 794-2000 (http:/ / www. sfgenealogy. com/ sf/ history/ hgpop. htm) Accessed 4 Apr 2011 [51] San Francisco fires 1849-1852 (http:/ / www. sfmuseum. org/ hist1/ fire. html) Accessed 4 Apr 2011 [52] The 1850 U.S. Census of California found 7,600 people who claimed they were born in California (Californios). To this must be added the few Californios of San Francisco, Santa Clara and Contra Costa Counties who's Censuses were lost and not included--about 9,000 total state wide. Historical Statistics of the United States, 17891945 (http:/ / www. census. gov/ prod/ www/ abs/ statab. html) Accessed 14 Apr 2011 [53] Holliday, J. S. (1999), p. 126. [54] "A Golden Dream? A Look at Mining Communities in the 1849 Gold Rush" (http:/ / www. sell-oldgold. com/ articles/ Mining-Communities-in-the-1849-Gold-Rush. pdf). Sell-oldgold.com, an educational resource for historical gold, silver, and coin information. . Retrieved 2009-07-27. [55] Brands, H. W. (2003). The age of gold: the California Gold Rush and the new American dream. New York: Anchor (reprint ed.). pp.103121. [56] San Francisco Ships (http:/ / www. maritimeheritage. org/ ships/ ss. html) Accessed 20 Apr 2011 [57] The Troy weight system is traditionally used to measure precious metals, not the more familiar avoirdupois weight system. The term "ounces" of gold typically refers to troy ounces. There are some historical uses where, because of the age of the use, the intention is ambiguous. [58] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), p. 199. [59] Charles N. Alpers, Michael P. Hunerlach, Jason T. May, and Roger L. Hothem. "Mercury Contamination from Historical Gold Mining in California" (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/ fs/ 2005/ 3014/ ). U.S. Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-02-26. [60] Robert H. Ruby and John Arthur Brown, Indian slavery in the Pacific Northwest (1993), ch 7, "The Northwest California Slave"

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History of California
[61] San Francisco Chronicle, January 27, 2007 (http:/ / sfgate. com/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi?f=/ c/ a/ 2007/ 01/ 27/ BAG8ANQ1OG1. DTL) [62] A. C. W. Bethel, "The Golden Skein: California's Gold-Rush Transportation Network." California History 1998-99 77(4): 250-275.

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External links
An Act for the Admission of the State of California into the Union (http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=009/llsl009.db&recNum=479), 31st Cong., Sess. I, Ch. 50, September 9, 1850 California State Guide, from the Library of Congress (http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/states/california/ index.html)

Further reading
Aron, Stephen. "Convergence, California and the Newest Western History," California History Volume: 86#4 September 2009. pp 4+ historiography. Bakken, Gordon Morris. California History: A Topical Approach (2003), college textbook Hubert Howe Bancroft. The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft, (http://www.1st-hand-history.org/Hhb/ HHBindex.htm) vol 18-24, History of California to 1890; complete text online; famous, highly detailed narrative written in 1880s Brands, H.W. The Age of Gold: The California Gold Rush and the New American Dream (2003) excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/dp/0385720882) Burns, John F. and Richard J. Orsi, eds; Taming the Elephant: Politics, Government, and Law in Pioneer California (2003) online edition (http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=105960680) Cherny, Robert W., Richard Griswold del Castillo, and Gretchen Lemke-Santangelo. Competing Visions: A History Of California (2005), college textbook Cleland, Robert Glass. A History of California: The American Period (1922) 512pp online edition (http://books. google.com/books?id=4WdgAQbv13EC&dq="history+of+california") Deverell, William. Railroad Crossing: Californians and the Railroad, 1850-1910. (1994). 278 pp. Deverell, William, and David Igler, eds. A Companion to California History (2008), long essays by scholars excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/dp/1405161833) Ellison, William. A Self-governing Dominion: California, 1849-1860 (1950) full text online free (http://books. google.com/books?id=T8v4nWGB0T0C) Hayes, Derek. Historical Atlas of California: With Original Maps, (2007), 256pp Hittell, Theodore Henry. History of California (4 vol 1898) old. detailed narrative; online edition (http://books. google.com/books?id=4GFJTXSj8UgC&dq="history+of+california") Hurtado, Albert L. John Sutter: A Life on the North American Frontier. U. of Oklahoma Press, 2006. 412 pp. excerpt and online search (http://www.amazon.com/dp/080613772X) Isenberg, Andrew C. Mining California: An Ecological History. (2005). 242 pp. Jackson, Robert H. Missions and the Frontiers of Spanish America: A Comparative Study of the Impact of Environmental, Economic, Political, and Socio-Cultural Variations on the Missions in the Rio de la Plata Region and on the Northern Frontier of New Spain. Scottsdale, Ariz.: Pentacle, 2005. 592 pp. Jelinek, Lawrence. Harvest Empire: A History of California Agriculture (1982) Lavender, David. California: A History. (Some libraries catalog it as California: A Bicentennial History.) States and the Nation series. New York: Norton, 1976. Short and popular Lightfoot, Kent G. Indians, Missionaries, and Merchants: The Legacy of Colonial Encounters on the California Frontiers. U. of California Press, 1980. 355 pp. excerpt and online search (http://www.amazon.com/dp/ 0520249984) Merchant, Carolyn ed. Green Versus Gold: Sources In California's Environmental History (1998) readings in primary and secondary sources excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/dp/1559635800)

History of California Pitt, Leonard. The Decline of the Californios: A Social History of the Spanish-Speaking Californians, 1846-1890 (2nd ed. 1999) Rawls, James J. ed. New Directions In California History: A Book of Readings (1988) Rawls, James and Walton Bean. California: An Interpretive History (8th ed 2003), college textbook; the latest version of Bean's solid 1968 text Rice, Richard B., William A. Bullough, and Richard J. Orsi. Elusive Eden: A New History of California 3rd ed (2001), college textbook Rolle, Andrew F. California: A History 6th ed. (2003), college textbook Sackman, Douglas Cazaux. Orange Empire: California and the Fruits of Eden. (2005). 386 pp. Starr, Kevin. California: A History (2005), a synthesis in 370 pp. Starr, Kevin. Americans and the California Dream, 1850-1915 (1973)] Starr, Kevin and Richard J. Orsi eds. Rooted in Barbarous Soil: People, Culture, and Community in Gold Rush California (2001) Street, Richard Steven. Beasts of the Field: A Narrative History of California Farmworkers, 1769-1913. (2004_. 904 pp. Sucheng, Chan, and Spencer C. Olin, eds. Major Problems in California History (1996), readings in primary and secondary sources

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History of California to 1899

This article covers in brief the history of California until the year 1899; for later events, see History of California 1900 to present. For additional information and more notes and citations, see the Main article links at the top of most sections. Human history in California begins with indigenous Americans first arriving in California some 13,000-15,000 years ago. Exploration California's Yosemite Valley. and settlement by Europeans along the coasts and in the inland valleys began in the 16th century. California's acquisition by the United States under the terms of the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo following the defeat of Mexico in the Mexican-American War caused further American westward expansion into Mexico intensified with the California Gold Rush, beginning in 1849. California joined the Union as a free state in 1850, due to the compromise of 1850. By the end of the 19th century, California was still largely rural and agricultural, but had a population of about 1.4 million.

History of California to 1899

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Pre European settlement

Main: Native American history of California The most commonly-accepted model of migration to the New World is that peoples from Asia crossed the Bering land bridge to the Americas some 16,500 years ago. When humans first arrived in present-day California has not been established. The remains of Arlington Springs Man on Santa Rosa Island are among the traces of a very early habitation, dated to the Wisconsin glaciation (the most recent ice age) about 13,000 years ago. In all, some 30 tribes or culture groups lived in what is now California, gathered into perhaps six different language family groups. These groups included the early-arriving Hokan family (winding up in the mountainous far north and Colorado River basin in the south) and the recently-arrived Uto-Aztecan of the desert southeast. This cultural diversity was among the densest in North America, and was likely the result of a series of migrations and invasions during the last 10,000-15,000 years.[1] At the time of the first European contact, Native American tribes included the Chumash, Maidu, Miwok, Modoc, Mohave, Ohlone, Pomo, Serrano, Shasta, Tataviam, Tongva, Wintu and Yurok. Tribes adapted to California's many climates. Coastal tribes were a major source of trading beads, produced from mussel shells using stone tools. Tribes in California's broad Central Valley and the surrounding foothills developed an early agriculture, burning the grasslands to encourage growth of edible wild plants, especially oak trees. The acorns from these trees were pounded into a powder, and the acidic tannin leached out to make edible flour. Tribes living in the mountains of the north and east relied heavily on salmon and game hunting, and used California's volcanic legacy by collecting and shaping obsidian for themselves and for trade. The deserts of the southeast were home to tribes who learned to thrive in that harsh environment by making careful use of local plants and living in oases and along water courses. The status of all these people remained dynamic, as the more successful tribes expanded their territories and less successful tribes contracted. Slave-trading and war among tribes alternated with periods of relative peace. The population of Native California in all, it is estimated by the time of extensive European contact in the 18th century, that perhaps 300,000 Native Americans were living within what is now California.

European exploration (15301765)

The first European explorers, flying the flags of Spain and of England, sailed along the coast of California from the early 16th century to the mid-18th century, but no European settlements were established. The most important colonial power, Spain, focused attention on its imperial centers in Mexico and Peru. Confident of Spanish claims to all lands touching the Pacific Ocean (including California), Spain sent an exploring party sailing along the California coast. The California seen by these ship-bound explorers was one of hilly grasslands and wooded canyons, with few apparent resources or natural ports to attract colonists.

California was misrepresented in early maps as an island. This example circa 1650. Restored.

The other colonial states of the era, with their interest on more densely populated areas, paid limited attention to this distant part of the world. It was not until the middle of the 18th century, that both Russian and British explorers and fur-traders began establishing stations on the coast.

History of California to 1899

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Hernn Corts
About 1530, Nuo Beltrn de Guzmn (president of New Spain) was told by an Indian slave of the Seven Cities of Cibola that had streets paved with gold and silver. About the same time Hernn Corts was attracted by stories of a wonderful country far to the northwest, populated by Amazonish women and abounding with gold, pearls and gems. The Spaniards conjectured that these places may be one and the same. An expedition in 1533 discovered a bay, most likely that of La Paz, before experiencing difficulties and returning. Corts accompanied expeditions in 1534 and 1535 without finding the sought-after city. On May 3, 1535, Corts claimed "Santa Cruz Island" (now known as the peninsula of Baja California), and laid out and founded the city that was to become La Paz later that spring.

Francisco de Ulloa
Also: Island of California In July 1539, moved by the renewal of those stories, Corts sent Francisco de Ulloa out with three small vessels. He made it to the mouth of the Colorado, then sailed around the peninsula as far as Cedros Island. The account of this voyage marks the first-recorded application of the name "California". It can be traced to the fifth volume of a chivalric romance, Amadis de Gallia, arranged by Garci Rodrguez de Montalvo and first printed around 1510, in which a character travels through an island called "California".

Juan Rodrguez Cabrillo

Juan Rodrguez Cabrillo is believed to be the first European to explore the California coast. He was either of Portuguese or Spanish background, although his origins remain unclear. He was a soldier, crossbowman, and navigator who sailed for the Spanish Crown. In June 1542 Cabrillo led an expedition in two ships of his own design and construction from the west coast of what is now Mexico. He landed on September 28 at San Diego Bay, claiming what he thought was the Island of California for Spain. Cabrillo and his crew landed on San Miguel Island, one of the Channel Islands, then continued north in an attempt to discover a supposed coastal route to the mainland of Asia. Cabrillo could have sailed as far north as Pt. Reyes (north of San Francisco), but died as the result of an accident during this voyage; the remainder of the expedition, which could have reached as far north as the Rogue River in today's southern Oregon was led by Bartolom Ferrelo.[2]

Sir Francis Drake

On June 7, 1579, the English explorer Sir Francis Drake saw an excellent harbor, on a land-mass that he called Nova Albion and claimed for England. The location of Drake's port remains unknown and there was no follow-up.[3] But subsequent English maps name the land above Baja California, New Granada, New Mexico and Florida "Nova Albion." Drake held the first Protestant Christian service somewhere in what is now California.

Sebastin Vizcano
In 1602 the Spaniard Sebastin Vizcano explored California's coastline as far north as Monterey Bay, where he put ashore. He ventured inland south along the coast and recorded a visit to what is likely Carmel Bay. His major contributions to the state's history were the glowing reports of the Monterey area as an anchorage and as land suitable for settlement, as well as the detailed charts he made of the coastal waters (which were used for nearly 200 years).[4]

History of California to 1899

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European exploration (17651821)

British seafaring Captain James Cook, midway through his third and final voyage of exploration in 1778, sailed along the west coast of North America aboard the HMS Resolution, mapping the coast from California all the way to the Bering Strait. In 1786 Jean-Franois de Galaup, comte de La Prouse, led a group of scientists and artists on a voyage of exploration ordered by Louis XVI and were welcomed in Monterey. They compiled an account of the Californian mission system, the land and the people. Traders, whalers and scientific missions followed in the next decades.[5]

Spanish colonization and governance (16971821)

In 1697 the Jesuit missionary Juan Mara de Salvatierra established Misin de Nuestra Seora de Loreto Conch, the first permanent mission in Baja California peninsula. California at this time was part of the Las Californias Province of New Spain and not divided as it is today. Jesuit control over the peninsula was gradually extended, first in the region around Loreto, then to the south in the Cape region, and finally toward the north across the northern boundary of present day Baja California Sur. During the last quarter of the 18th century, the first Spanish settlements were established in the Las Californias Province of the Viceroyalty of New Spain (colonial Mexico). Reacting to interest by Russian Empire and, later, Great Britain in the fur-bearing animals of the Pacific north coast, Spain further extended the series of Catholic missions, accompanied by troops and establishing ranches, along the southern and central coast of California. These missions were intended to demonstrate the claim of the Spanish Empire to what is now modern-day California. By 1823 twenty one Spanish missions had been established in Alta California. Operations were based out of the naval base at San Blas and included not only the establishment and supply of missions in California, but a series of exploration expeditions to the Pacific Northwest and Alaska. The first quarter of the 19th century showed the continuation of the slow colonization of the southern and central California coast by Spanish missionaries, ranchers and troops. By 1820 Spanish influence was marked by the chain of missions reaching from Loreto, north to San Diego, to just north of today's San Francisco Bay area and extended inland approximately 25 to 50 miles from the missions. Outside of this zone, perhaps 200,000 to 250,000 Native Americans were continuing to lead traditional lives. The Adams-Ons Treaty, signed in 1819, set the northern boundary of the Spanish claims at the 42nd parallel, effectively creating today's northern boundary between California and Oregon.

First Spanish colonies

Spain had maintained a number of missions and presidios in New Spain since 1519. The Crown laid claim to the north coastal provinces of California in 1542. Excluding Santa Fe in New Mexico, settlement of northern New Spain was slow for the next 155 years. Settlements in Loreto, Baja California Sur were established in 1697, but it was not until the threat of incursion by Russian fur traders and potentially settlers, coming down from Alaska in 1765, that Spain, under King Charles III, felt development of more northern installations were necessary. By then, the Spanish Empire was engaged in the political aftermath of the Seven Years' War and colonial priorities in far away California afforded only a minimal effort. Alta California was to be settled by Franciscan monks, protected by troops in the California Missions. Between 1774 and 1791, the Crown sent forth a number of expeditions to further explore and settle Alta California and the Pacific Northwest.

History of California to 1899

26

Gaspar de Portol
In May 1768, the Spanish Visitor General, Jos de Glvez, planned a four-prong expedition to settle Alta California, two by sea and two by land, which Gaspar de Portol volunteered to command. The Portol land expedition arrived at the site of present-day San Diego on June 29, 1769, where it established the Presidio of San Diego. Eager to press on to Monterey Bay, de Portol and his group, consisting of Father Juan Crespi, sixty-three leather-jacket soldiers and a hundred mules, headed north on July 14. They reached the present-day sites of Los Angeles on August 2, Santa Monica on August 3, Santa Barbara on August 19, San Simeon on September 13 and the mouth of the Salinas River on October 1. Although they were looking for Monterey Bay, the group failed to recognize it when they reached it. On October 31, de Portol's explorers became the first Europeans known to view San Francisco Bay. Ironically, the Manila Galleons had sailed along this coast for almost 200 years by then, without noticing the bay. The group returned to San Diego in 1770.

Junpero Serra
Junpero Serra was a Majorcan Franciscan who founded the first the Alta California Spanish missions. After King Carlos III ordered the Jesuits expelled from New Spain on February 3, 1768, Serra was named "Father Presidente". Serra founded San Diego de Alcal in 1769. Later that year, Serra, Governor de Portol and a small group of men moved north, up the Pacific Coast. They reached Monterey in 1770, where Serra founded the second Alta California mission, San Carlos Borromeo.

A portrait of Junpero Serra.

History of California to 1899

27

Alta California missions

The California Missions comprise a series of religious outposts established by Spanish Catholic Dominicans, Jesuits, and Franciscans, to spread the Christian doctrine among the local Native Americans, but with the primary benefit to Spain of confirming historic claims to the territory. The missions introduced European livestock, fruits, vegetables, agricultural industry, along with invasive species of plants into the California regions. The labor supply for the missions was supplied by the forcible relocation of the Native Americans and keeping them in peonage.[6] Most missions were small, with normally two Franciscans and six to eight soldiers in residence. All of these buildings were built largely by the forced labor of unpaid native people, under Franciscan supervision. In addition to the presidio (royal fort) and pueblo (town), the misin was one of the three major agencies employed by the Spanish crown in an attempt to consolidate its colonial territories. None of these missions were completely self-supporting, requiring continued (albeit modest) financial support. Starting with the onset of the Mexican War of Independence in 1810, this support largely disappeared and the missions and their converts were left on their own. By 1827, the Mexican Government passed the General Law of Expulsion which exiled Spanish born peopledecimating the clergy in California. Some of the missions were then nationalized by the Mexican government and sold off. It was not until after statehood that the US Supreme Court restored some missions to the orders that owned them.

A map produced in 1920 illustrating the route of "El Camino Real" in 1821, along with the 21 Franciscan Alta California missions. The road at this time was merely a horse and mule trail.

In order to facilitate overland travel, the mission settlements were situated approximately 30 miles (48 kilometers) apart, so that they were separated by one day's long ride on horseback along the 600-mile (966-kilometer) long el Camino Real, Spanish for "the Royal Road," though often referred to today as the King's Highway, and also known as the California Mission Trail. Heavy freight movement was practical only via water. Tradition has it that the padres sprinkled the mustard seeds along the trail in order to mark it with bright yellow flowers. Four presidios, strategically placed along the California coast and organized into separate military districts, served to protect the missions and other Spanish settlements in Upper California. A number of mission structures survive today or have been rebuilt, and many have congregations established since the beginning of the 20th century. The highway and missions became for many a romantic symbol of an idyllic and peaceful past. The Mission Revival style was an architectural movement that drew its inspiration from this idealized view of California's past.

Ranchos
The Spanish (and later the Mexicans) encouraged settlement with large land grants which were turned into ranchos, where cattle and sheep were raised. Cow hides (at roughly $1 each) and fat (known as tallow, used to make candles as well as soaps) were the primary exports of California until the mid-19th century. The owners of these ranchos styled themselves after the Dons in Spain. Their workers substantially included Native Americans, some who had learned to speak Spanish and ride horses. Some ranchos, such as Rancho El Escorpin, were land grants directly to

History of California to 1899 Native Americans.

28

Russian colonization
Part of Spain's motivation to settle upper Las Californias was to forestall Russian colonization and British incursion in to their territory. In the early 19th century, fur trappers with the Russian-American Company of the tsarist Imperial Russian Empire explored down the West Coast from trading settlements in Alaska, hunting for sea otter pelts as far south as San Diego. In August 1812, the Russian-American Company set up a fortified trading post at Fort Ross, near present day Bodega Bay on the Sonoma Coast of Northern California, sixty miles north of San Francisco on land claimed, but not occupied by, the British Empire. This colony was active until the Russians departed in 1841.[7] In 1836 El Presidio de Sonoma, or Sonoma Barracks, was established by General Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo, the Commandante of the northern frontier of Alta California. It was established as a part of Mexico's strategy to halt Russian incursions into the region, as the Mission San Francisco de Solano (Sonoma Mission) was for the Spanish.

Mexican era (18211846)

General
Substantial changes occurred during the second quarter of the 19th century. The victory in Mexican War of Independence from Spain in 1821 marked the end of a European power ruling California; the missions faded in importance under Mexican control while ranching and trade increased. By the mid-1840s, the increased presence of Americans made the northern part of Alta California diverge from the southern part, where the Spanish-speaking "Californios" dominated. By 1846, Alta California had a Spanish-speaking population of under 10,000, tiny even compared to the sparse population of states in the rest of northern Mexico. The "Californios," as they were known, consisted of about 800 families, mostly concentrated on large ranchos. About 1,300 American citizens and a very mixed group of about 500 Europeans, scattered mostly from Monterey to Sacramento dominated trading as the Californios dominated ranching. In terms of adult males, the two groups were about equal, but the American citizens were more recent arrivals.

Secularization
First, the Mexican Congress passed the 'General Law of Expulsion' in 1827. This law declared all persons born in Spain to be "illegal immigrants" and ordered them to leave the new country of Mexico. Many of the missionary clergy were Spanish and left. Next, the Mexican Congress passed An Act for the Secularization of the Missions of California on August 17, 1833. Mission San Juan Capistrano was the very first to feel the effects of this legislation the following year. The Franciscans soon thereafter abandoned the missions, taking with them most everything of value, after which the locals typically plundered the mission buildings for construction materials.

Other nationalities
The Russian-American Company established Fort Ross in 1812 as their southermost colony in North America, intended to provide Russian posts farther north with agricultural goods. When this need was filled by a deal between the RAC and the Hudson's Bay Company for produce from Fort Vancouver on the Columbia River and other installations, the fort's intent was derailed although it remained in Russian hands until 1841, and for the duration had a small population of Russians and other nationalities from the Russian Empire. In this period, American and British traders began entering California in search of beaver. Using the Siskiyou Trail, Old Spanish Trail, and later, the California Trail, these trading parties arrived in California, often without the knowledge or approval of the Mexican authorities, and laid the foundation for the arrival of later Gold Rush era Forty-Niners, farmers and ranchers.

History of California to 1899 In 1840, the American adventurer, writer and lawyer Richard Henry Dana, Jr. wrote of his experiences aboard ship off California in the 1830s in Two Years Before the Mast.[8] The leader of a French scientific expedition to California, Eugene Duflot de Mofras, wrote in 1840 "...it is evident that California will belong to whatever nation chooses to send there a man-of-war and two hundred men."[9] [10] In 1841, General Vallejo wrote Governor Alvarado that "...there is no doubt that France is intriguing to become mistress of California," but a series of troubled French governments did not uphold French interests in the area. During disagreements with Mexicans, the German-Swiss francophile John Sutter threatened to raise the French flag over California and place himself and his settlement, New Helvetia, under French protection.

29

American interest and immigrants

Although a small number of American traders and trappers had lived in California since the early 1830s, the first organized overland party of American immigrants was the Bartleson-Bidwell Party of 1841. With mules and on foot, this pioneering group groped their way across the continent using the still untested California Trail.[11] Also in 1841, an overland exploratory party of the United States Exploring Expedition came down the Siskiyou Trail from the Pacific Northwest. In 1844, Caleb Greenwood guided the first settlers to take wagons over the Sierra Nevada. In 1846, the misfortunes of the Donner Party earned notoriety as they struggled to enter California. By 1846, the province had a non-Native American population of about 1500 Californio adult men (with about 6500 women and children), who lived mostly in the southern half. About 2,000 recent non-Californio, non-indigenous immigrants (almost all adult men) lived mostly in the northern half of California.

United States era (beginning 1846)

Bear Flag Revolt and American conquest
After the United States declared war on Mexico on May 13, 1846, it took almost two months (mid-July 1846) for definite word of war to get to California. Upon hearing rumors of war, U.S. consul Thomas O. Larkin, stationed in Monterey, tried to keep peace between the Americans and the small Mexican military garrison commanded by Jos Castro. American army captain John C. Frmont, with about 60 well-armed men, had entered California in December 1845 and was making a slow march to Oregon when they received word that war between Mexico and the U.S. was imminent.[12] On June 15, 1846, some 30 non-Mexican settlers, mostly Americans, staged a revolt, seized the small Mexican garrison in Sonoma, and captured Mexican general Mariano Vallejo. They raised the "Bear Flag" of the California Republic over Sonoma. The so-called California Republic lasted one week until the U.S. Army, led by Frmont, took over on June 23. The California state flag today is based on this original Bear Flag, and continues to contain the words "California Republic." Commodore John Drake Sloat, on hearing of imminent war and the revolt in Sonoma, ordered his naval forces to occupy Yerba Buena (present San Francisco) on July 7 and raise the American flag. On
1890 photograph of the first "Bear Flag." A replica of is now at El Presidio de Sonoma, or Sonoma Barracks.

History of California to 1899 July 15, Sloat transferred his command to Commodore Robert F. Stockton, a much more aggressive leader. Commodore Stockton put Frmont's forces under his command. Frmont's "California Battalion" swelled to about 160 men with the addition of volunteers recruited from American settlements, and on July 19 he entered Monterey in a joint operation with some of Stockton's sailors and marines. The official word had been received the Mexican-American War was on. The American forces easily took over the north of California; within days, they controlled Monterey, San Francisco, Sonoma, and Sutter's Fort. In Southern California, Mexican General Jos Castro and Governor Po Pico fled from Los Angeles. When Stockton's forces entered Los Angeles unresisted on August 13, 1846, the nearly bloodless conquest of California seemed complete. Stockton, however, left too small a force (36 men) in Los Angeles, and the Californios, acting on their own and without help from Mexico, led by Jos Mari Flores, forced the small American garrison to retire in late September. Two hundred reinforcements were sent by Stockton, led by US Navy Capt William Mervine, but were repulsed in the Battle of Dominguez Rancho, October 79, 1846, near San Pedro, where 14 US Marines were killed. Meanwhile, General Kearny with a much reduced squadron of 100 dragoons finally reached California after a grueling march across New Mexico, Arizona, and the Sonoran Desert. On December 6, 1846, they fought the Battle of San Pasqual near San Diego, where 18 of Kearny's troop were killedthe largest number of American casualties lost in battle in California. Stockton rescued Kearny's surrounded forces and, with their combined force, they moved northward from San Diego. Entering the present-day Orange County area on January 8, they linked up with Frmont's northern force. With the combined American forces totaling 660 troops, they fought the Californios in the Battle of Rio San Gabriel. The next day, January 9, 1847, they fought the Battle of La Mesa. Three days later, on January 12, 1847, the last significant body of Californios surrendered to American forces. That marked the end of the war in California. On January 13, 1847, the Treaty of Cahuenga was signed. On January 28, 1847, Army lieutenant William Tecumseh Sherman and his army unit arrived in Monterey, as American forces continued to stream into California. On March 15, 1847, Col. Jonathan D. Stevensons Seventh Regiment of New York Volunteers of about 900 men began to arrive. All of these troops were still in California when gold was discovered in January of 1848. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848, marked the end of the Mexican-American War. In that treaty, the United States agreed to pay Mexico $18,250,000; Mexico formally ceded California (and other northern territories) to the United States; and the first international boundary was drawn between the U.S. and Mexico by treaty. The previous boundary had been negotiated in 1819 between Spain and the United States in the Adams-Ons Treaty, which established the present border between California and Oregon. San Diego Bay is one of the few natural harbors in California south of San Francisco, and to claim this strategic asset the southern border was slanted to include the entire bay in California.

30

Gold Rush
In January 1848, gold was discovered at Sutter's Mill in the Sierra Nevada foothills about 40 miles east of Sacramento beginning the California Gold Rush, which had the most extensive impact on population growth of the state of any era [13] [14]. The miners and merchants settled in towns along what is now State Highway 49, and settlements sprang up along the Siskiyou Trail as gold was discovered elsewhere in California (notably in Siskiyou County). The nearest deep-water seaport was San Francisco Bay, and San Francisco became the home for bankers who financed exploration for gold. The Gold Rush brought the world to California. By 1855, some 300,000 "Forty-Niners" had arrived from every continent; many soon left, of coursesome rich, most not very rich. A precipitous drop in the Native American population occurred in the decade after the discovery of gold.

History of California to 1899

31

Statehood: 18491850
In 184749, California was run by the U.S. military; local government continued to be run by alcaldes (mayors) in most places; but now some were Americans. Bennett C. Riley, the last military governor, called a constitutional convention to meet in Monterey in September of 1849. Its 48 delegates were mostly pre-1846 American settlers; 8 were Californios. They unanimously outlawed slavery and set up a state government that operated for 10 months before California was given official statehood by Congress on September 9, 1850 as part of the Compromise of 1850.[15] After Monterey, the state capital was variously San Jose (18501851), Vallejo (18521853) and Benicia (18531854) until Sacramento was finally selected in 1854. Californios (dissatisfied with inequitable taxes and land laws) and pro slavery Southerners in lightly populated, rural Southern California attempted three times in the 1850s to achieve a separate statehood or territorial status separate from Northern California. The last attempt, the Pico Act of 1859, was passed by the California State Legislature, signed by the State governor, approved overwhelmingly by voters in the proposed Territory of Colorado and sent to Washington D. C. with a strong advocate in Senator Milton Latham. However the secession crisis in 1860 led to the proposal never coming to a vote.[16] [17]

The Civil War

Because of the distance factor, California played a minor role in the American Civil War. Although some settlers sympathized with the Confederacy, they were not allowed to organize and their newspapers were closed down. Former Senator William M. Gwin, a Confederate sympathizer, was arrested and fled to Europe. Powerful capitalists dominated in Californian politics through their control of mines, shipping, and finance controlled the state through the new Republican party. Nearly all the men who volunteered as soldiers stayed in the West to guard facilities, suppress secessionists or fight the Indians. Some 2,350 men in the California Column marched east across Arizona in 1862 to expel the Confederates from Arizona and New Mexico. The California Column then spent most of the remaider of the war fighting hostile Indians in the area.

Labor
In his maiden speech before the United States Senate, California Senator David C. Broderick stated, "There is no place in the Union, no place on earth, where labor is so honored and so well rewarded..." as in California. Early immigrants to California came with skills in many trades and some had come from places where workers were being organized. California's labor movements began in San Francisco, the only large city in California for decades and once the center of trade-unionism west of the Rockies. Los Angeles remained an open-shop stronghold for half a century until unions from the north collaborated to make California a union state. Because of San Francisco's relative isolation, skilled workers could make demands that their counterparts on the East coast could not. Printers first attempted to organize in 1850, teamsters, draymen, lightermen, riggers and stevedores in 1851, bakers and bricklayers in 1852, caulkers, carpenters, plasterers, brickmasons, blacksmiths and shipwrights in 1853 and musicians in 1856. All these efforts required several starts to become stabilized, they did earn better pay and working conditions and began the long efforts of state labor legislation. Between 1850 and 1870, legislation making provisions for payment of wages, the mechanic's lien and the eight hour day. It was said that during the last half of the nineteenth century more of San Francisco's workers enjoyed an eight hour day than any other American city. The molders' and boilermakers' strike of 1864 was called in opposition to a newly formed iron-works employers association which threatened a one thousand dollar a day fine on any employer who granted the strikers' demands and had wired for strikebreakers across the country. The San Francisco Trades Union, the city's first central labor body sent a delegation to meet a boatload of strikebreakers at Panama and educated them. They arrived in San Francisco as enrolled union members. After the Civil War ended in 1865, California continued to grow rapidly. Independent miners were largely displaced by large corporate mining operations. Railroads began to be built, and both the railroad companies and the mining

History of California to 1899 companies began to hire large numbers of laborers. The decisive event was the opening of the transcontinental railroad in 1869; six days by train brought a traveler from Chicago to San Francisco, compared to six months by ship. The era of comparative protection for California labor ended with the arrival of the railroad. For decades after, labor oppressed the Chinese and politicians pushed anti-Chinese legislation. Importation of slaves or so-called "contract" labor was fought by miners and city workers and made illegal through legislation in 1852. The first statewide federated labor body was the Mechanics' State Council that championed the eight-hour day against the employers' 1867 "Ten Hour League". The Council affiliated with the National Labor Union, America's first national union effort. By 1872 Chinese workers comprised half of all factory workers in San Francisco and were paid wages far below white workers. "The Chinese must Go!" was the slogan of Denis Kearney, a prominent labor leader in San Francisco. He appeared on the scene in 1877 and led sandlot vigilantes that roamed the city beating Chinese and wrecking their businesses. Twice the seamen of the west coast had tried to organize a union, but were defeated. In 1875, the Seaman's Protective Association was established and began the struggle for wages and conditions on ships. The effort was joined by Henry George, editor of the San Francisco Post. The legislative struggle to enforce laws against brutal ship's captains and the requirement that two-thirds of sailors be Americans was proposed and the effort was carried for thirty years by Andrew Furuseth and the Sailors' Union of the Pacific after 1908, and the International Seamen's Union of America. The Coast's Seamen's Journal was founded in 1887, for years the most important labor journal in California. Concurrently, waterfront organizing led to the Maritime Federation of the Pacific. see: History of California 1900 to present.

32

Labor politics and the rise of Nativism

Thousands of Chinese men arrived in California to work as laborers, recruited by industry as low wage workers. Over time, conflicts in the gold fields and cities created prejudices between white and Chinese laborers. During the decade long depression after the rranscontinental railroad was completed, white workers began to lay blame on the Chinese laborers. Many Chinese were expelled from the mine fields. Some returned to China after the Central Pacific was built. Those who stayed mostly moved to the Chinatown in San Francisco and a few other cities, where they were relatively safe from violent attacks they suffered elsewhere. From 1850 through 1900, anti-Chinese nativist sentiment resulted in the passage of innumerable laws, many of which remained in effect well into the middle of the 20th century. The most flagrant episode was probably the creation and ratification of a new state constitution in 1879. Thanks to vigorous lobbying by the anti-Chinese Workingmen's Party, led by Denis Kearney (an immigrant from Ireland), Article XIX, Section 4 forbade corporations from hiring Chinese "coolies", and empowered all California cities and counties to completely expel Chinese persons or to limit where they could reside. The law was repealed in 1952. The 1879 constitutional convention also dispatched a message to Congress pleading for strong immigration restrictions, which led to the passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882. The Act was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1889, and it would not be repealed by Congress until 1943. Similar sentiments led to the development of the Gentlemen's Agreement with Japan, by which Japan voluntarily agreed to restrict emigration to the United States. California also passed an Alien Land Act which barred aliens, especially Asians, from holding title to land. Because it was difficult for people born in Asia to obtain U.S. citizenship until the 1960s, land ownership titles were held by their American-born children, who were full citizens. The law was overturned by the California Supreme Court as unconstitutional in 1952. In 1886, when a Chinese laundry owner challenged the constitutionality of a San Francisco ordinance clearly designed to drive Chinese laundries out of business, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in his favor, and in doing so, laid

History of California to 1899 the theoretical foundation for modern equal protection constitutional law. See Yick Wo v. Hopkins, 118 U.S. 356 (1886). Meanwhile, even with severe restrictions on Asian immigration, tensions between unskilled workers and wealthy landowners persisted up to and through the Great Depression. Novelist Jack London writes of the struggles of workers in the city of Oakland in his visionary classic, Valley of the Moon, a title evoking the pristine situation of Sonoma County between sea and mountains, Redwoods and Oaks, fog and sunshine.

33

Rise of the railroads

The establishment of America's transcontinental rail lines permanently linked California to the rest of the country, and the far-reaching transportation systems that grew out of them during the century that followed contributed immeasurably to the states unrivaled social, political, and economic development.

Notes
[1] Before California: An archaeologist looks at our earliest inhabitants (http:/ / www. powells. com/ cgi-bin/ biblio?inkey=2-0742527948-1) (http:/ / worldhistoryforusall. sdsu. edu/ dev/ units/ two/ landscape/ 02_landscape1. pdf#search="susan fagan 13,000 years") See Map of California Tribes (http:/ / www. californiaprehistory. com/ tribmap. html). [2] U.S. National Park Service official website about Juan Cabrillo. (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ archive/ cabr/ juan. html) (retrieved 2006-12-18) [3] The records of the voyage that included the precise locations of Drake's exploration in California were lost in the Whitehall Palace fire of 1698. The general consensus for Drake's Port is somewhere in or around San Francisco Bay. The Drake's Plate of Brass of 1936 was a hoax. [4] Information from Monterey County Museum about Vizcaino's voyage and Monterey landing (http:/ / www. mchsmuseum. com/ coastalnav. html) (retrieved 2006-12-18); Summary of Vizcaino expedition diary (http:/ / www. americanjourneys. org/ aj-002/ summary/ index. asp) (retrieved 2006-12-18] [5] "The French In Early California" (http:/ / www. ancestry. myfamily. com/ learn/ library/ article. aspx?article=808). Ancestry Magazine. . Retrieved March 24, 2006. [6] Hackel, Steven W., Children of Coyote, Missionaries of Saint Francis: Indian-Spanish Relations in Colonial California (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2005) [7] http:/ / www. fortrossinterpretive. org/ FortRossCulturalHistory. php [8] etext (http:/ / etext. lib. virginia. edu/ toc/ modeng/ public/ DanTwoy. html) [9] Bancroft, Hubert Howe (18841890) History of California, v.4, The works of Hubert Howe Bancroft, complete text online (http:/ / www. 1st-hand-history. org/ Hhb/ HHBindex. htm), p.260 [10] Exploration du territoire de lOrgon, des Californies et de la mer Vermeille, excute pendant les annes 1840, 1841 et 1842..., Paris: Arthus Bertrand, 1844 [11] Bancroft, Hubert Howe (18841890) History of California, v.4, The works of Hubert Howe Bancroft, complete text online (http:/ / www. 1st-hand-history. org/ Hhb/ HHBindex. htm), p.263273. [12] "Captain John Charles Fremont and the Bear Flag Revolt" (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ fremont. html). California State Military Museum. . [13] http:/ / www. learncalifornia. org/ doc. asp?id=1934 [14] http:/ / americanhistory. about. com/ library/ weekly/ aa090901a. htm [15] Richard B. Rice et al., The Elusive Eden (1988) 191-95 [16] Michael DiLeo, Eleanor Smith, Two Californias: The Truth about the Split-state Movement, Island Press, Covelo, California, 1983. pg. 9-30. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=OEqiYRm-ohMC& pg=PA27& lpg=PA27) Nearly 75% of voters in the proposed Territory of Colorado voted for separate status. [17] The Quarterly, Volumes 5-6 By Historical Society of Southern California, Los Angeles County Pioneers of Southern California (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=WCMLAAAAIAAJ& pg=RA1-PA223#v=onepage& q=& f=false)

History of California to 1899

34

References
Surveys
Hubert Howe Bancroft. The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft, (http://www.1st-hand-history.org/Hhb/ HHBindex.htm) vol 18-24, History of California to 1890; complete text online; written in the 1880s, this is the most detailed history, Robert W. Cherny, Richard Griswold del Castillo, and Gretchen Lemke-Santangelo. Competing Visions: A History of California (2005), new textbook Gutierrez, Ramon A. and Richard J. Orsi (ed.) Contested Eden: California before the Gold Rush (1998), essays by scholars Carolyn Merchant, ed. Green Versus Gold: Sources In California's Environmental History (1998) readings in primary and secondary sources Rawls, James and Walton Bean (2003). California: An Interpretive History. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. ISBN0-07-052411-4. 8th edition of standard textbook Rice, Richard B., William A. Bullough, and Richard J. Orsi. Elusive Eden: A New History of California 3rd ed (2001), standard textbook Rolle, Andrew F. . California: A History 6th ed. (2003), standard textbook Starr, Kevin California: A History (2005), interpretive history Sucheng, Chan, and Spencer C. Olin, eds. Major Problems in California History (1996), primary and secondary documents

to 1846
Beebe (ed.), Rose Marie; Senkewicz, Robert M. (ed.) (2001). Lands of promise and despair; chronicles of early California, 15351846. Santa Clara, Calif.: Santa Clara University., primary sources Camphouse, M. (1974). Guidebook to the Missions of California. Anderson, Ritchie & Simon, Los Angeles, CA. ISBN0-378-03792-7. Chartkoff, Joseph L.; Chartkoff, Kerry Kona (1984). The archaeology of California. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Charles E. Chapman; A History of California: The Spanish Period Macmillan, 1991 (http://www.questia.com/ PM.qst?a=o&d=90632678) Dillon, Richard (1975). Siskiyou Trail. New York: McGraw Hill. Fagan, Brian (2003). Before California: An archaeologist looks at our earliest inhabitants. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Heizer, Robert F. (1974). The destruction of California Indians. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Albert L. Hurtado, John Sutter: A Life on the North American Frontier (2006) University of Oklahoma Press, 416 pp.ISBN 0-8061-3772-X. Johnson, P., ed. (1964). The California Missions. Lane Book Company, Menlo Park, CA. McLean, James (2000). California Sabers. Indiana University Press (http://www.indiana.edu/~iupress/). Kent Lightfoot. Indians, Missionaries, and Merchants: The Legacy of Colonial Encounters on the California Frontiers (2004) Moorhead, Max L. (1991). The Presidio: Bastion Of The Spanish Borderlands. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, OK. ISBN0-8061-2317-6. Moratto, Michael J.; Fredrickson, David A. (1984). California archaeology. Orlando: Academic Press. Utley, Robert M. (1997). A life wild and perilous; mountain men and the paths to the Pacific. New York: Henry Holt and Co.. Wright, R. (1950). California's Missions. Hubert A. and Martha H. Lowman, Arroyo Grande, CA.

History of California to 1899 Young, S., and Levick, M. (1988). The Missions of California. Chronicle Books LLC, San Francisco, CA. ISBN0-8118-1938-8.

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18461900
Brands, H.W. (2003). The Age of Gold: The California Gold Rush and the New American Dream. Burchell, Robert A. "The Loss of a Reputation; or, The Image of California in Britain before 1875," California Historical Quarterly 53 (Summer I974): 115-30, stories about Gold Rush lawlessness slowed immigration for two decades Burns, John F. and Richard J. Orsi, eds; Taming the Elephant: Politics, Government, and Law in Pioneer California University of California Press, 2003 (http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=105960680) Drager, K., and Fracchia, C. (1997). The Golden Dream: California from Gold Rush to Statehood. Graphic Arts Center Publishing Company, Portland, OR. ISBN1-55868-312-7. Hunt, Aurora (1951). Army of the Pacific. Arthur Clark Company (http://www.ahclark.com/publications/ backlist.html). Jelinek, Lawrence. Harvest Empire: A History of California Agriculture (1982) (ISBN 0-87835-131-0) McAfee, Ward (1973). California's Railroad Era, 18501911. Olin, Spencer. California Politics, 18461920 (1981) Pitt, Leonard (1966). The Decline of the Californios: A Social History of the Spanish-Speaking Californians, 18461890. ISBN0-520-01637-8. Saxton, Alexander (1971). The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California. ISBN0-520-02905-4. Starr, Kevin (1986). Americans and the California Dream, 18501915. Starr, Kevin; Richard J. Orsi eds. (2001). Rooted in Barbarous Soil: People, Culture, and Community in Gold Rush California. Strobridge, William F. (1994). Regulars in the Redwoods, The U.S. Army in Northern California, 18521861. Arthur Clark Company (http://www.ahclark.com/publications/backlist.html). Tutorow, Norman E. (1971). Leland Stanford Man of Many Careers. Williams, R. Hal (1973). The Democratic Party and California Politics, 18801896.

External links
An Act for the Admission of the State of California into the Union (http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=009/llsl009.db&recNum=479), 31st Cong., Sess. I, Ch. 50, September 9, 1850 Gold, Greed & Genocide (http://www.1849.org/index2.html) "California as I Saw It:" First-Person Narratives of California's Early Years, 18491900 (http://memory.loc. gov/ammem/cbhtml/) Library of Congress American Memory Project "Snakes in the Grass: Copperheads in Contra Costa?" (http://www.cocohistory.com/essays-copperheads.html) article by William Mero at the Contra Costa County Historical Society official website. The French in Early California (http://www.ancestry.myfamily.com/learn/library/article.aspx?article=808) The Bear Flag Museum (http://www.bearflagmuseum.org/) Bancroft History of California Vol V. Bear Flag Revolt (http://www.bearflagmuseum.org/BancroftIntroTOC. html) http://nchs.ucla.edu/

California Gold Rush

36

California Gold Rush

The California Gold Rush (18481855) began on January 24, 1848, when gold was found by James W. Marshall at Sutter's Mill in Coloma, California.[1] The first to hear confirmed information of the gold rush were the people in Oregon, the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii), and Latin America, who were the first to start flocking to the state in late 1848. All in all, the news of gold brought some 300,000 people to California from the rest of the United States and abroad.[2] Of the 300,000, approximately half arrived by sea and half came from the east overland on the California Trail and the Gila River trail.

Sailing to California at the beginning of the Gold Rush

The gold-seekers, called "forty-niners" (as a reference to 1849), often faced substantial hardships on the trip. While most of the newly arrived were Americans, the Gold Rush attracted tens of thousands from Latin America, Europe, Australia, and China. At first, the gold nuggets could be picked up off the ground. Later, gold was recovered from streams and riverbeds using simple techniques, such as panning. More sophisticated methods were developed and later adopted elsewhere. At its peak, technological advances reached a point where significant financing was required, increasing the proportion of gold companies to individual miners. Gold worth tens of billions of today's dollars was recovered, which led to great wealth for a few. However, many returned home with little more than they had started with. The effects of the Gold Rush were substantial. San Francisco grew from a small settlement of about 200 residents in 1846 to a boomtown of about 36,000 by 1852. Roads, churches, schools and other towns were built throughout California. In 1849 a state constitution was written, a governor and legislature chosen and California became a state in 1850 as part of the Compromise of 1850 which divided possible US territories into free and slave states. New methods of transportation developed as steamships came into regular service. By 1869 railroads were built across the country from California to the eastern United States. Agriculture and ranching expanded throughout the state to meet the needs of the settlers. At the beginning of the Gold Rush, there was no law regarding property rights in the goldfields and a system of "staking claims" was developed. The Gold Rush also had negative effects: Native Americans were attacked and pushed off their lands and the mining has caused environmental harm. An estimated 100,000 California Indians died between 1848 and 1868 as a result of American immigration.

California Gold Rush

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History
The California Gold Rush began at Sutter's Mill, near Coloma.[3] On January 24, 1848 John Marshall, a foreman working for Sacramento pioneer John Sutter, found shiny metal in the tailrace of a lumber mill Marshall was building for Sutter on the American River.[4] Marshall brought what he found to John Sutter, and the two privately tested the metal. After the tests showed that it was gold, Sutter expressed dismay: he wanted to keep the news quiet because he feared what would happen to his plans for an agricultural empire if there were a mass search for gold.[5] However, rumors soon started to spread and were confirmed in March 1848 by San Francisco newspaper publisher and merchant Samuel Brannan. The most famous quote of the California Gold Rush was by Brannan; after he had hurriedly set up a store to sell gold prospecting supplies,[6] Brannan strode through the streets of San Francisco, holding aloft a vial of gold, shouting "Gold! Gold! Gold from the American River!"[7]

California goldfields (yellow) in the Sierra Nevada and northern California

^ First announcement, San Francisco, 1848

Gold fields and sailing routes to California, 1849

At the time gold was discovered, California was part of the Mexican territory of Alta California, which was ceded to the U.S. after the end of the Mexican-American War with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo on February 2, 1848.

California Gold Rush On August 19, 1848, the New York Herald was the first major newspaper on the East Coast to report the discovery of gold. On December 5, 1848, President James Polk confirmed the discovery of gold in an address to Congress.[8] Soon, waves of immigrants from around the world, later called the "forty-niners", invaded the Gold Country of California or "Mother Lode". As Sutter had feared, he was ruined; his workers left in search of gold, and squatters took over his land and stole his crops and cattle.[9] San Francisco had been a tiny settlement before the rush began. When residents learned about the discovery, it at first became a ghost town of abandoned ships and businesses,[10] but then boomed as merchants and new people arrived. The population of San Francisco exploded from perhaps 1,000[11] in 1848 to 25,000 full-time residents by 1850.[12] Miners lived in tents, wood shanties, or deck cabins removed from abandoned ships.[13] Wherever gold was discovered, hundreds of miners would collaborate to put up a camp and stake their claims. With names like Rough and Ready and Hangtown (Placerville, California), each camp often had its own saloon and gambling house.[14] In what has been referred to as the "first world-class gold rush",[15] there was no easy way to get to California; forty-niners faced hardship and often death on the way. At first, most Argonauts, as they were also known, traveled by sea. From the East Coast, a sailing voyage around the tip of South America would take five to eight months,[16] and cover some 18,000nautical miles (33,000km). An alternative was to sail to the Atlantic side of the Isthmus of Panama, take canoes and mules for a week through the jungle, and then on the Pacific side, wait for a ship sailing for San Francisco.[17] There was also a route across Mexico starting at Veracruz. Many gold-seekers took the overland route across the continental United States, particularly along the California Trail.[18] Each of these routes had its own deadly hazards, from shipwreck to typhoid fever and cholera.[19] To meet the demands of the arrivals, ships bearing goods from around the world came to San Francisco as well. Ships' captains found that their crews deserted to go to the gold fields. The wharves and docks of San Francisco became a forest of masts, as hundreds of ships were abandoned. Enterprising San Franciscans turned the abandoned ships into warehouses, stores, taverns, hotels, and one into a jail.[20] Many of these ships were later destroyed and used for landfill to create more buildable land in the boomtown. Within a few years, there was an important but lesser-known surge of prospectors into far Northern California, specifically into present-day Siskiyou, Shasta and Trinity Counties.[21] Discovery of gold nuggets at the site of present-day Yreka in 1851 brought thousands of gold-seekers up the Siskiyou Trail[22] and throughout California's northern counties.[23] Settlements of the Gold Rush era, such as Portuguese Flat on the Sacramento River, sprang into existence and then faded. The Gold Rush town of Weaverville on the Trinity River today retains the oldest continuously used Taoist temple in Merchant ships fill San Francisco harbor, 1850-51 California, a legacy of Chinese miners who came. While there are not many Gold Rush era ghost towns still in existence, the remains of the once-bustling town of Shasta have been preserved in a California State Historic Park in Northern California.[24] Gold was also discovered in Southern California but on a much smaller scale. The first discovery of gold, at Rancho San Francisco in the mountains north of present-day Los Angeles, had been in 1842, six years before Marshall's discovery, while California was still part of Mexico.[25] However, these first deposits, and later discoveries in Southern California mountains, attracted little notice and were of limited consequence economically.[25] By 1850, most of the easily accessible gold had been collected, and attention turned to extracting gold from more difficult locations. Faced with gold increasingly difficult to retrieve, Americans began to drive out foreigners to get at the most accessible gold that remained. The new California State Legislature passed a foreign miners tax of twenty dollars per month ($530 per month as of 2011), and American prospectors began organized attacks on foreign

38

California Gold Rush miners, particularly Latin Americans and Chinese.[26] In addition, the huge numbers of newcomers were driving Native Americans out of their traditional hunting, fishing and food-gathering areas. To protect their homes and livelihood, some Native Americans responded by attacking the miners. This provoked counter-attacks on native villages. The Native Americans, out-gunned, were often slaughtered.[27] Those who escaped massacres were many times unable to survive without access to their food-gathering areas, and they starved to death. Novelist and poet Joaquin Miller vividly captured one such attack in his semi-autobiographical work, Life Amongst the Modocs.[28]

39

Forty-niners
The first people to rush to the gold fields, beginning in the spring of 1848, were the residents of California themselvesprimarily agriculturally oriented Americans and Europeans living in Northern California, along with Native Americans and some Californios (Spanish-speaking Californians).[29] These first miners tended to be families in which everyone helped in the effort. Women and children of all ethnicities were often found panning next to the men. Some enterprising families set up boarding houses to accommodate the influx of men; in such cases, the women often brought in steady income while their husbands searched for gold.[30] Word of the Gold Rush spread slowly at first. The earliest gold-seekers were people who lived near California or people who heard the news from ships on the fastest sailing routes from California. The first large Panning for gold on the Mokelumne River group of Americans to arrive were several thousand Oregonians who came down the Siskiyou Trail.[31] Next came people from the Sandwich Islands, and several thousand Latin Americans, including people from Mexico, from Peru and from as far away as Chile,[32] both by ship and overland.[33] By the end of 1848, some 6,000 Argonauts had come to California.[33] Only a small number (probably fewer than 500) traveled overland from the United States that year.[33] Some of these "forty-eighters",[34] as the earliest gold-seekers were sometimes called, were able to collect large amounts of easily accessible goldin some cases, thousands of dollars worth each day.[35] [36] Even ordinary prospectors averaged daily gold finds worth 10 to 15 times the daily wage of a laborer on the East Coast. A person could work for six months in the goldfields and find the equivalent of six years' wages back home.[37] Some hoped to get rich quick and return home, and others wished to start businesses in California. By the beginning of 1849, word of the Gold Rush had spread around the world, and an overwhelming number of gold-seekers and merchants began to arrive from virtually every continent. The largest group of forty-niners in 1849 were Americans, arriving by the tens of thousands overland across the continent and along various sailing routes[38] (the name "forty-niner" was derived from the year 1849). Many from the East Coast negotiated a crossing of the Appalachian Mountains, taking to riverboats in Pennsylvania, polling the keelboats to Missouri River wagon train assembly ports, and then travelling in a wagon train along the California Trail. Many others came by way of the Isthmus of Panama and the steamships of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company. Australians[39] and New Zealanders picked up the news from ships carrying Hawaiian newspapers, and thousands, infected with "gold fever", boarded ships for California.[40] Forty-niners came from Latin America, particularly from the Mexican mining districts near Sonora.[40] Gold-seekers and merchants from Asia, primarily from China,[41] began arriving in 1849, at first in modest numbers to Gum San ("Gold Mountain"), the name given to California in Chinese.[42] The first immigrants from Europe, reeling from the effects of the Revolutions of 1848 and with a longer distance to travel, began arriving in late 1849, mostly from France,[43] with some Germans, Italians, and Britons.[38] Most of these national groups arrived from seafaring, coastal regions.

California Gold Rush It is estimated that approximately 90,000 people arrived in California in 1849about half by land and half by sea.[44] Of these, perhaps 50,000 to 60,000 were Americans, and the rest were from other countries.[38] By 1855, it is estimated at least 300,000 gold-seekers, merchants, and other immigrants had arrived in California from around the world.[45] The largest group continued to be Americans, but there were tens of thousands each of Mexicans, Chinese, Britons, Australians[46] French, and Latin Americans,[47] together with many smaller groups of miners, such as Filipinos, Basques[48] and Turks.[49] People from small villages in the hills near Genova, Italy were among the first to settle permanently in the Sierra foothills; they brought with them traditional agricultural skills, developed to survive cold winters.[50] A modest number of miners of African ancestry (probably less than 4,000)[51] had come from the Southern States,[52] the Caribbean and Brazil.[53] A notable number of immigrants were from China. Several hundred Chinese arrived in California in 1849 and 1850, and in 1852 more than 20,000 landed in San Francisco.[54] Their distinctive dress and appearance was highly recognizable in the gold fields, and created a degree of animosity towards the Chinese.[54] There were also women in the Gold Rush. They held various roles including prostitutes, single entrepreneurs, married women, poor and wealthy women. They were of various ethnicities including Anglo-American, Hispanic, Native, European, Chinese, and Jewish. The reasons they came varied: some came with their husbands, refusing to be left behind to fend for themselves, some came because their husbands sent for them, and others came (singles and widows) for the adventure and economic opportunities.[55] On the trail many people died from accidents, cholera, fever, and myriad other causes, and many women became widows before even setting eyes on California. While in California, women became widows quite frequently due to mining accidents, disease, or mining disputes of their husbands. Life in the gold fields offered opportunities for women to break from their traditional work.[56] [57]

40

Legal rights
When the Gold Rush began, California was a peculiarly lawless place. On the day when gold was discovered at Sutter's Mill, California was still technically part of Mexico, under American military occupation as the result of the Mexican-American War. With the signing of the treaty ending the war on February 2, 1848, California became a possession of the United States, but it was not a formal "territory" and did not become a state until September 9, 1850. California existed in the unusual condition of a region under military control. There was no civil legislature, executive or judicial body for the entire region.[58] Local residents operated under a confusing and changing mixture of Mexican rules, American principles, and personal dictates. While the treaty ending the Mexican-American War obliged the United States to honor Mexican land grants,[59] almost all the goldfields were outside those grants. Instead, the goldfields were primarily on "public land", meaning land formally owned by the United States government.[60] However, there were no legal rules yet in place, and no practical enforcement mechanisms.[61]

California Gold Rush

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The benefit to the forty-niners was that the gold was simply "free for the taking" at first. In the goldfields at the beginning, there was no private property, no licensing fees, and no taxes.[62] [63] The miners informally adapted Mexican mining law which had existed in California.[64] For example, the rules attempted to balance the rights of early arrivers at a site with later arrivers; a "claim" could be "staked" by a prospector, but that claim was valid only as long as it was being actively worked.[65] [66] Miners worked at a claim only long enough to determine its potential. If a Gold miners excavate a river bed after the water has been diverted into a claim was deemed as low-valueas most sluice alongside the river wereminers would abandon the site in search for a better one. In the case where a claim was abandoned or not worked upon, other miners would "claim-jump" the land. "Claim-jumping" meant that a miner began work on a previously claimed site.[65] [66] Disputes were sometimes handled personally and violently, and were sometimes addressed by groups of prospectors acting as arbitrators.[60] [65] [66] This often led to heightened ethnic tensions.[67] In some areas the influx of many prospectors could lead to a reduction of the existing claim size by simple pressure.[68]

Development of gold recovery techniques

Because the gold in the California gravel beds was so richly concentrated, the early forty-niners simply panned for gold in California's rivers and streams, a form of placer mining.[69] However, panning cannot be done on a large scale, and industrious miners and groups of miners graduated to placer mining "cradles" and "rockers" or "long-toms"[70] to process larger volumes of gravel.[71] In the most complex placer mining, groups of prospectors would divert the water from an entire river into a sluice alongside the river, and then dig for gold in the newly exposed river bottom.[72] Modern estimates by the U.S. Geological Survey are that some 12 million ounces[73] (370t) of gold were removed in the first five years of the Gold Rush (worth over US$16billion at December 2010 prices).[74] In the next stage, by 1853, hydraulic mining was used on ancient gold-bearing gravel beds that were on hillsides and bluffs in the gold fields.[75] In a modern style of hydraulic mining first developed in California, a high-pressure hose directed a powerful stream or jet of water at gold-bearing gravel beds.[76] The loosened gravel and gold would then pass over sluices, with the gold settling to the bottom where it was collected. By the mid-1880s, it is estimated that 11 million ounces (340t) of gold (worth approximately US$15billion at December 2010 prices) had been recovered by "hydraulicking".[74] Gold miners excavate a gold-bearing bluff with This style of hydraulic mining later spread around the world. An jets of water at a placer mine in Dutch Flat, alternative to "hydraulicking" was "coyoteing".[77] This method California sometime between 1857 and 1870 involved digging a shaft 6 to 13 meters (20 to 40 feet) deep into bedrock along the shore of a stream. Tunnels were then dug in all directions to reach the richest veins of pay dirt. A byproduct of these extraction methods was that large amounts of gravel, silt, heavy metals, and other pollutants went into streams and rivers.[78] Many areas still bear the scars of hydraulic mining since the resulting exposed earth and downstream gravel deposits are unable to support plant life.[79]

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After the Gold Rush had concluded, gold recovery operations continued. The final stage to recover loose gold was to prospect for gold that had slowly washed down into the flat river bottoms and sandbars of California's Central Valley and other gold-bearing areas of California (such as Scott Valley in Siskiyou County). By the late 1890s, dredging technology (which was also invented in California) had become economical,[80] and it is estimated that more than 20million ounces (620t) were recovered by dredging (worth approximately US$28billion at December 2010 prices).[74] Both during the Gold Rush and in the decades that followed, Quartz Stamp Mill in Grass Valley crushes the quartz before the gold is washed out gold-seekers also engaged in "hard-rock" mining, that is, extracting the gold directly from the rock that contained it (typically quartz), usually by digging and blasting to follow and remove veins of the gold-bearing quartz.[81] By 1851, quartz mining had become the major industry of Coloma.[82] Once the gold-bearing rocks were brought to the surface, the rocks were crushed, and the gold was separated out (using moving water), or leached out, typically by using arsenic or mercury (another source of environmental contamination).[83] Eventually, hard-rock mining wound up being the single largest source of gold produced in the Gold Country.[74] [84]

Profits
Recent scholarship confirms that merchants made far more money than miners during the Gold Rush.[85] [86] The wealthiest man in California during the early years of the Gold Rush was Samuel Brannan, the tireless self-promoter, shopkeeper and newspaper publisher.[87] Brannan opened the first supply stores in Sacramento, Coloma, and other spots in the gold fields. Just as the Gold Rush began, he purchased all the prospecting supplies available in San Francisco and re-sold them at a substantial profit.[87] However, substantial money was made by some gold-seekers as well. For example, within a few months, one small group of prospectors, working on the Feather River in 1848, retrieved a sum of gold worth more than $3 million by 2010 prices.[88]

A man leans over a wooden sluice. Rocks line the outside of the wood boards that create the sluice

On average, half the gold-seekers made a modest profit, after all expenses were taken into account. Most, however, especially those arriving later, made little or wound up losing money.[89] Similarly, many unlucky merchants set up in settlements that disappeared, or were wiped out in one of the calamitous fires that swept the towns springing up. By contrast, a businessman who went on to great success was Levi Strauss, who first began selling denim overalls in San Francisco in 1853.[90] Other businessmen, through good fortune and hard work, reaped great rewards in retail, shipping, entertainment, lodging,[91] or transportation.[92] Boardinghouses, food preparation, sewing, and laundry were highly profitable businesses often run by women (married, single, or widowed) who realized men would pay well for a service done by a woman. Brothels also brought in large profits, especially when combined with saloons and gaming houses.[93] By 1855, the economic climate had changed dramatically. Gold could be retrieved profitably from the goldfields only by medium to large groups of workers, either in partnerships or as employees. By the mid-1850s, it was the owners of these gold-mining companies who made the money. Also, the population and economy of California had become large and diverse enough that money could be made in a wide variety of conventional businesses.[94]

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Path of the gold

Once extracted, the gold itself took many paths. First, much of the gold was used locally to purchase food, supplies and lodging for the miners. It also went towards entertainment, which consisted of anything from a traveling theater to alcohol, gambling, and prostitutes. These transactions often took place using the recently recovered gold, carefully weighed out.[95] These merchants and vendors, in turn, used the gold to Portsmouth Square, San Francisco, 1851 purchase supplies from ship captains or packers bringing goods [96] to California. The gold then left California aboard ships or mules to go to the makers of the goods from around the world. A second path was the Argonauts themselves who, having personally acquired a sufficient amount, sent the gold home, or returned home taking with them their hard-earned "diggings". For example, one estimate is that some US$80million worth of California gold was sent to France by French prospectors and merchants.[97] As the Gold Rush progressed, local banks and gold dealers issued "banknotes" or "drafts"locally accepted paper currencyin exchange for gold,[98] and private mints created private gold coins.[99] With the building of the San Francisco Mint in 1854, gold bullion was turned into official United States gold coins for circulation.[100] The gold was also later sent by California banks to U.S. national banks in exchange for national paper currency to be used in the booming California economy.[101]

Near-term effects
The arrival of hundreds of thousands of new people within a few years, compared to a population of some 15,000Europeans and Californios beforehand,[102] had many dramatic effects.[103]

Development of government and commerce

The Gold Rush propelled California from a sleepy, little-known backwater to a center of the global imagination and the destination of hundreds of thousands of people. The new immigrants often showed remarkable inventiveness and civic-mindedness. For example, in the midst of the Gold Rush, towns and cities were chartered, a state constitutional convention was convened, a state constitution written, elections held, and representatives sent to Washington, D.C. A forty-niner peers into his gold pan to negotiate the admission of California as a state.[104] Large-scale agriculture [105] [106] on the banks of the American River (California's second "Gold Rush" ) began during this time. Roads, schools, churches,[107] and civic organizations quickly came into existence.[104] The vast majority of the immigrants were Americans.[108] Pressure grew for better communications and political connections to the rest of the United States, leading to statehood for California on September 9, 1850, in the Compromise of 1850 as the 31st state of the United States. Between 1847 and 1870, the population of San Francisco increased from 500 to 150,000.[109] The Gold Rush wealth and population increase led to significantly improved transportation between California and the East Coast. The Panama Railway, spanning the Isthmus of Panama, was finished in 1855.[110] Steamships, including those owned by the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, began regular service from San Francisco to Panama, where passengers, goods and mail would take the train across the Isthmus and board steamships headed to the East Coast. One ill-fated journey, that of the S.S. Central America,[111] ended in disaster as the ship sank in a hurricane off the coast of the Carolinas in 1857, with approximately three tons of California gold aboard.[112] [113]

California Gold Rush Within California, the first steamship, the SS California (1848), showed up on February 28, 1849. Soon steamships were carrying miners the 125 miles (201km) up the Sacramento River to Sacramento, California.

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Negative impact
The human and environmental costs of the Gold Rush were substantial. Native Americans, dependent on traditional hunting, gathering and agriculture, became the victims of starvation, as gravel, silt and toxic chemicals from prospecting operations killed fish and destroyed habitats.[78] [79] The surge in the mining population also resulted in the disappearance of game and food gathering locales as gold camps and other settlements were built amidst them. Later farming spread to supply the camps, taking more land from the use of Native Americans. Starvation often provoked the Native tribes to steal or take by force food and livestock from the miners, increasing miner hostility and provoking retaliation against them.

Attack by Native Americans on miners' settlement

Native Americans also succumbed in large numbers to introduced diseases such as smallpox, influenza and measles. Some estimates indicate case fatality rates of 8090% in Native American populations during smallpox epidemics.[114] By far the most destructive element of the Gold Rush on California Indians was the violence practiced on them by miners and settlers. Miners often saw Native Americans as competition for finding gold or as impediments to their mining activities. Far from women of their own and free from their own justice system, sexual assaults on Native women were quite common. Retribution attacks on solitary miners would result in large scale massacres of Indian populaitons without regard for age or sex by fearful or outraged miners such as the Bloody Island Massacre. As seen in events like the Bridge Gulch Massacre these "attacks of reprisal" often targeted tribes or villages completely innocent of the original act. The Act for the Government and Protection of Indians,[115] passed on April 22, 1850 by the California Legislature, allowed settlers to continue the Californio practice of capturing and using Native people as bonded workers. It also provided the basis for the enslavement and trafficking in Native American labor, particularly that of young women and children, which was carried on as a legal business enterprise. Native American villages were regularly raided to supply the demand, and young women and children were carried off to be sold, the men and remaining people often being killed in genocidal attacks.[116] According to the government of California, some 4,500 Native Americans suffered violent deaths between 1849 and 1870.[117] The Gold Rush thus turned into a virtual "reign of terror" against tribespeople in or near mining districts. [118] Despite resistance in various conflicts, the Native American population in California, estimated at 150,000 in 1845, had dropped to less than 30,000 by 1870.[119] (The pre-European population of Native Americans, estimated at 310,000, had already been decimated by Spanish colonization and colonial mission practices, including diseases carried by the European settlers.) The factors of disease, however does not minimize the tone of racial violence directed towards California Indians. Peter Burnett, California's first governor declared that California was a battleground between the races and that there were only two options towards California Indians, extinction or removal. California, apart from legalizing slavery for Native Americans also directly paid out $25,000 in bounties for Indian scalps with varying prices for adult male, adult female and child sizes. California with a consortium of other new Western states stood in opposition of ratifying the eighteen treaties signed between tribal leaders and federal agents in 1851. [120]

California Gold Rush After the initial boom had ended, explicitly anti-foreign and racist attacks, laws, and confiscatory taxes sought to drive out foreigners from the mines, especially the Chinese and Latin American immigrants mostly from Sonora, Mexico and Chile.[54] [121] The toll on the American immigrants could be severe as well: one in twelve forty-niners perished, as the death and crime rates during the Gold Rush were extraordinarily high, and the resulting vigilantism also took its toll.[122]

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World-wide economic stimulation

The Gold Rush stimulated economies around the world as well. Farmers in Chile, Australia, and Hawaii found a huge new market for their food; British manufactured goods were in high demand; clothing and even prefabricated houses arrived from China.[123] The return of large amounts of California gold to pay for these goods raised prices and stimulated investment and the creation of jobs around the world.[124] Australian prospector Edward Hargraves, noting similarities between the geography of California and his home, returned to Australia to discover gold and spark the Australian gold rushes.[125] Within a few years after the end of the Gold Rush, in 1863, the groundbreaking ceremony for the western leg of the First Transcontinental Railroad was held in Sacramento. The line's completion, some six years later, financed in part with Gold Rush money,[126] united California with the central and eastern United States. Travel that had taken weeks or even months could now be accomplished in days.[127]

Longer-term effects
California's name became indelibly connected with the Gold Rush, and fast success in a new world became known as the "California Dream."[128] California was perceived as a place of new beginnings, where great wealth could reward hard work and good luck. Historian H. W. Brands noted that in the years after the Gold Rush, the California Dream spread across the nation:

Seal of California

"The old American Dream . . . was the dream of the Puritans, of Benjamin Franklin's "Poor Richard" . . . of men and women content to accumulate their modest fortunes a little at a time, year by year by year. The new dream was the dream of instant wealth, won in a twinkling [129] by audacity and good luck. [This] golden dream . . . became a prominent part of the American psyche only after Sutter's Mill."

Overnight California gained the international reputation as the "golden state".[130] Generations of immigrants have been attracted by the California Dream. California farmers,[131] oil drillers,[132] movie makers,[133] airplane builders,[134] and "dot-com" entrepreneurs have each had their boom times in the decades after the Gold Rush.[135] The literary history of the Gold Rush is reflected in the works of Mark Twain (The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County), Bret Harte (A Millionaire of Rough-and-Ready), Joaquin Miller (Life Amongst the Modocs), and many others.[28] [136] Included among the modern legacies of the California Gold Rush are the California state motto, "Eureka" ("I have found it"), Gold Rush images on the California State Seal,[137] and the state nickname, "The Golden State", as well

California Gold Rush as place names, such as Placer County, Rough and Ready, Placerville (formerly named "Dry Diggings" and then "Hangtown" during rush time), Whiskeytown, Drytown, Angels Camp, Happy Camp, and Sawyers Bar. The San Francisco 49ers National Football League team, and the similarly named athletic teams of California State University, Long Beach, are named for the prospectors of the California Gold Rush. Today, aptly named State Route 49 travels through the Sierra Nevada foothills, connecting many Gold Rush-era towns such as Placerville, Auburn, Grass Valley, Nevada City, Coloma, Jackson, and Sonora.[138] This state highway also passes very near Columbia State Historic Park, a protected area encompassing the historic business district of the town of Columbia; the park has preserved many Gold Rush-era buildings, which are presently occupied by tourist-oriented businesses.

46

Geology
Global forces operating over hundreds of millions of years resulted in the large concentration of gold in California. Only concentration makes gold economically recoverable. Some 400million years ago, California lay at the bottom of a large sea; underwater volcanoes deposited lava and minerals (including gold) onto the sea floor. Beginning about 200million years ago, tectonic pressure forced the sea floor beneath the American continental Gold-bearing magma rising after being subducted under the continental crust mass.[139] As it sank, or subducted, below today's California, the sea floor melted into very large molten masses (magma). This hot magma forced its way upward under the future California, cooling as it rose,[140] and as it solidified, veins of gold formed within fields of quartz.[140] [141] These minerals and rocks came to the surface of the Sierra Nevada,[142] and eroded. Water carried the exposed gold downstream and deposited it in quiet gravel beds along the sides of old rivers and streams.[143] The forty-niners first focused their efforts on these deposits of gold, which had been gathered in the gravel beds by hundreds of millions of years of geologic action.[144] [145]

Notes
[1] "[E]vents from January 1848 through December 1855 [are] generally acknowledged as the 'Gold Rush'. After 1855, California gold mining changed and is outside the 'rush' era." "The Gold Rush of California: A Bibliography of Periodical Articles" (http:/ / library. csustan. edu/ bsantos/ goldrush/ GoldTOC. htm). California State University, Stanislaus. 2002. . Retrieved 2008-01-23. [2] "California Gold Rush, 1848-1864" (http:/ / www. learncalifornia. org/ doc. asp?id=118). Learn California.org, a site designed for the California Secretary of State. . Retrieved 2011-08-22. [3] For a detailed map, see California Historic Gold Mines (http:/ / www. consrv. ca. gov/ CGS/ minerals/ images/ Big_AUMap. pdf), published by the State of California. Retrieved 2006-12-03. [4] Bancroft, Hubert Howe (1889). History of California, Volume 23: 18431850 (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ bancrohistofcali23huberich/ bancrohistofcali23huberich_djvu. txt). San Francisco: The History Company. pp.3234. . [5] Bancroft, Hubert Howe (1888), pp. 3941. [6] Holliday, J. S. (1999). Rush for riches; gold fever and the making of California. Oakland, California, Berkeley and Los Angeles: Oakland Museum of California and University of California Press. p.60. [7] Bancroft, Hubert Howe (1888), pp. 5556. [8] Starr, Kevin (2005). California: a history. New York: The Modern Library. p.80. [9] Bancroft, Hubert Howe (1888), pp. 103105. [10] Bancroft, Hubert Howe (1888), pp. 5960. [11] Holliday, J. S. (1999), p. 51 ("800 residents"). [12] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard J. (eds.) (1999). A golden state: mining and economic development in Gold Rush California (California History Sesquicentennial Series, 2). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. p.187. [13] Holliday, J. S. (1999), p. 126. [14] "A Golden Dream? A Look at Mining Communities in the 1849 Gold Rush" (http:/ / www. sell-oldgold. com/ articles/ Mining-Communities-in-the-1849-Gold-Rush. pdf). Sell-oldgold.com, an educational resource for historical gold, silver, and coin information. . Retrieved 2009-07-27.

California Gold Rush

[15] Hill, Mary (1999), p. 1. [16] Brands, H. W. (2003). The age of gold: the California Gold Rush and the new American dream. New York: Anchor (reprint ed.). pp.103121. [17] Brands, H. W. (2003), pp. 7585. Another route across Nicaragua was developed in 1851; it was not as popular as the Panama option. Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), pp. 252253. [18] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), p. 5. [19] Holliday, J. S. (1999), pp. 101, 107. [20] Starr, Kevin (2005), p. 80; "Shipping is the Foundation of San Francisco Literally" (http:/ / www. museumca. org/ goldrush/ getin-pr01. html). Oakland Museum of California. 1998. . Retrieved 2006-12-06. [21] Bancroft, Hubert Howe (1888), pp. 363366. [22] Dillon, Richard (1975). Siskiyou Trail. New York: McGraw Hill.pp. 361362. [23] Wells, Harry L. (1881). History of Siskiyou County, California. Oakland, California: D.J. Stewart & Co.. pp.6064. [24] The buildings of Bodie, the best-known ghost town in California, date from the 1870s and later, well after the end of the Gold Rush. [25] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard J. (eds.) (1999), p. 3. [26] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), p. 9. [27] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), p. 8. [28] Miller, Joaquin (1873). Life amongst the Modocs: unwritten history. Berkeley: Heyday Books; reprint edition (January 1996). On-line version of book (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=w8IFAAAAQAAJ& printsec=frontcover& dq=joaquin+ miller) [29] Brands, H. W. (2003), pp. 4346. [30] Moynihan, Ruth B., Armitage, Susan, and Dichamp, Christiane Fischer (eds.) (1990). So Much to Be Done. Lincoln: U Nebraska, p. 3 [31] Starr, Kevin and Orsi, Richard J. (eds.) (2000). Rooted in barbarous soil: people, culture, and community in Gold Rush California. Berkeley and Los Angeles: Univ. of California Press. pp.5054. [32] Brands, H. W. (2003), pp. 4853. [33] Starr, Kevin and Orsi, Richard J. (eds.) (2000), pp. 5054. [34] Caughey, John Walton (1975). The California Gold Rush (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=CLMJ1oLlhXQC& pg=PA17). University of California Press. p.17. ISBN0-520-02763-9. . Retrieved May 12, 2010. [35] Brands, H. W. (2003), pp. 197202. [36] Holliday, J. S. (1999) p. 63. Holliday notes these luckiest prospectors were recovering, in short amounts of time, gold worth in excess of $1million when valued at the dollars of today. [37] Starr, Kevin and Orsi, Richard J. (eds.) (2000), p. 28. [38] Starr, Kevin and Orsi, Richard J. (eds.) (2000), pp. 5761. [39] Brands, H. W. (2003), pp. 5361. [40] Starr, Kevin and Orsi, Richard J. (eds.) (2000), pp. 5356. [41] Brands, H. W. (2003), pp. 6164. [42] Magagnini, Stephen (January 18, 1998)" Chinese transformed 'Gold Mountain' (http:/ / www. calgoldrush. com/ part3/ 03asians. html)", The Sacramento Bee. Retrieved 2009-10-22. [43] Brands, H. W. (2003), pp. 93103. [44] Starr, Kevin and Orsi, Richard J. (eds.) (2000), pp. 5761. Other estimates range from 70,000 to 90,000 arrivals during 1849 (ibid. p. 57). [45] Starr, Kevin and Orsi, Richard J. (eds.) (2000), p. 25. [46] Exploration and Settlement (John Bull and Uncle Sam) (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ exhibits/ british/ brit-1. html) [47] Brands, H. W. (2003), pp. 193194. [48] Starr, Kevin and Orsi, Richard J. (eds.) (2000), p. 62. [49] Gold Rush: Background (http:/ / www. isu. edu/ ~trinmich/ prback. html) [50] Freguli, Carolyn. (eds.) (2008), pp.89. [51] Another estimate is 2,500 forty-niners of African ancestry. Rawls, James, J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), p. 5. [52] African Americans who were slaves and came to California during the Gold Rush could gain their freedom (http:/ / sfgate. com/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi?f=/ c/ a/ 2007/ 01/ 27/ BAG8ANQ1OG1. DTL). One of the miners was African American Edmond Edward Wysinger (1816-1891), see also Moses Rodgers (1835-1900) [53] Starr, Kevin and Orsi, Richard J. (eds.) (2000), pp. 6769. [54] Out of Many, 5th Edition Volume 1, Faragher 2006 (p.411) [55] Moynihan, Ruth B., Armitage, Susan, and Dichamp, Christiane Fischer (eds.) (1990), pp. 3-8 [56] Levy, Joann (1992). They saw the elephant: Women in the California Gold Rush. Archon:N.p., pp. xxii, 92 [57] By one account, in late 1850, the population of California was over 110,000, not including the Californios or the California Indians. The surviving U.S. census counts in California add up to 92,600, not including the lost censuses of San Francisco (the largest city in California at that time), Contra Costa county and Santa Clara County. The women who came to California in the early years were a distinct minority, consisting of less than 10% of the population. [58] Holliday, J. S. (1999), pp. 115123. [59] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), p. 235. [60] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), pp. 123125.

47

California Gold Rush

[61] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), p.127. There were fewer than 1,000 U.S. soldiers in California at the beginning of the Gold Rush. [62] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), p. 27. [63] The federal law in place at the time of the California Gold Rush was the Preemption Act of 1841, which allowed "squatters" to improve federal land, then buy it from the government after 14 months. [64] Paul, Rodman W. (1947) California Gold, Lincoln: Univ. Nebraska Press, p.211213. [65] Clay, Karen and Wright, Gavin. (2005), pp. 155183. [66] Clappe, Louise Amelia Knapp Smith (ed. 2001). The Shirley Letters from the California Mines, 1851-1852 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=lQ6ekLo9SHEC& dq=dame shirley& pg=PP1#v=onepage& q). Heyday Books, Berkeley, California. p.109. ISBN1-890771-00-7. . Retrieved July 31, 2010. Dame Shirley was the name adopted by Louise Amelia Knapp Smith Clappe as she wrote a series of letters to her family describing in detail her life in the Feather River goldfields. The letters were originally published in 1854-1855 by The Pioneer magazine. [67] The rules of mining claims adopted by the forty-niners spread with each new mining rush throughout the western United States. The U.S. Congress finally legalized the practice in the "Chaffee laws" of 1866 and the "placer law" of 1870. Lindley, Curtis H. (1914) A Treatise on the American Law Relating to Mines and Mineral Lands, San Francisco: Bancroft-Whitney, p.8992. Karen Clay and Gavin Wright, "Order Without Law? Property Rights During the California Gold Rush." Explorations in Economic History 2005 42(2): 155-183. See also John F. Burns, and Richard J. Orsi, eds; Taming the Elephant: Politics, Government, and Law in Pioneer California University of California Press, 2003 (http:/ / www. questia. com/ PM. qst?a=o& d=105960680) [68] Information Sharing During the Klondike Gold Rush, p. 13-14. (http:/ / www. sfu. ca/ ~allen/ klondike. pdf) DOUGLAS W. ALLEN, Simon Fraser University [69] Brands, H. W. (2003), pp. 198200. [70] Images and detailed description of placer mining tools and techniques (http:/ / www. goldrushtrail. net/ indexgrt. asp?p=230); image of a long tom (http:/ / library. state. ak. us/ goldrush/ ARCHIVES/ MUSEUM/ Lon271. htm) [71] Bancroft, Hubert Howe (1888), pp. 8788. [72] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), p. 90. [73] The Troy weight system is traditionally used to measure precious metals, not the more familiar avoirdupois weight system. The term "ounces" used in this article to refer to gold typically refers to troy ounces. There are some historical uses where, because of the age of the use, the intention is ambiguous. [74] Mining History and Geology of the Mother Lode (http:/ / virtual. yosemite. cc. ca. us/ ghayes/ goldrush. htm) (accessed Oct. 16, 2006). [75] Starr, Kevin (2005), p. 89. [76] Use of volumes of water in large-scale gold-mining dates at least to the time of the Roman Empire. Roman engineers built extensive aqueducts and reservoirs above gold-bearing areas, and released the stored water in a flood so as to remove over-burden and expose gold-bearing bedrock, a process known as hushing. The bedrock was then attacked using fire and mechanical means, and volumes of water were used again to remove debris, and to process the resulting ore. Examples of this Roman mining technology may be found at Las Mdulas in Spain and Dolaucothi in South Wales. The gold recovered using these methods was used to finance the expansion of the Roman Empire. Hushing was also used in lead and tin mining in Northern Britain and Cornwall. There is, however, no evidence of the earlier use of hoses, nozzles and continuous jets of water in the manner developed in California during the Gold Rush. [77] "Gold Mining Techniques of the Gold Rush of 1849" (http:/ / refinity. com/ media/ Gold-Mining-Techniques-of-the-Gold-Rush-of-1849. pdf). Refinity.com, a resource for gold, silver, and coin information. . Retrieved 2009-07-21. [78] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), pp. 3236. [79] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), pp. 116121. [80] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), p. 199. [81] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), pp. 3639. [82] "Amador City, California -- Historic Gold Mining Town. [full text (http:/ / readme-ebooks. org/ databases/ cgi-bin/ main. asp?searchtype=kwq. asp& qu=@recnumber EBK30010065& FreeText=& sc=/ pierianp/ ebk/ ) [book links]"]. readme-ebooks.org, The Pierian Press, 8 August 1999. Online. Internet.. 18 May 1743. . Retrieved [6 September 2010]. [83] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), pp. 3943. [84] Charles N. Alpers, Michael P. Hunerlach, Jason T. May, and Roger L. Hothem. "Mercury Contamination from Historical Gold Mining in California" (http:/ / pubs. usgs. gov/ fs/ 2005/ 3014/ ). U.S. Geological Survey. . Retrieved 2008-02-26. [85] Karen Clay and Randall Jones, "Migrating to Riches? Evidence from the California Gold Rush," Journal of Economic History, Dec 2008, Vol. 68 Issue 4, pp 997-1027 [86] Rohrbough, Malcolm J. (1998). Days of Gold: The California Gold Rush and the American Nation. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN0-520-21659-8. [87] Holliday, J. S. (1999) pp. 6970. [88] Holliday, J. S. (1999), p. 63. [89] Clay and Jones, "Migrating to Riches? Evidence from the California Gold Rush," Journal of Economic History, 2008, [90] The famous Levi's jeans were not invented until the 1870s. Lynn Downey, Levi Strauss & Co. (2007) [91] James Lick made a fortune running a hotel and engaging in land speculation in San Francisco. Lick's fortune was used to build Lick Observatory.

48

California Gold Rush

[92] Four particularly successful Gold Rush era merchants were Leland Stanford, Collis P. Huntington, Mark Hopkins and Charles Crocker, Sacramento area businessmen (later known as the Big Four) who financed the western leg of the First Transcontinental Railroad, and became very wealthy as a result. [93] Susan Lee Johnson, Roaring Camp: The social world of the California Gold Rush. (2000), pp. 164-168. [94] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), pp. 52-68, 193197. [95] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), pp. 212214. [96] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), pp. 256259. [97] Holliday, J. S. (1999) p. 90. [98] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), pp. 193197; 214215. [99] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), p. 214. [100] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), p. 212. [101] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), pp. 226227. [102] Starr, Kevin and Orsi, Richard J. (eds.) (2000), p. 50. Other estimates are that there were 7,00013,000 non-Native Americans in California before January 1848. See Holliday, J. S. (1999), pp. 26, 51. [103] Historians have reflected on the Gold Rush and its effect on California. Historian Hubert Howe Bancroft used the phrase that the Gold Rush advanced California into a "rapid, monstrous maturity," and historian Kevin Starr stated, for all its problems and benefits, the Gold Rush established the "founding patterns, the DNA code, of American California." See Starr, Kevin (2005), p. 80. [104] Starr, Kevin (2005), pp. 9193. [105] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), pp. 243248. By 1860, California had over 200 flour mills, and was exporting wheat and flour around the world. Ibid. at 278280. [106] Starr, Kevin (2005), pp. 110111. [107] Starr, Kevin (1973). Americans and the California dream: 18501915. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.6975. [108] Caughey, 1975, p. 192 [109] Population of the 100 Largest Urban Places: 1870 (http:/ / www. census. gov/ population/ documentation/ twps0027/ tab10. txt), U.S. Bureau of the Census [110] Harper's New Monthly Magazine March 1855, Volume 10, Issue 58, p. 543. [111] S.S. Central America information (http:/ / www. sscentralamerica. com/ history. html); Final voyage of the S.S. Central America (http:/ / www. pacificwestcom. com/ klare/ ). Retrieved 2008-04-25. [112] Hill, Mary (1999), pp. 192196. [113] Another notable ship wreck was the steamship Winfield Scott, bound to Panama from San Francisco, which crashed into Anacapa Island off the Southern California coast in December 1853. All hands and passengers were saved, along with the cargo of gold, but the ship was a total loss. [114] " The Cambridge encyclopedia of human paleopathology (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=qubTdDk1H3IC& pg=PA205& dq& hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false)". Arthur C. Aufderheide, Conrado Rodrguez-Martn, Odin Langsjoen (1998). Cambridge University Press. p.205. ISBN 0-521-55203-6 [115] "An Act for the Government and Protection of Indians" (http:/ / www. indiancanyon. org/ ACTof1850. html). . [116] Heizer, Robert F. (1974). The destruction of California Indians. Lincoln and London: Univ. of Nebraska Press. p.243. [117] "Minorities During the Gold Rush" (http:/ / www. learncalifornia. org/ doc. asp?id=1933). California Secretary of State. . Retrieved 2009-03-23. [118] Castillo, Edward D. (1998). "California Indian History" (http:/ / www. nahc. ca. gov/ califindian. html). . Retrieved 2010-02-26. [119] Starr, Kevin (2005), p. 99. [120] Norton, Jack (1979). Genocide in northwestern California : when our worlds cried. San Francisco: Indian Historian Press. ISBN 0913436262. [121] Starr, Kevin and Orsi, Richard J. (eds.) (2000), pp. 5679. [122] Starr, Kevin (2005), pp. 8487. Joaquin Murrieta was a famous Mexican bandit during the Gold Rush of the 1850s. The Last of the California Rangers (1928), 16. California Banditti, by Jill L. Cossley-Batt (http:/ / www. yosemite. ca. us/ library/ california_rangers/ california_banditti. html) [123] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), pp. 285286. [124] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), pp. 287289. [125] Younger, R. M. 'Wondrous Gold' in Australia and the Australians: A New Concise History, Rigby, Sydney, 1970 [126] Rawls, James J. and Orsi, Richard (eds.) (1999), pp. 278279. [127] Historians James Rawls and Walton Bean have postulated that were it not for the discovery of gold, Oregon might have been granted statehood ahead of California, and therefore the first "Pacific Railroad might have been built to that state." See Rawls, James, J., and Walton Bean (2003), p. 112. [128] Kevin Starr, Americans and the California Dream, 1850-1915 (1986) [129] Brands, H. W. (2003), p. 442. [130] A perception of lawlessness also was connected with California. See, Robert A. Burchell, "The Loss of a Reputation; or, The Image of California in Britain before 1875," California Historical Quarterly 53 (Summer I974): 115-30 (stories about Gold Rush lawlessness deterred some immigration for two decades).

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California Gold Rush

[131] "[A]griculture [dominated the post-Gold Rush] sequence of development, employing more people than mining by 1869 . . . and surpassing mining in 1879 as the leading element of the California economy." Starr, Kevin (2005), p. 110. [132] See, e.g., Signal Hill, California, Bakersfield, California; Los Angeles, California [133] 20th Century-Fox, MGM, Paramount, RKO, Warner Bros., Universal Pictures, Columbia Pictures, and United Artists are among the most recognized entertainment industry names centered in California; see also Film studio [134] Hughes Aircraft, Douglas Aircraft, North American Aviation, Northrop, Lockheed Aircraft were among the complex of companies in the aerospace industry which flourished in California during and after World War II [135] Gaither, Chris and Chmielewski, Dawn C (2006-10-10). "Google Bets Big on Videos" (http:/ / www. latimes. com/ business/ la-fi-google10oct10,0,1747609. story?coll=la-home-business). Los Angeles Times. . Retrieved 2006-10-10. [136] Watson (2005) looks at Bret Harte's notion of Western partnership in such California gold rush stories as "The Luck of Roaring Camp` (1868), "Tennessee's Partner" (1869), and "Miggles" (1869). While critics have long recognized Harte's interest in gender constructs, Harte's depictions of Western partnerships also explore changing dynamics of economic relationships and gendered relationships through terms of contract, mutual support, and the bonds of labor. Matthew A. Watson, "The Argonauts of '49: Class, Gender, and Partnership in Bret Harte's West." Western American Literature 2005 40(1): 33-53. [137] Gold Rush images on the state seal include a forty-niner digging with a pick and shovel, a pan for panning gold, and a "long-tom." In addition, the ships on the water suggest the sailing ships filling the Sacramento River and San Francisco Bay during the Gold Rush era. [138] "Your guide to the Mother Lode:Complete map of historic Hwy 49." (http:/ / www. historichwy49. com/ mainmap. html). historichwy49.com. . Retrieved 2008-12-30. [139] Hill, Mary (1999), pp. 168169. [140] Brands, H. W. (2003), pp. 195196. [141] Hill, Mary (1999), pp. 174178. [142] Hill, Mary (1999), pp. 169173. [143] Hill, Mary (1999), pp. 94100. [144] Hill, Mary (1999), pp. 105110. [145] Curiously, there were decades of minor earthquakes - more than at any other time in the historical record for northern California - before the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Widely previously interpreted as precursory activity to the 1906 earthquake, they have been found to have a strong seasonal pattern and were found to be due to large seasonal sediment loads in coastal bays that overlie faults as a result of mining of gold inland. Seasonal Seismicity of Northern California Before the Great 1906 Earthquake (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ qbbfcvjnjhcx0ggp/ ), (Journal) Pure and Applied Geophysics, ISSN 0033-4553 (Print) 1420-9136 (Online), volume 159, Numbers 1-3 / January, 2002, Pages 7-62.

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References
Bancroft, Hubert Howe (18841890) History of California (http://www.1st-hand-history.org/Hhb/HHBindex. htm), vols. 1824. Brands, H. W. (2003). The age of gold: the California Gold Rush and the new American dream. New York: Anchor Books. ISBN978-0-385-72088-5. Clappe, Louise Amelia Knapp Smith (ed. 2001). The Shirley Letters from the California Mines, 1851-1852 (http:/ /books.google.com/?id=lQ6ekLo9SHEC&dq=dame shirley&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q). Heyday Books, Berkeley, California. p.109. ISBN1-890771-00-7. Retrieved July 31, 2010. Clay, Karen; Gavin Wright (April 2005). "Order Without Law? Property Rights During the California Gold Rush". Explorations in Economic History 42 (2): 155183. doi:10.1016/j.eeh.2004.05.003. Dillon, Richard (1975). Siskiyou Trail: the Hudson's Bay Company route to California. New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN0-07-016980-2. Gaither, Chris; Chmielewski, Dawn C. (2006-10-10). "Google Bets Big on Videos" (http://msl1.mit.edu/ furdlog/docs/latimes/2006-10-10_latimes_google_youtube.pdf) (PDF). Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2006-10-10. Harper's New Monthly Magazine March 1855, volume 10, issue 58, p.543, complete text online (http://cdl. library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/pageviewer?frames=1&coll=moa&view=50&root=/moa/harp/harp0010/& tif=00553.TIF&cite=http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABK4014-0010-69). Heizer, Robert F. (1974). The destruction of California Indians. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN0-8032-7262-6. Hill, Mary (1999). Gold: the California story. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN0-520-21547-8.

California Gold Rush Holliday, J. S. (1999). Rush for riches: Gold fever and the making of California. Oakland, California, Berkeley and Los Angeles: Oakland Museum of California and University of California Press. ISBN0-520-21401-3. Johnson, Susan Lee (2001). Roaring Camp: the social world of the California Gold Rush. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN0-393-32099-5. Levy, JoAnn (1992) [1990]. They saw the elephant: women in the California Gold Rush. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN0-8061-2473-3. Miller, Joaquin (1873). Life amongst the Modocs: unwritten history. Berkeley: Heyday Books; reprint edition (January 1996). ISBN0-930588-79-7. Moynihan, Ruth B.; Armitage, Susan, and Dichamp, Christiane Fischer (eds.) (1990). So much to be done: Women settlers on the mining and ranching frontier, 2d ed. (Women in the West). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN0-8032-8248-6. Rawls, James, J.; Bean, Walton (2003). California: An interpretive history. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN0-07-255255-7. Rawls, James, J. and Richard J. Orsi (eds.) (1999). A golden state: mining and economic development in Gold Rush California. California History Sesquicentennial, 2. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN0-520-21771-3. Starr, Kevin (1973). Americans and the California dream: 18501915. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-504233-6. Starr, Kevin (2005). California: a history. New York: Modern Library. ISBN0-679-64240-4. Starr, Kevin and Richard J. Orsi (eds.) (2000). Rooted in barbarous soil: people, culture, and community in Gold Rush California. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN0-520-22496-5. Wells, Harry L. (1971) [1881]. History of Siskiyou County, California. Siskiyou Historical Society. OCLC6150902. ASIN B0006YP8IE,.

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Further reading
Burchell, Robert A. (Summer 1974). "The Loss of a Reputation; or, The Image of California in Britain before 1875". California Historical Quarterly 53 (3): 115130. doi:10.2307/25157500. ISSN0097-6059. Burns, John F. and Richard J. Orsi (eds.) (2003). Taming the Elephant: Politics, Government, and Law in Pioneer California (http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=105960680). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN0-520-23413-8. Retrieved 2007-02-14. Drager, K.; C. Fracchia (1997). The Golden Dream: California from Gold Rush to Statehood. Portland, Oregon: Graphic Arts Center Publishing Company. ISBN1-55868-312-7. Dwyer, Richard A.; Richard E. Lingenfelter, David Cohen (1964). The Songs of the Gold Rush. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Eifler, Mark A. (2002). Gold Rush Capitalists: Greed and Growth in Sacramento. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN0-8263-2822-9. Hart, Eugene (2003). A Guide to the California Gold Rush. Merced: Freewheel Publications. ISBN0-9634197-2-2. Helper, Hinton Rowan (1855). The Land of Gold: Reality Versus Fiction (http://books.google.com/ ?id=swQNAAAAIAAJ). Baltimore: H. Taylor. Holliday, J. S.; William Swain (2002) [1981]. The World Rushed in: The California Gold Rush Experience. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN0-8061-3464-X. Hurtado, Albert L. (2006). John Sutter: A Life on the North American Frontier. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN0-8061-3772-X. Klare, Normand E. (2005). The Final Voyage of the SS Central America 1857. Ashland, Oregon: Klare Taylor Publishers. ISBN0-9764403-0-X.

California Gold Rush Knorr, Lawrence (2008). A Pennsylvania Mennonite and the California Gold Rush. Camp Hill: Sunbury Press. ISBN0-9760925-8-1. Lienhard, Heinrich. Wenn Du absolut nach Amerika willst, so gehe in Gottesnamen!, Erinnerungen an den California Trail, John A. Sutter und den Goldrausch 18461849. Herausgegeben von [edited by] Christa Landert, mit einem Vorwort von [foreword by] Leo Schelbert. Zrich: Limmat Verlag, 2010, 2011. ISBN 978-3-85791-504-8 Owens, Kenneth N. (ed.) (2002). Riches for All: The California Gold Rush and the World. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN0-8032-8617-1. Roberts, Brian (2000). American Alchemy: The California Gold Rush and Middle-class Culture. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN0-8078-4856-5. Rohrbough, Malcolm J. (1998). Days of Gold: The California Gold Rush and the American Nation. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN0-520-21659-8. online edition (http://quod.lib.umich.edu/ cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;view=toc;idno=heb00571.0001.001) Watson, Matthew A. (2005). "The Argonauts of '49: Class, Gender, and Partnership in Bret Harte's West". Western American Literature 40 (1): 3353. ISSN0043-3462. Witschi, N. S. (2004). "Bret Harte." Oxford Encyclopedia of American Literature. Ed. Jay Parini. New York: Oxford University Press. 154-157. Witschi, N.S. (2002). Traces of Gold: Californias Natural Resources and the Claim to Realism in Western American Literature (http://books.google.com/books?id=opfSb5vI1e8C&printsec=frontcover& source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false). Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.. ISBN0-817-31117-3.

52

External links
California Gold Rush (http://www.dmoz.org/Society/History/By_Region/North_America/United_States/ West/Gold_Rushes/California/) at the Open Directory Project California Gold Rush (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/goldrush) at PBS Gold Rush! (http://www.museumca.org/goldrush/index.html) at the Oakland Museum of California Museum of the Siskiyou Trail (http://www.museumsiskiyoutrail.org) California Gold Rush chronology (http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist/chron1.html) at The Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco Description by John Sutter of the Discovery of Gold (http://www.sfmuseum.net/hist2/gold.html) at The Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco Marshall Gold Discovery State Historic Park (http://www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=484) Columbia State Historic Park (http://www.parks.ca.gov/default.asp?page_id=552) Weaverville State Historic Park (http://www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=457) Shasta State Historic Park (http://www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=456) Impact of Gold Rush on California (http://www.sfmuseum.net/hist6/impact.html) at The Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco California Gold Rush timeline (http://www.calgoldrush.com/resources/gr_timeline.html) Gold Rush geology (http://virtual.yosemite.cc.ca.us/ghayes/goldrush.htm) Gold (http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/prospect1/goldgip.html) at the website of United States Geological Survey Gold Rush era ship wreck (http://www.nps.gov/archive/safr/local/frolic.html) at the National Park Service Stories of the People who lived the California Gold Rush (http://www.ncgold.com/History/ california-gold-rush.html) Historic Maps of the California Gold Rush (http://www.davidrumsey.com/directory/when/California+Gold+ Rush/) at David Rumsey Historical Map Collection

California Gold Rush Gold Country Museum (http://www.placer.ca.gov/Departments/Facility/Museums/LocalMuseums/ goldcountry.aspx/) in Placer County, California "California as I Saw It:" First-Person Narratives of California's Early Years, 1849-1900 (http://memory.loc. gov/ammem/cbhtml/) Library of Congress American Memory Project N.A. Chandler California Gold Rush Era Letters (http://ccdl.libraries.claremont.edu/collection. php?alias=cng) University of California, Berkeley, Bancroft Library (http://bancroft.berkeley.edu/Exhibits/Goldrush/ introduction.html) The University of California, Calisphere, 1848-1865: The Gold Rush Era (http://www.calisphere. universityofcalifornia.edu/themed_collections/topics1.html) California State Library, "California As We Saw It": Exploring the California Gold Rush, online exhibit (http:// www.library.ca.gov/goldrush/index.html) Museum of the City of San Francisco, "Online Gold Rush Exhibits" (http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist1/index0. 1.html#gold) Oakland Museum of California, "California's Untold Stories: Gold Rush!" (http://www.museumca.org/ goldrush/) Sacramento Bee, "Gold Rush: The Series" (http://www.calgoldrush.com/) Map of the mining region of California / drawn & compiled by Geo. H. Baker (http://www.oac.cdlib.org/ark:/ 13030/hb7x0nb419/?brand=oac4/) at the Bancroft Library

53

California in the American Civil War

California's involvement in the American Civil War included sending gold east, recruiting volunteer combat units to replace regular forces in territories of the Western United States, maintaining and building numerous camps and fortifications, suppressing secessionist activity and securing the New Mexico Territory against the Confederacy. The State of California did not send its units east, but many citizens traveled east and joined the Union Army there, some of whom became famous. California's Volunteers also conducted many operations against the native peoples within the state and in the other Western territories of the Departments of the Pacific and New Mexico. Following the Gold Rush California was settled primarily by Midwestern and Southern farmers, miners and businessmen. Democrats dominated the state from its foundation. Southern Democrats sympathetic to secession, although a minority in the state, were a majority in Southern California and Tulare County, and were in large numbers in San Joaquin, Santa Clara, Monterey, and San Francisco counties. California was home for powerful businessmen who played a significant role in Californian politics through their control of mines, shipping, finance, and the Republican Party but were a minority party until the secession crisis. In the beginning of 1861, as the secession crisis began, the secessionists in San Francisco made an attempt to separate the state and Oregon from the union, which failed. Southern California, with a majority of discontented Californios and Southern secessionists, had already voted for a separate Territorial government and formed militia units, but were kept from secession after Fort Sumter and by Federal troops drawn from the frontier forts of the District of Oregon, and District of California, (primarily Fort Tejon and Fort Mojave). Patriotic fervor swept California after the attack on Fort Sumter, providing the manpower for Volunteer Regiments recruited mainly from the pro-Union counties in the north of the State. When the Democratic party split over the war, Republican supporters of Lincoln took control of the state in the September elections. Volunteer Regiments were sent to occupy pro-secessionist Southern California and Tulare County, leaving them generally powerless during the war itself. However some Southerners traveled east to join the Confederate Army, evading Union patrols and hostile Apache. Others remaining in the state attempted to outfit a privateer to prey on coastal shipping, and late in the war two groups of partisan rangers were formed but none were successful.

California in the American Civil War

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From statehood to the Civil War

When California was admitted as a state under the Compromise of 1850, Californians had already decided it was to be a free statethe constitutional convention of 1849 unanimously abolished slavery. As a result, Southerners in Congress voted against admission in 1850 while Northerners pushed it through, pointing to its population of 93,000 and its vast wealth in gold. Northern California, which was dominated by mining, shipping, and commercial elites of San Francisco, favored becoming a state. In the 1856 presidential election, California gave its electoral votes to the winner, James Buchanan.
1856 Presidential Candidate James Buchanan Millard Fillmore John Fremont Party Democrat Home State Popular Vote Pennsylvania 53,342 36,195 20,704 % 48.4 32.8 18.8

Know-Nothing New York Republican California

Southern California's attempts at secession from California

Following California's admission to the Union, Californios (dissatisfied with inequitable taxes and land laws) and pro-slavery Southerners in lightly populated, rural Southern California attempted three times in the 1850s to achieve a separate statehood or territorial status from Northern California. The last attempt, the Pico Act of 1859, was passed by the California State Legislature, signed by the State governor John B. Weller, approved overwhelmingly by voters in the proposed Territory of Colorado and sent to Washington, D.C. with a strong advocate in Senator Milton Latham. However the secession crisis following the election of Lincoln in 1860 led to the proposal never coming to a vote.[1] [2] [3]

Secession Crisis in California

In 1860 California gave a small plurality of 38,733 votes to Abraham Lincoln, whose 32% of the total vote was enough to win all its electoral votes; 68% voted for the other three candidates.[4] [5]
1860 Presidential Candidate Abraham Lincoln Stephen A. Douglas John C. Breckinridge John Bell Party Republican Northern Democrat Southern Democrat Popular Vote 38,733 37,999 33,969 % 32.3 31.7 28.3 7.6

Constitutional Union 9,111

During the secession crisis following Lincoln's election, Federal troops were under the command of Colonel (Brevet Brigadier General) Albert Sidney Johnston, in Benicia, headquarters of the Department of the Pacific. General Johnston strongly believed in the Southern right to secede but regretted that it was occurring. A group of Southern sympathizers in the state made plans to secede with Oregon to form a "Pacific Republic". The success of their plans rested on the cooperation of General Johnston. Johnston met with some of these Southern men, but before they could propose anything to him he told them that he had heard rumors of an attempt to seize the San Francisco forts and arsenal at Benicia, that he had prepared for that and would defend the facilities under his command with all his resources and to the last drop of his blood. He told them to tell this to their Southern friends.[6] Deprived of his aid the plans for California and Oregon to secede from the United States never came to fruition. Meanwhile Union men feared Johnston would aid such a plot and communicated their fears to Washington asking for his replacemnt. Brig. Gen. Edwin Vose Sumner was soon sent west via Panama to replace Johnston in March 1861. Johnston resigned his commission on April 9, and after Sumner arrived on April 25 turned over his command and moved to Los Angeles.

California in the American Civil War As the secession crisis developed in early 1861, several Volunteer Companies of the California Militia[7] [8] had disbanded because of divided loyalties and new pro-Union ones were sworn in across the state under the supervision of County sheriffs and judges. Many of these units saw no action but some were to form the companies of the earliest California Volunteer regiments. Others like the Petaluma Guard and Emmet Rifles in Sonoma County suppressed a secessionist disturbance in Healdsburg,[9] in 1862. Union commanders relied on the San Bernardino Mounted Rifles and their Captain Clarence E. Bennett[10] for intelligence and help to hold the pro-Southern San Bernardino County for the Union in late 1861 as Federal troops were being withdrawn and replaced by California Volunteers. Notable as the only pro-Southern militia unit, the Los Angeles Mounted Rifles was organized on March 7, 1861, in Los Angeles County. It included more than a few Californios in its leadership and its ranks, including the County Sheriff Tomas Avila Sanchez. Its leader was one of his Undersheriffs Alonzo Ridley and included several of his deputies. A. J. King, another Undersheriff of Los Angeles County (and former member of the earlier "Monte Rangers"),[11] and other influential men in El Monte, formed another secessionist militia, the Monte Mounted Rifles on March 23, 1861. However, A. J. King soon ran afoul of Federal authorities. According to the Sacramento Union of April 30, 1861, King was brought before Colonel Carleton and was made to take an oath of allegiance to the Union and was then released. On April 26, 1861, the Monte Mounted Rifles had asked Governor Downey for arms. The governor sent the arms, but army officers at San Pedro held them up, preventing the activation of the Monte Mounted Rifles.[12] On March 28, 1861, the newly formed Arizona Territory voted to separate from New Mexico Territory and join the Confederacy. This had increased Union officials' fears of a secessionist design to separate Southern California from the state and join the Confederacy. This fear was based on the demonstrated desire for separation in the vote for the Pico Act, the strength of secessionists in the area and their declared intentions and activities, especially in forming militia companies.

55

Outbreak of the Civil War

At the outbreak of the Civil War, Southern California secession seemed possible; the populace was largely in favor of it, militias with secessionist sympathies had been formed, and Bear Flags, the banner of the Bear Flag Revolt, had been flown for several months by secessionists in Los Angeles and San Bernardino counties.[13] After word of the Battle of Fort Sumter reached California, there were public demonstrations by secessionists. However secession quickly became impossible when three companies of Federal cavalry were moved from Fort Mojave and Fort Tejon into Los Bear Flag flown by Southern California secessionists Angeles in May and June 1861. Suspected by local Union authorities, General Johnston evaded arrest and joined the Los Angeles Mounted Rifles as a private, leaving Warner's Ranch May 27 in their journey across the southwestern deserts to Texas, crossing the Colorado River into the Confederate Territory of Arizona, on July 4, 1861. The Los Angeles Mounted Rifles disbanded and members joined the Confederate

California in the American Civil War

56

Army when they reached the Arizona Territorial capital of Mesilla (now in New Mexico). Like other pro-Confederates leaving California for the Confederacy, the volunteers joined up principally with Texas regiments. General Johnston joined the fight in the east as a general with the Confederacy and was later killed leading their army at the Battle of Shiloh. The only Confederate flag captured in California during the Civil War took place on July 4, 1861, in Sacramento. During Independence Day celebrations, secessionist Major J. P. Gillis celebrated the independence of the United States from Britain as well as the southern states from the Union. He unfurled a Confederate flag of his own design and proceeded to march down the street to both the applause and jeers of onlookers. Jack Biderman and Curtis Clark, enraged by Gillis' actions, accosted him and "captured" the flag.[14] The flag itself is based on the first Confederate flag, the Stars and Bars. However, the canton contains seventeen stars rather than the Confederate's seven. Because the flag was captured by Jack Biderman, it is often also referred to as the "Biderman Flag".

The J. P. Gillis Flag

Digital reproduction of the Gillis Flag

As he was recalling Federal troops to the east, on July 24, 1861, the Secretary of War called on Governor John G. Downey to furnish one regiment of infantry and five companies of cavalry to guard the overland mail route from Carson City to Salt Lake City. Three weeks later four more regiments of infantry and a regiment of cavalry were requested. All of these were volunteer units recruited and organized in the northern part of the state, around the San Francisco Bay region and the mining camps; few recruits came from Southern California. These volunteers replaced the regular troops transferred to the east before the end of 1861. Charged with all the supervision of Los Angeles, San Bernardino, San Diego, and Santa Barbara Counties, on August 14, 1861, Major William Scott Ketchum steamed from San Francisco to San Pedro and made a rapid march to encamp near San Bernardino on August 26 and with Companies D and G of the 4th Infantry Regiment later reinforced at the beginning of September by a detachment of ninety First U.S. Dragoons and a howitzer. Except for frequent sniping at his camp, Ketchum's garrison stifled any secessionist uprising from Belleville and a show of force by the Dragoons in the streets of San Bernardino at the end of election day quelled a secessionist political demonstration during the September gubernatorial elections in San Bernardino County.[15] [16] Thereafter, with the Democrats split over the war, the first Republican governor of California was elected, Leland Stanford, a powerful tycoon from the Northeast, on September 4, 1861.[17]

California in the American Civil War

57

1861 Gubernatorial Candidate Leland Stanford John R. McConnell John Conness

Party Republican

Popular Vote 56,056

% 46.4 28.0 25.6

Southern Democrat 33,750 Northern Democrat 30,944

Following the elections on September 7, there was a gunfight resulting from a robbery of travelers to Bear Valley and Holcomb Valley on the pack trail in the Upper Santa Ana Canyon where the Santa Ana River runs out of the San Bernardino Mountains. It was suspected that secessionists had been the culprits, doing the robbery as part of a larger plan of robberies in the valleys of Los Angeles and San Bernardino Counties. However, no such plan materialized.[18]

Civil War battles within California

Securing Southern California
As the California Volunteer regiments formed, some were sent south with Colonel George Wright, commanding officer of the District of Southern California. He was to replace the Federal troops in Los Angeles, gathered there to prevent a rising by the numerous secessionist sympathizers in Southern California. In October 1861, Wright was promoted to Brigadier General of Volunteers and placed in command of the Department of the Pacific, replacing Sumner who had recommended Wright as his replacement. Colonel James Henry Carleton of the 1st California Volunteer Infantry Regiment replaced Wright as commander in the south. Detachments were soon sent out by Carleton to San Bernardino and San Diego Counties to secure them for the Union and prevent the movement of men and weapons eastward to the Confederacy. One of the earliest conflicts related to the Civil War in California occurred on November 29, 1861, at Minter Ranch, in the hills just south and west of the San Jose Valley, where Warner's Ranch and the military post of Camp Wright[19] was located. Dan Showalter's party of secessionists like some others were attempting to avoid the post and make their way across the desert to join the Confederate Army in Texas. They were pursued from Temecula by a Volunteer Cavalry patrol from the camp, intercepted and captured without shots being fired. Later after being imprisoned at Fort Yuma, Showalter and the others were released after swearing loyalty to the Union, but they made their way to the Confederacy later.[20] New Camp Carleton was established on March 22, 1862 near El Monte; its garrison was to keep an eye on that hotbed of secessionist sympathies. On April 10, 1862, as the United States Marshal for Southern California, Henry D. Barrows, wrote to the commander of Union Army Department of the Pacific in San Francisco, complaining of anti-Union sentiment in Southern California. The letter says such sentiment "permeates society here among both the high and the low," and reports: "A. J. King, under-sheriff of this county, who has been a bitter secessionist, who said to me that he owed no allegiance to the United States Government; that Jeff Daviswas the only constitutional government we had, and that he remained here because he could do more harm to the enemies of that Government by staying here than going there; brought down on the Senator (a steam ship) Tuesday last a large lithograph gilt-framed portrait of Beauregard, the rebel general, which he flaunted before a large crowd at the hotel when he arrived. I induced Colonel Carleton to have him arrested as one of the many dangerous secessionists living in our midst, and to-day he was taken to Camp Drum. He was accompanied by General Volney E. Howard as counsel, and I have but little hope that he will be retained in custody." [21]

California in the American Civil War

58

Naval Incidents
During and after the 1862 Confederate New Mexico Campaign, no rising against Union control occurred in the state. However in the following years some attempts were made by the Confederate navy to seize gold and silver for the Confederacy. J. M. Chapman Plot In 1863, Asbury Harpending, after traveling secretly to Richmond to obtain a letter of marque, joined with other California members of the Knights of the Golden Circle in San Francisco to outfit the schooner J. M. Chapman as a Confederate privateer in San Francisco Bay. Their object was to raid commerce on the Pacific coast carrying gold and silver shipments, to capture and carry it back to support the Confederacy. Their attempt was detected and they were seized on March 15, during the night of their intended departure by the USS Cyane, revenue officers and San Francisco police.[22] [23] Salvador Pirates In spring of 1864, the Confederate navy ordered Captain Thomas Egenton Hogg and his command to take passage on board a coastal steamer in Panama City, seize her on the high seas, arm her and attack the Pacific Mail steamers and the whalers in the North Pacific. In Havana, the American consul, Thomas Savage, learned about this conspiracy, and notified Rear Admiral George F. Pearson at Panama City. The Admiral had the passengers boarding the steamers at Panama City watched and when Hogg's command was found aboard the Panama Railroad steamer Salvador, a force from the USS Lancaster arrested them and brought them to San Francisco. Tried by a military commission, they were sentenced to be hanged, but General Irvin McDowell commuted their sentences. To prevent any further attempts to seize Pacific coast shipping, General McDowell ordered each passenger on board American merchant steamers to surrender all weapons when boading the ship and every passenger and his baggage was searched. All officers were armed for the protection of their ships.[24] [25]

Partisan Rangers in California

Late in the war, local secessionists in California made attempts to seize gold and silver for the Confederacy. In early 1864, Rufus Henry Ingram, formerly with Quantrill's Raiders, arrived in Santa Clara County and with Tom Poole (formerly a member of the crew of the J. M. Chapman) ,organized local Knights of the Golden Circle and commanded them in what became known as Captain Ingram's Partisan Rangers. In the Bullion Bend Robbery they robbed two stagecoaches near Placerville of their silver and gold, leaving a letter explaining they were not bandits but carrying out a military operation to raise funds for the Confederacy.[26] Also in early 1864, secessionist Judge George Gordon Belt, a rancher and former alcalde in Stockton, organized a group of partisan rangers including John Mason and "Jim Henry" and sent them out to recruit more men and pillage the property of Union men in the countryside. For the next two years the Mason Henry Gang, as they became known, posed as Confederate partisan rangers but acted as outlaws, committing robberies, thefts and murders in the southern San Joaquin Valley, Santa Cruz County, Monterey County, Santa Clara County, and in counties of Southern California.[27] However, despite all these efforts no captured gold was sent to the Confederacy.

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1864 Election
In July 1864, with many Douglas Democrats deserting their party over the war, the remaining Democrats formed a fusion party behind the former governor John G. Downey, opposed to continuation of the war, emancipation, the arrest of civilians by the military, the suppression of free speech and of the press and racial equality. The result in the September election was a second Republican governor of California, Frederick F. Low.[17]
1864 Gubernatorial Candidate Frederick F. Low John G. Downey Party Popular Vote % 58.9 41.1

Republican 64,447 Democratic 44,843

Lincoln won the 1864 election with almost 59% in California.[28]

1864 Presidential Candidate Abraham Lincoln George B. McClellan Party Republican Popular Vote 62,053 % 58.6 41.4

Northern Democrat 43,837

Civil War Era forts and camps in California

At this time, the U.S. had a number of military forts to defend against the Indian threat, and to solidify the U.S. claim to the state. As the conflict began, new forts and camps were founded to protect ports and communications, carry out operations against the Indians, to hold off Confederate soldiers and suppress their sympathizers. Of the ports, San Francisco Bay was the most important; coastal fortifications at Fort Point and Camp Sumner[29] were built at the edge of the Presidio, as well as at Fort Baker on the Marin Headlands. One Civil War-era fort, Post of Alcatraz Island or Fort Alcatraz, on a rocky island just inside the Golden Gate, later became an infamous Federal penitentiary, Alcatraz. The San Francisco Bay was also protected by the Navy at Mare Island, the Benicia Arsenal, Fort Mason with the posts at San Francisco's Point San Jose, and Camp Reynolds on Angel Island. San Pedro was protected from January 1862 by Camp Drum, later the Drum Barracks,[30] [31] and later a post was established at Two Harbors on Catalina Island. San Diego was only defended by a small garrison at the New San Diego Depot[32] occupied in 1860. In the northwest of the state were several forts, Fort Bragg on the Mendocino County coast supporting Fort Wright.[33] Further north on the coast of Humboldt County was Fort Humboldt, established to maintain peace between the Native Americans and new settlers and Headquarters of the Humboldt Military District supporting other forts in the area. Ulysses S. Grant was briefly stationed here prior to the war. Fort Humboldt supported Camp Curtis,[34] Fort Gaston, Camp Lyon, Fort Baker,[35] Fort Iaqua, Fort Anderson,[36] Camp Lincoln and Fort Seward which were the base of operations for the soldiers in the Bald Hills War. In the Northeast were Fort Crook[37] in Shasta County and in Modoc County, Fort Bidwell was established in 1863. To the south there was Fort Miller in the foothills of the southern Sierra Nevada in Fresno County, and Camp Babbitt[38] outside the town of Visalia, in Tulare County. Fort Tejon in the Grapevine Canyon (La Caada de las Uvas) had protected the southern San Joaquin Valley and Southern California. It had been the headquarters of the First U.S. Dragoons until those regular army troops were transferred in July 1861 upon the outbreak of war. Fort Tejon was reoccupied by California volunteer troops in 1863 to guard Paiute Indians from the Owens Valley at the nearby Sebastian Indian Reservation and then it was abandoned for good on September 11, 1864. Camp Independence was established on Oak Creek nearby modern Independence, California on July 4, 1862, during the Owens Valley Indian War.[39] At the beginning of the war Union authorities were worried that the large number of secessionist sympathizers in Southern California might rise in an attempt to join the Confederacy. In June 1861 troops withdrawn from Fort Tejon

California in the American Civil War and Fort Mojave established Camp Fitzgerald outside Los Angeles in various locations as each proved unsuitable.[40] In late September 1861, troops from Northern California landed in San Pedro and marched to establish a new camp at a more suitable location at Camp Latham in modern Culver City.[41] From this post Ketchum's regular soldiers were relieved on October 20 by three companies of 1st California Cavalry sent out to San Bernardino County.[15] and establish Camp Carleton and later Camp Morris.[42] Volunteer troops were also sent to Camp Wright in San Diego County to watch the southern overland approach to California across the Colorado Desert from Fort Yuma, located on the west bank of the Colorado River. In March 1862, all the troops that were drilling at Camp Latham were transferred to Camp Drum, leaving a company of soldiers to observe the Los Angeles area. Following flooding at Camp Carleton, the garrison moved to New Camp Carleton, built near the secessionist hotbed of El Monte in 1862.

60

Civil War military units associated with California

Due to its location, the state's local militia companies remained under state status because of the great number of Southern sympathizers, the Indian threat, and possible foreign attack. The state followed the usual military practice of mustering militia companies into regiments. These Volunteers maintained military posts vacated by the regular army units that were ordered east. However a number of state militias disbanded and went east. Several of these companies offered their services and were accepted by the Union Army. In 1862, five companies of the 2nd Massachusetts Cavalry (also known as The California 100 and the California Cavalry Battalion) were enrolled and mustered into service, and sent to Massachusetts. They left San Francisco by sea for service in the east. The California Battalion consisted of Companies A, C, F, L, and M. They participated in 51 battles, campaigns, and skirmishes. Oregon U.S. Senator Edward D. Baker raised a regiment of men on the East Coast. These units and others were generally known as the "California Regiment", but later designated the 71st Pennsylvania Company Guidon, Company A ('California' 100), raised in Massachusetts Infantry. Col. Roderick N. Matheson was the leader of the 32nd New York Infantry, also known as the 1st California Regiment. In October 1861, Colonel Baker was authorized to increase his command to a brigade. The additional regiments were commanded by Colonels Joshua T. Owen, Dewitt Clinton Baxter, and Turner G. Morehead, all from Philadelphia, respectively designated the 2nd, 3rd, and 5th California Regiments. The 4th California Regiment, as planned, was composed of artillery and cavalry. These troops were soon detached. After Baker was killed in the Battle of Ball's Bluff, Pennsylvania claimed these four infantry regiments as a part of its quota, and they became known as the "Philadelphia Brigade" of Pennsylvania Volunteers. They were initially commanded by Brig. Gen. William W. Burns and first served in John Sedgwick's Division of the II Corps, Army of the Potomac. They had a distinguished service career, highlighted by their actions at the Battle of Antietam and their prominent position in the defense against Pickett's Charge at the Battle of Gettysburg. Military units associated with California included: Los Angeles Mounted Rifles (Confederate)

California in the American Civil War 2nd Regiment of Cavalry, Massachusetts Volunteers Company A, E, F, L, and M (the later four called the "California Battalion") 32nd Regiment of New York Volunteers "Philadelphia Brigade" of Pennsylvania Volunteers 1st California Infantry - 71st Pennsylvania Infantry 2nd California Infantry - 69th Pennsylvania Infantry 3rd California Infantry - 72nd Pennsylvania Infantry 5th California Infantry - 106th Pennsylvania Infantry

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Regiments of the California Volunteers in Federal Service

The California Volunteer units recruited 15,725 volunteers for Federal service. Nearly all served inside California and in the Department of the Pacific and the Department of New Mexico.[43] These units included two full regiments and one battalion of Native Cavalry, eight full regiments and two battalions of infantry, one of Veterans and another called Mountaineers that specialized in fighting in the mountanous Redwood forests of Northwestern California. List of California Civil War units The California Volunteers most directly in action against the Confederacy were known as the California Column. They were under the command of General James Carleton. At various times the following units served with the Column: 1st Regiment California Volunteer Cavalry, 1st Battalion of Native Cavalry, and the 1st, 5th and 7th Regiment California Volunteer Infantry. This force served in Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, driving out the Confederate force in the Arizona Territory and defending New Mexico Territory and the southern overland route to California and operating against the Apache, Navajo, Comanche and other tribes. The command composed of 2nd Regiment California Volunteer Cavalry and the 3rd Regiment California Volunteer Infantry under P. Edward Connor kept the Central Overland Route to California open. As a matter of Connor's proactive style, he led these troops to attack Shoshoni Indians at the Bear River Massacre near what is now the present-day city of Preston, Idaho, on January 29, 1863.[44] Detachments from the 2nd Regiment California Volunteer Cavalry from Camp Latham under Lieutenant Colonel George S. Evans, fought in the Owens Valley Indian War, and established Camp Independence in 1862. The 2nd, 4th, 6th, and 8th Regiment California Volunteer Infantry and the 1st Battalion California Volunteer Mountaineers provided internal security in Northern California, Oregon, and Washington Territory. 2nd and 6th Volunteer Infantry Regiments and the 1st Battalion California Volunteer Mountaineers served in the Bald Hills War and some other companies in the Snake War. Also the 1st Regiment Washington Territory Volunteer Infantry, had eight companies that were recruited in California during 1862, for service in Washington Territory.[45] They were mustered out at Fort Vancouver in 1865.

The Navy and the Civil War in the Pacific

Pacific Squadron

Past residents of California in the Civil War

The following famous people visited or lived in California before, during or after the Civil War. Lewis Addison Armistead Edward Dickinson Baker Edward Fitzgerald Beale James Henry Carleton Patrick Edward Connor

California in the American Civil War Ulysses S. Grant Antonio Maria de la Guerra William M. Gwin John Charles Frmont Henry Wager Halleck Winfield Scott Hancock Joseph Hooker Albert Sidney Johnston Custis Lee Thaddeus S. C. Lowe Roderick N. Matheson Henry Morris Naglee Edward Otho Cresap Ord William Starke Rosecrans William Tecumseh Sherman George Stoneman Joseph Rodman West

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References
[1] Michael DiLeo, Eleanor Smith, Two Californias: The Truth about the Split-state Movement, Island Press, Covelo, California, 1983. pg. 9-30. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=OEqiYRm-ohMC& pg=PA27& lpg=PA27) Nearly 75% of voters in the proposed Territory of Colorado voted for separate status. [2] J. M. Guinn, HOW CALIFORNIA ESCAPED STATE DIVISION, The Quarterly, Volumes 5-6 By Historical Society of Southern California, Los Angeles County Pioneers of Southern California (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=WCMLAAAAIAAJ& pg=RA1-PA223#v=onepage& q=& f=false) [3] Civil War: How Southern California Tried to Split from Northern California (http:/ / www. kcet. org/ updaily/ socal_focus/ history/ 32239-how-southern-california-tried-to-split-from-the-north. html) [4] Johannsen, Robert W. Lincoln, the South, and Slavery: The Political Dimension, Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1991. [5] Popular vote in 1860 (http:/ / www. multied. com/ elections/ 1860Pop. html) [6] Asbury Harpending, The great diamond hoax: and other stirring incidents in the life of Asbury Harpending, San Francisco, James H. Barry Co., 1913.p.36 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=p-pBAAAAIAAJ) [7] Index to Militia Units of the State of California 1850-1881 (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ Militia Units. html) [8] Inventory of the Military Department. Militia Companies Records, 1849-1880 (http:/ / www. oac. cdlib. org/ data/ 13030/ x1/ tf0r29n3x1/ files/ tf0r29n3x1. pdf) [9] The California State Military Museum, California State Militia and National Guard Unit Histories, Petaluma Guard. This history was written in 1940 by the Works Progress Administration (WPA) in conjunction with the office of the Adjutant General and the California State Library (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ PetalumaGuard. html) [10] California State Militia and National Guard Unit Histories, San Bernardino Rangers. This history was written in 1940 by the Works Progress Administration (WPA) in conjunction with the Office of the Adjutant General and the California State Library (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ SanBernardinoRangers. html) [11] California State Militia and National Guard Unit Histories: Monte Rangers (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ MonteRangers. html) [12] J. M. Scammel, Military Units in Southern California, 1853-1862; California Historical Quarterly, Vol. XXIV, Chapter 3. II The Los Angeles Units, p.14 (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ SoCal. pdf) [13] George Henry Tinkham, California men and events: time 1769-1890, 2nd, revised ed., Record Publishing Company, 1915. pp.194-195 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=074UAAAAYAAJ& printsec=frontcover#v=onepage& q& f=false) [14] "The Biderman Flag" (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ BidermanFlag. html). The California Military Museum. . Retrieved 2008-01-24. [15] The California State Military Museum, Historic California Posts:Posts at San Bernardino (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ SanBernardino. html) [16] The War of the Rebellion SERIES I, Volume L, Chapter LXII - Operations on the Pacific Coast, Part I, pp.16,27,28,429,450,466,512,515,567,569,585,594,595,601-602,606,607,612,614-615,617,660-661,663,669-670,687 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ch4VAAAAYAAJ& printsec=frontcover& source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage& q=Ketchum& f=false) [17] U.S. Genealogy Network; George H. Tinkham, California Men and Events 1769-1890, Panama-Pacific Exposition Edition, 1915. Chapter XVI: POLITICAL REVOLUTIONS (http:/ / www. usgennet. org/ usa/ ca/ state1/ tinkhamch16. html) [18] The War of the Rebellion SERIES I, Volume L, Chapter LXII - Operations on the Pacific Coast, Part I, pp. 612, 615, 617

California in the American Civil War

[19] Colonel Herbert M. Hart, USMC (retired), Historic California Posts: Camp Wright from Pioneer Forts of the Far West, published in 1965, The California State Military Museum (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ CpWright. html) [20] Bill Virden, THE AFFAIR AT MINTER'S RANCH, The Journal of San Diego History, SAN DIEGO HISTORICAL SOCIETY QUARTERLY, April 1961, Volume 7, Number 2 (https:/ / www. sandiegohistory. org/ journal/ 61april/ minters. htm) [21] Roger M. Grace, Candidate With Pro-Slavery Views Elected District Attorney in 1863, Metropolitan News-Enterprise, Tuesday, August 15, 2006, Page 7 (http:/ / www. metnews. com/ articles/ 2006/ perspectives081506. htm) [22] California Military Museum; The Pacific Squadron of 1861-1866, The following article is taken from Aurora Hunt's book, The Army of the Pacific; Its operations in California, Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, Oregon, Washington, plains region, Mexico, etc. 1860-1866, under the chapter The Pacific Squadron of 1861-1866. pp.305-310 (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ Pac Sqdn. html) [23] John Boessenecker, Badge and Buckshot: Lawlessness in Old California, Univerciy of Oklahoma Press, 1997, pg. 135-136 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=s99i3BauLjoC& dq="Rufus+ Henry+ Ingram"& source=gbs_navlinks_s) [24] Aurora Hunt, The Army of the Pacific; Its operations in California, Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, Oregon, Washington, plains region, Mexico, etc. 1860-1866, The Pacific Squadron of 1861-1866, pp.314-315. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=OVQPLM8mjGAC& q=San+ Salvador,+ steamer#v=snippet& q=San Salvador, steamer& f=false) [25] "Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion." 31 volumes. United States Government Printing Office, 1914; reprinted, 1987, by the National Historical Society, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania; citation includes series 1, volume 3, pp. 302-303, 352-368. (http:/ / digital. library. cornell. edu/ cgi/ t/ text/ pageviewer-idx?c=moawar& cc=moawar& idno=ofre0003& node=ofre0003:3& frm=frameset& view=image& seq=328) [26] John Boessenecker, Badge and Buckshot: Lawlessness in Old California, Univerciy of Oklahoma Press, 1997. pg. 133-157 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=s99i3BauLjoC& dq="Rufus+ Henry+ Ingram"& q=Rufus+ Henry+ Ingram#v=snippet& q=Rufus Henry Ingram& f=false) [27] William B. Secrest, California Badmen: Mean Men with Guns, Word Dancer Press, Sanger, California, 2007. pg. 143-147 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=6XQnf2JW8A4C& source=gbs_navlinks_s) [28] Popular vote in 1864 (http:/ / www. multied. com/ elections/ 1864Pop. html) [29] The California State Military Museum, Historic California Posts: Camp Sumner (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ CpSumner. html) [30] Historic California Posts: Drum Barracks (Camp San Pedro, Camp Drum, Fort Drum, and Wilmington Depot) (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ DrumBks. html) [31] Historic California Posts: Fort MacArthur - Military Museum (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ FtMacArthur. html) [32] The California State Military Museum; Historic California Posts: San Diego Barracks(Including New San Diego Depot) (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ SDBks. html) [33] Colonel Herbert M. Hart, USMC (retired), Historic California Posts: Fort Wright from Pioneer Forts of the Far West, published in 1965, The California State Military Museum (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ FtWright. html) [34] Historic California Posts: Camp Curtis (Camp on Janes Farm), The California State Military Museum (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ CpCurtis. html) [35] Colonel Herbert M. Hart, USMC (retired), Historic California Posts: Fort Baker from Pioneer Forts of the Far West, published in 1965, The California State Military Museum (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ FtBakerI. html) [36] Colonel Herbert M. Hart, USMC (retired), Historic California Posts: Fort Anderson(Camp Anderson) from Pioneer Forts of the Far West, published in 1965, The California State Military Museum (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ FtAnderson. html) [37] Colonel Herbert M. Hart, USMC (retired), Historic California Posts: Fort Crook (Camp Hollenbush)from Pioneer Forts of the Far West, published in 1965, The California State Military Museum (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ CpCrook. html) [38] Colonel Herbert M. Hart, USMC (retired), Historic California Posts: Camp Babbitt from Pioneer Forts of the Far West, published in 1965, The California State Military Museum (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ CpBabbitt. html) [39] The Owens Valley Indian War, 1861-1865; Captain John W. Key, V., Submitted to the Faculty of U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. 1979 (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ OwensValley. html) [40] The California State Military Museum, Historic California Posts: Fort Moore (Post at Los Angeles, Fort Hill and including Camp Fitzgerald), reprinted with permission from Colonel Herbert M. Hart, USMC (retired), Old Forts of the Far West, published in 1965 (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ FtMoore. html) [41] The California State Military Museum, Historic California Posts: Camp Latham (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ CpLatham. html) [42] The California State Military Museum, Historic California Posts: Camp Morris (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ CpMorris. html) [43] The California State Military Museum, California and the Civil War (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ HistoryCW. html) [44] Edwin C. Bearss (January 30, 1990). National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination: Bear River Massacre / Massacre at Boa Ogoi, Battle of Bear River (http:/ / pdfhost. focus. nps. gov/ docs/ NHLS/ Text/ 73000685. pdf). National Park Service. and Accompanying 1 photo from 1973 (http:/ / pdfhost. focus. nps. gov/ docs/ NHLS/ Photos/ 73000685. pdf)PDF(135KB) [45] California State Museum, Regiments of the California Volunteers in Federal Service (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ CaVolRegts. html)

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California in the American Civil War

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Further reading
Colton, Ray Charles (1984). The Civil War in the western territories: Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah (http://books.google.com/?id=JdMnyfgENN0C&dq=The+Western+Territories+in+the+Civil+War). University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN9780806119021. Fischer, LeRoy H. (Editor) (1977). The Western Territories in the Civil War. Sunflower University Press (http:// www.sunflower-univ-press.org/back-index/back-mil-civil-ww1.html). Fischer, LeRoy H.(Editor) (1981). Civil War Battles in the West. Sunflower University Press (http://www. sunflower-univ-press.org/back-index/back-mil-civil-ww1.html). Hunt, Aurora (2004). Army of the Pacific: its operations in California, Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, Oregon, Washington, Plains Region, Mexico, etc., 1860-1866 (http://books.google.com/ ?id=OVQPLM8mjGAC). Stackpole Books, Mechanicsville, Pennsylvania. ISBN9780811729789. Hunt, Aurora (1958). Major General James Henry Carleton, 1814-1873: Western Frontier Dragoon (http:// books.google.com/?id=2CDVAAAAMAAJ). Arthur H. Clark Company. Lash, Gary (2001). Duty Well Done: Edward D. Baker's California Regiment (71st Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry). Butternut and Blue (http://www.dealersweb.com/butternut.htm). McLean, James R. (2000). California Sabers. Indiana University Press (http://www.indiana.edu/~iupress/). ISBN0-253-33786-0. Masich, Andrew E. (2006). The Civil War in Arizona; the Story of the California Volunteers, 1861-1865 (http:// books.google.com/books?id=3M5cFr-AHhUC&source=gbs_navlinks_s) (http://www.oupress.com) University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. ISBN 0-8061-3747-9 Orton, Brigadier General Richard H. (1890). The Records of California Men in the War of the Rebellion (http:// books.google.com/?id=RTEOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&q=). Adjutant-General of California. Strobridge, William F. (1994). Regulars in the Redwoods, The U.S. Army in Northern California, 1852-1861. Arthur Clark Company (http://www.ahclark.com/publications/backlist.html). Quinn, Arthur (1994). The Rivals, William Gwin, David Broderick, and the Birth of California. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE. Talbott, Laurence F. (1998). California in the War for Southern Independence. Hale & Co., Los Angeles, California. Official Army Register of Volunteer Force of U.S. Army for Years 1861-1865. (8 parts). Part 7 - Missouri, Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, California, Kansas, Oregon, Nevada Listing of military units, with officers by rank or position; and individual deaths, promotions, transfers, desertions, missing personnel, discharges; battles; enlisted men who received medals of honor. Alphabetical index in back.. United States, War Department. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. 1865. Personal Name Index to the Records of California Men in the War of the rebellion, 1861 to 1867. Gale Research Co., Detroit, Michigan. 1978. "The J.P. Gillis Flag, or the 'Biderman' Flag of California" (http://www.scvcalifornia.net/Vidette2.pdf) article from the August 27, 2002 issue of The Vidette, the newsletter of the Sons of Confederate Veterans, California Division. The War of the Rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies, Volume 27, Part 1, CHAPTER LXII. Operations on the Pacific Coast, January 1,1861 June 30, 1862, United States. War Dept. (http://books.google.com/books?pg=PR7&id=ch4VAAAAYAAJ&output=text) The War of the Rebellion: Volume 35, Part 1, CORRESPONDENCE, ORDERS, AND RETURNS RELATING TO OPERATIONS ON THE PACIFIC COAST FROM JULY 1, 1862, TO JUNE 30, 1865. By United States. War Dept, Robert Nicholson Scott, Henry Martyn WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1897 (http://books.google.com/books?id=dQEVAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage& source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f=false)

California in the American Civil War Records of California men in the war of the rebellion 1861 to 1867 By California. Adjutant General's Office, SACRAMENTO: State Office, J. D. Young, Supt. State Printing. 1890. (http://books.google.com/ books?id=RTEOAAAAIAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s)

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External links

United States of North America, western states, 1861 (http://www.davidrumsey.com/luna/servlet/detail/ RUMSEY~8~1~21340~620040:United-States-of-North-America,-wes?sort=Pub_List_No_InitialSort,Pub_List_No_InitialSort,Pu qvq=q:Nevada+;sort:Pub_List_No_InitialSort,Pub_List_No_InitialSort,Pub_Date,Pub_Date;lc:RUMSEY~8~1& mi=69&trs=266) Map of California in 1860, showing County boundaries, roads (http://www.davidrumsey.com/luna/servlet/ detail/ RUMSEY~8~1~409~20028:Map-Of-The-State-Of-California--Com?sort=Pub_List_No_InitialSort,Pub_List_No_InitialSort,Pub_ qvq=sort:Pub_List_No_InitialSort,Pub_List_No_InitialSort,Pub_Date,Pub_Date;lc:RUMSEY~8~1&mi=60& trs=20041)

Map of the North Pacific States and Territories (http://www.davidrumsey.com/luna/servlet/detail/ RUMSEY~8~1~2124~200001:General-Map-of-the-North-Pacific-St?sort=Pub_List_No_InitialSort,Pub_List_No_InitialSort,Pub_ qvq=q:Nevada+;sort:Pub_List_No_InitialSort,Pub_List_No_InitialSort,Pub_Date,Pub_Date;lc:RUMSEY~8~1& mi=89&trs=266) Map of San Francisco Bay 1859 (http://www.davidrumsey.com/luna/servlet/detail/ RUMSEY~8~1~207~20027:Entrance-to-San-Francisco-Bay-Calif) California Military Museum (http://www.militarymuseum.org/CSM and the CW.html) Snakes in the Grass: Copperheads in Contra Costa? (http://www.cocohistory.com/essays-copperheads.html) San Diego in the Civil War (http://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/61april/civilwar.htm) Copperheads, Secesh Men, and Confederate Guerillas (http://www.santacruzpl.org/history/articles/70/) San Francisco in the Civil War (http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist5/civwar.html) Civil War: How Southern California Tried to Split from Northern California (http://www.kcet.org/updaily/ socal_focus/history/32239-how-southern-california-tried-to-split-from-the-north.html) - KCET

History of California 1900 to present

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History of California 1900 to present

This article continues the history of California in the years 1900 and later; for events through 1899, see History of California to 1899. After 1900, California became an industrial power. While fundamentally conservative, it also exhibited periods of liberal ascension.

Progressive Movement
California was a national leader in the Progressive Movement from the 1890s into the 1920s. A coalition of reform-minded Republicans, especially in southern California, coalesced around Thomas Bard (18411915). Bard's election in 1899 as U.S. Senator enabled the anti-machine Republicans to sustain a continuing opposition to the Southern Pacific Railway's political power. They helped nominate George C. Pardee for governor in 1902 and formed the "Lincoln-Roosevelt League." In 1910 Hiram W. Johnson won the campaign for governor under the slogan "Kick the Southern Pacific out of politics." In 1912 Johnson became the running mate for Theodore Roosevelt on the new Progressive Party ticket.[1] By 1916, however, the Progressives were supporting labor unions, which helped them in ethnic enclaves in the larger cities but alienated the native-stock Protestant, middle-class voters who voted heavily against Senator Johnson and President Wilson in 1916.[2] Political progressivism varied across the state. Los Angeles (population 102,000 in 1900) focused on the dangers posed by the Southern Pacific Railroad, the liquor trade, and labor unions; San Francisco (population 342,000 in 1900) confronted with a corrupt machine that was finally overthrown following the earthquake of 1906. Smaller cities like San Jose (which had a population of 22,000 in 1900) had somewhat different concerns, such as fruit cooperatives, urban development, rival rural economies, and Asian labor.[3] San Diego (population 18,000 in 1900) had both the Southern Pacific and a corrupt machine.[4]

Businessmen
Progressives created a new railroad commission with vastly enlarged powers and brought public utilities under state supervision. Organized businessmen were the leaders of both of these reforms. The driving force for railroad regulation came less from an outraged public seeking lower rates than from shippers and merchants who wanted to stabilize their businesses. Public utility officers spearheaded campaigns for the passage, and, later, the enlargement of the Public Utilities Act. They expected that state regulation would reduce wasteful competition between their companies, improve the value of their companies' securities, and allow them to escape continual wrangling with county and municipal authorities. Although the businessmen were influential in obtaining the passage of bills the wanted, no group of businessmen dominated the California legislature or the railroad commission after 1910. Legislation proposed by some businessmen were opposed by other business interests.[5] Organized labor made significant gains during the Progressive Era, but they were not a result of the benevolent, middle-class reformer actions, but of a powerful lobbying activity on the part of unions with their solid base in San Francisco and Oakland. In the 1920s, most progressives came to view the business culture of the day not as a repudiation of progressive goals but as the fulfillment of it. The most important progressive victories of 1921 were the passage of administrative reorganization laws, the King Bill, increasing corporate taxes, and a progressive budget. In 1927-31, governor Clement Calhoun Young (18691947) brought more progressivism to the state. The state began large-scale hydroelectric power development, and began state aid to the handicapped. California became the first state to enact a modern old-age pension law. The parks system was upgraded and California (like most states) rapidly expanded its highway program, funding it through a tax on gasoline, and creating the famous California Highway Patrol.[6]

History of California 1900 to present

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Women
The Progressive movement aimed to purify society of its corruption, and one way was to enfranchise supposedly "pure" women as voters in 1911, nine years before the 19th Amendment enfranchised women nationally in 1920. Women's clubs flourished and turned a spotlight on issues such as public schools, dirt and pollution, and public health. California women were leaders in the temperance movement, moral reform, conservation, public schools, recreation, and other issues. California became the cleanest and healthiest state with the best educational system in the nation, thanks in large part to the women. The women did not often run for officethat was seen as entangling their purity in the inevitable backroom deals routine in politics.[7]

Organized labor
Organized labor was centered in San Francisco for much of the state's early history. By the opening decades of the twentieth century, labor efforts had expanded to Los Angeles, Long Beach and the Central Valley. In 1901, the San Francisco based City Front Federation was reputed to be the strongest trade federation in the country. It grew out of intense organizational drives in every trade during the boom at the turn of the century. Employers organized as well during the building trades strike of 1900 and the (San Francisco) City Front Federation strike of 1901, which led to the founding of Building Trades Council. The open shop question was at stake. Out of the City Front strike came the Union Labor Party because workers were angry at the mayor for using the police to protect strikebreakers. Eugene Schmitz was elected mayor in 1902 on the party's ticket, making San Francisco the only town in the United States, for a time, to be run by labor. A combination of corruption and unscrupulous reformers culminated in graft prosecutions in 1907. In 1910, Los Angeles was still an open shop and employers in the north threatened for a new push to open San Francisco shops. Responding, labor sent delegations south in June 1910. National organizers were sent in during a lockout of 1,200 idled metal-trades workers. Then occurred an incident that would set back Los Angeles organizing for years, On October 10, 1910, a bomb exploded at the Los Angeles Times newspaper plant that killed twenty-one workers. In the decade following, the rapid growth of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW, or Wobblies) in ununionized trades, logging, wheat farming, lumber camps began extending its efforts to mines, ports and agriculture. The IWW came to public notice after the Wheatland Hop Riot when a sheriff's posse broke up a protest meeting and four people died. It led to the first legislation protecting field labor. The IWW was harmed by anti-union drives and prosecution of members under the state's new criminal syndicalism laws. The IWW was also involved in the 1923 seamen's strike at San Pedro, where Upton Sinclair was arrested for reciting the Declaration of Independence. However, the man who became the most prominent Wobbly of all, Thomas Mooney, soon became a cause-celebre of labor and the most important political prisoner in America.

1920s
The Preparedness Day Bombing killed ten people and hurt labor for decades. During the 1920s, the open shop efforts succeeded through a coordinated strategy called the "American Plan". In one case, the Industrial Association of San Francisco raised over a million dollars to break the building trades strikes in 1921 that led to the collapse of the building trades unions. This employers association cut wages twice in one year, and the Metal Trades Council was defeated, losing an agreement that had been in effect since 1907. The Seamen's Union also suffered defeat in 1921.

History of California 1900 to present

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1930s
Unions grew rapidly after 1935 with political and legal support from the national New Deal and its Wagner Act of 1935. The most serious strike came in 1934 along the state's ports. In May 1934, dock workers and longshoremen along the West Coast went on strike for better hours and pay, a union hiring hall and a coast-wide contract. Communists were in control of the union, the International Longshoremen's Association (ILA), led by Harry Bridges (19011990). On "Bloody Thursday", July 5, 1934, San Francisco was swept by bloody rioting . Striking maritime workers, pitting themselves against police, took control of much of the waterfront and warehouse areas of the city. Two workers were killed and hundreds were clubbed and gassed. The West Coast Waterfront Strike lasted 83 days with longshoremen returning to work on July 31. Arbitration was agreed to and it resulted in a victory for the strikers. and the unionization of all West Coast ports in the United States.[8] San Francisco in the late 1930s had 120,000 union members. Longshoreman wore union buttons on their white union made caps, Teamsters drove trucks as unionists, fishermen, taxi drivers, streetcar conductors, motormen, newsboys, retail clerks, hotel employees, newspapermen and bootlacks all had representation. Against 30,000 trade union members in 1933-34, Los Angeles by the late thirties 200,000, even against a severe 1938 anti-picketing ordinance. But Los Angeles became unionized in the mass production industries of aircraft, auto, rubber, oil and at the yards of San Pedro. Later, drives for unionization spread through musicians, teamsters, building trades, movies, actors, writers and directors. Farm labor remained unorganized, the work brutal and underpaid. In the 1930s, 200,000 farm laborers traveled the state in tune with the seasons. Unions were accused of an "inland march" against landowners Kern County, April 1938. An agricultural worker rights when they took up the early effort to organize farm labor. A with union membership book and pin against the number of valley towns endorsed anti-picketing ordinances to thwart 1938 anti-picketing ballot. (Photo: Dorothea organizing. In the 1933-1934 period, a wave of agricultural strikes Lange) flooded the central valley, including the Imperial Valley lettuce strike and San Joaquin Valley cotton strike. In the 1936 Salinas lettuce strike, vigilante violence shocked the nation. Again, in the spring of 1938, about three hundred men, women and children were driven by vigilantes from their homes in Grass Valley and Nevada City. A 1938 ballot proposition against picketing, "Proposition #1," considered fascist by commentators for the state grange, became a huge political struggle. Proposition #1 failed at the polls. Soon, racist distinctions fell as California unions began to admit non-white members. By the advent of World War II, California had an old-age assistance law, unemployment compensation, a 48 hour work week maximum for women, an apprentice law, and workplace safety rules.

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Examples of engineering
Beginning at the turn of the 20th century, there were several feats of engineering in Californian history. Among many, the first major engineering was in mining, building and railroads. Much later, the Los Angeles Aqueduct, which runs from the Owens Valley, through the Mojave Desert and its Antelope Valley, to dry Los Angeles far to the south. Finished in 1911, it was the brain-child of the self-taught William Mulholland and is still in use today. Creeks flowing from the eastern Sierra are diverted into the aqueduct. This attracted controversy in the 1960s, since this withholds water from Mono Lake an especially otherworldly and beautiful ecosystem and from farmers in the Owens Valley. See also California Water Wars.

A field of California golden poppies.

Other feats are the building of Hoover Dam (which is in Nevada, but provides power and water to Southern California), Hetch Hetchy Reservoir, Shasta Dam, and the California Aqueduct, taking water from northern California to dry and sprawling southern California. Another project was the draining of Lake Tulare, which, during high water was the largest fresh-water lake inside an American state. This created a large wet area amid the dry San Joaquin Valley and swamps abounded at its shores. By the 1970s, it was completely drained, but it attempts to resurrect itself during heavy rains. Automobile travel became important after 1910. A key route was the Lincoln Highway, which was America's first transcontinental road for motorized vehicles, connecting New York City to San Francisco. The creation of the Lincoln Highway in 1913 was a major stimulus on the development of both industry and tourism in the state. Similar effects occurred in 1926 with the creation of Route 66.

Oil, movies, and the military

In the 1850s, oil was collected and refined for the first time in California, both in Ventura County and the Los Angeles area, and in the 1860s the first wells were dug. By the 1890s numerous oil fields, including the Summerland Oil Field near Santa Barbara, location of the world's first offshore oil wells, the giant Midway-Sunset field in Kern County, and several fields in the Los Angeles Basin were contributing to an oil boom that made California one of the largest oil producers in the nation. Oil during the period was the most profitable industry in the southern part of the state.[9] The first decades of the twentieth century saw the rise of the studio system. MGM, Universal and Warner Brothers all acquired land in Hollywood, which was then a small subdivision known as "Hollywoodland" on the outskirts of Los Angeles. The enormous variety in terrain and the sunshine made film making easier and cheaper, as actors, producers, financiers and craftsmen headed to Hollywood. The movies made California even better known, attracting hundreds of thousands of migrants, especially from the Midwest, who loved the mild Mediterranean climate, cheap land, and new jobs. By the 1930s, Hollywood had extended its reach into radio, and by mid-century Southern California had also become a major center of television production, hosting studios for major networks such as NBC and CBS. In the 1934 California gubernatorial election novelist Upton Sinclair was the narrowly defeated Democratic nominee, running on the platform of the socialist End Poverty in California (EPIC) movement, a radical response to the Great Depression. Other radical movements flourished, such as the Townsend Plan for old age pension, and "Ham and Eggs", which promised "$30 Every Thursday" to everyone over age 50. Voters narrowly rejected it in 1938 and the utopians failed to enact any panaceas; however the movements did spawn a generation of activists on the left.[10]

History of California 1900 to present During World War II, California's mild climate became a major resource for the war effort. Numerous air-training bases were established in Southern California, where most aircraft manufacturers, including Douglas Aircraft and Hughes Aircraft expanded or established factories. Major naval, shipyards were established or expanded in San Diego, Long Beach and San Francisco Bay. San Francisco was the home of the liberty ships.

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Baby boomers and free spirits

After the war, hundreds of land developers bought land cheap, subdivided it, built on it, and got rich. Real-estate development replaced oil and agriculture as Southern California's principal industry. In 1955, Disneyland opened in Anaheim. In 1958, Major League Baseball's Dodgers and Giants left New York City and came to Los Angeles and San Francisco, respectively. The population of California expanded dramatically, to nearly 20 million by 1970. This was the coming-of-age of the Baby Boom. In the late 1960s the baby-boom generation reached draft age, and many risked arrest to oppose the war in Vietnam. There were numerous demonstrations and strikes, most famously on the prestigious Berkeley campus of the University of California, across the bay from San Francisco. In 1965, race riots erupted in Watts, in the South Central area of Los Angeles. The hippie riots on the Sunset Strip in Los Angeles were also immortalized by Buffalo Springfield in "For What It's Worth" (1966). Some commentators predicted revolution. Then the federal government promised to withdraw from the Vietnam War, which at last happened in 1974. The radical political movements, having achieved a large part of their aim, lost members and funding. California still was a land of free spirits, open hearts, easy-going living. Popular music of the period bore titles such as "California Girls," "California Dreamin'," "San Francisco (Be Sure to Wear Flowers in Your Hair)," "Do You Know the Way to San Jose" and "Hotel California". These reflected the Californian promise of easy living in a paradisaical climate. The surfing culture burgeoned. Many took low-paying jobs and joined the surfers living in trailers at the beach and many others forsook ambition and joined the hippies free living in cities. The most famous hippie hangout was the Haight-Ashbury district of San Francisco. The state's cities, especially San Francisco, became famous for their gentility and tolerance. A distinctive and idyllic Californian culture emerged for a time. The peak of this culture, in 1967, was known as the Summer of Love. California became known elsewhere in the U.S. often derogatorily, as the "land of fruits and nuts."

Economic power house

Conversely, during the same period, the Golden State also attracted commercial and industrial expansion of astronomical rates. The adoption of a Master Plan for Higher Education in 1960 allowed the development of a highly efficient system of public education in the Community Colleges and the University of California and California State University systems; by creating an educated workforce, it attracted investment, particularly in areas related to high technology. By 1980, California became recognized as the world's eighth-largest economy. Millions of workers were needed to fuel the expansion. The high population of the time caused tremendous problems with urban sprawl, traffic, pollution, and, to a lesser extent, crime. Urban sprawl created a backlash in many urban areas, with the local governments limiting growth beyond certain boundaries, reducing lot sizes for building homes, and so on. Open Space Districts were created in several parts of the state specifically to obtain, manage, and preserve undeveloped land. For example, in the San Francisco Bay Area, the open space districts have created a nearly contiguous range of permanently undeveloped land running through the coastal range and hills surrounding the Bay's urban valleys, enabling the creation of huge natural parks and envisioning a hiking trail that will eventually circumnavigate the Bay in an unbroken loop. The immense problem with air pollution (smog) that had developed by the early 1970s also caused a backlash. With schools being closed routinely in urban areas for "smog days" when the ozone levels became too unhealthy and the hills surrounding urban areas seldom visible even within a mile, Californians were ready for changes. Over the next

History of California 1900 to present three decades, California enacted some of the strictest anti-smog regulations in the United States and has been a leader in encouraging nonpolluting strategies for various industries, including automobiles. For example, carpool lanes normally allow only vehicles with two/three or more occupants (whether the base number is two or three depends on what freeway you are on), but electric cars can use the lanes with only a single occupant. As a result, smog is significantly reduced from its peak, although local Air Quality Management Districts still monitor the air and generally encourage people to avoid polluting activities on hot days when smog is expected to be at its worst. Traffic and transportation remain a problem in urban areas. Solutions are implemented, but inevitably the implementation expense and the time required to plan, approve, and build infrastructure can't keep pace with the population growth. There have been some improvements. Carpool lanes have become common in urban areas, which are intended to encourage people to drive together rather than in individual automobiles. San Jose is gradually building a light rail system (ironically, often over routes of an original turn-of-the-century electric railroad line that was torn out and paved over to encourage the advent of the automobile age). None of the implemented solutions are without their critics. The sprawling nature of the Bay Area and of the Los Angeles Basin makes it difficult to build mass transit that can reach and serve a significant portion of the population.

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The California legal revolution

During the 1960s, under the aegis of Chief Justice Roger J. Traynor, the California Supreme Court became more liberal and progressive. Traynor's term as Chief Justice (from 1964 to 1970) was marked by a number of firsts: California was the first state to create true strict liability in product liability cases, the first to allow the action of negligent infliction of emotional distress (NIED) even in the absence of physical injury to the plaintiff, and the first to allow bystanders to sue for NIED where the only physical injury was to a relative. Starting in the 1960s, California became a leader in family law. California was the first state to allow true no-fault divorce, with the passage of the Family Law Act of 1969. In 1994, the Legislature took family law out of the Civil Code and created a new Family Code. In 2002, the Legislature granted registered domestic partners the same rights under state law as married spouses. In 2008 California became the second state to legalize same-sex marriage when the California Supreme Court ruled the ban unconstitutional. Since the mid-1980s, the California Supreme Court has become more conservative, particularly with regard to the rights of criminal defendants. This is commonly seen as a reaction against the strict anti-death penalty stance of Chief Justice Rose Bird in the early 1980s although the funding that eventually brought about her defeat was from corporate and business interests concerned with what they felt was an anti-business stance by the Chief Justice. The state's electorate responded by removing her (and two of her perceived liberal allies) from the court in November 1986.

High-tech expansion
Starting in the 1950s, high technology companies in Northern California began a spectacular growth that continued through the end of the century. The major products included personal computers, video games, and networking systems. The majority of these companies settled along a highway stretching from Palo Alto to San Jose, notably including Santa Clara and Sunnyvale, California, all in the Santa Clara Valley, the so-called "Silicon Valley," named after the material used to produce the integrated circuits of the era. This era peaked in 2000, by which time demand for skilled technical professionals had become so high that the high-tech industry had trouble filling all of its positions and therefore pushed for increased visa quotas so that they could recruit from overseas. When the "Dot-com bubble" burst in 2001, jobs evaporated overnight and, for the first time over the next two years, more people moved out of the area than moved in. This somewhat mirrored the collapse of the aerospace industry in southern California some twenty years earlier.

History of California 1900 to present By 2004, it seemed that many of the coveted high-tech jobs were either "off-shored" to India at ten percent of the labor costs in the U.S., or "on-shored" by recruiting newcomers from among the billions in India and China. New laws have removed caps to visas, especially since the adoption of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Tens of millions of people from the third world have entered the U.S. since 1960, settling at first mainly in California and the Southwest, but now throughout the continent. In 1960 (when the birth rate nearly equaled the replacement rate) the population of the U.S. was 180 million; in 2000, it was 280 million.

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Post 2000: problems mount

Although air pollution problems have been reduced, health problems associated with pollution have continued. The brown haze known as "smog," has been substantially abated thanks to federal and state restrictions on automobile exhaust.[11] [12] An energy crisis in 2001 led to rolling blackouts, soaring power rates, and the importation of electricity from neighboring states. With Southern California Edison and Pacific Gas and Electric Company coming under heavy criticism.[13]

Housing bubble bursts

The ongoing demand for well educated workers continued. Housing prices in urban areas continued to increase so that a modest home that, in the 1960s, cost $25,000, cost half a million dollars or more in urban areas by 2005. More people commuted longer hours to afford a home in more rural areas while earning larger salaries in the urban areas. Speculators bought houses they never intended to live in, expecting to make a huge profit in a matter of months then rolling it over by buying more properties. Mortgage companies were compliant, as everyone assumed the prices would keep rising. The bubble burst in 2007-8 as housing prices began to crash and the boom years ended. Hundreds of billions in property values vanished and foreclosures soared as many financial institutions and investors were badly hurt..[14] [15]

Third millennium politics

In the 2002 gubernatorial campaign, Democratic incumbent Gray Davis defeated Republican challenger Bill Simon. On October 7, 2003, Davis was recalled, with 55.4% of the voters supporting the recall (see results of the 2003 California recall). With a plurality of 48.6% of the vote, Republican Arnold Schwarzenegger was chosen as the new governor. Lieutenant Governor Cruz Bustamante received 31.5% of the vote, and Republican State Senator Tom McClintock received 13.5% of the vote. Schwarzenegger began his shortened term with a soaring approval rating and soon after began implementing a conservative agenda. This initially resulted in sparring with the heavily Democratic Assembly and Senate over the state budget, battles which provided his infamous "girly men" comment but also began taking their toll on his approval rating. Schwarzenegger then embarked on a campaign to enact several ballot propositions in a 2005 Special Election touted as reforming California's budget system, redistricting powers, and union political fundraising. The union-led campaign spearheaded by the California Nurses Association contributed heavily to the defeat of every proposition in the Special Election. Since this conspicuous failure, Schwarzenegger has made a turn back to the left, criticizing the Bush Administration at many junctures, reviving his environmental agenda, and compromising with the legislature on the traditionally Democratic issue of education spending. His approval rating has also been revived, and he was re-elected in 2006. However continued paralysis in state government and the inability of the Legislature and Governor to work out the fundamental funding questions has resulted in voter disapproval of both the legislators and the Governor whose approval rating is among the lowest ever recorded pending the election of a successor in November, 2010.

History of California 1900 to present

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References
[1] W. H. Hutchinson, "Prologue to Reform: the California Anti-Railroad Republicans, 1899-1905". Southern California Quarterly 1962 44(3): 175-218 [2] Michael Rogin, "Progressivism and the California Electorate," Journal of American History 1968 55(2): 297-314 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 1899560) [3] Timothy J. Lukes, "Progressivism Off-Broadway: Reform Politics in San Jose, California, 1880-1920." Southern California Quarterly 1994 76(4): 377-400 [4] Grace L. Miller, "The Origins of the San Diego Lincoln-Roosevelt League, 1905-1909." Southern California Quarterly 1978 60(4): 421-443 [5] Mansel G. Blackford, "Businessmen and the Regulation of Railroads and Public Utilities in California during the Progressive Era." Business History Review 1970 44(3): 307-319 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 3112616) [6] Jackson K. Putnam, "The Persistence of Progressivism in the 1920's: the Case of California," Pacific Historical Review 1966 35(4): 395-411 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 3636975) [7] Robert W. Cherny, Mary Ann Irwin, and Ann Marie Wilson, eds. California Women and Politics: From the Gold Rush to the Great Depression (University of Nebraska Press; 2011) [8] Robert W. Cherny, "Prelude to the Popular Front: The Communist Party in California, 1931-35." American Communist History 2002 1(1): 5-42 online at EBSCO [9] Oil and Gas Production: History in California. California Department of Conservation. (ftp:/ / ftp. consrv. ca. gov/ pub/ oil/ history/ History_of_Calif. pdf) [10] Daniel J. B. Mitchell, "The Lessons of Ham and Eggs: California's 1938 and 1939 Pension Ballot Propositions," Southern California Quarterly, June 2000, Vol. 82 Issue 2, pp 193-218 [11] William Deverell, and Greg Hise, eds. Land of Sunshine: An Environmental History of Metropolitan Los Angeles (2005). [12] James E. Krier, and Edmund Ursin, Pollution and Policy: A Case Essay on California and Federal Experience with Motor Vehicle Air Pollution, 1940-1975 (1978) [13] Severin Borenstein, "The Trouble With Electricity Markets: Understanding California's Restructuring Disaster," Journal of Economic Perspectives, Winter 2002, Vol. 16 Issue 1, pp 191-211 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 2696582) [14] Robert M. Hardaway, The Great American Housing Bubble: The Road to Collapse (2011) pp 22 [15] Stephen D. Cummings and Patrick B. Reddy, California after Arnold (2009) p. 102

Bibliography
Scholarly surveys
Aron, Stephen. "Convergence, California and the Newest Western History," California History Volume: 86#4 September 2009. pp 4+ historiography. Bakken, Gordon Morris. California History: A Topical Approach (2003) Cherney, Robert W., Richard Griswold del Castillo, and Gretchen Lemke-Santangelo. Competing Visions: A History Of California (2005) Deverell, William, and David Igler, eds. A Companion to California History (2008), long essays by scholars excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/dp/1405161833) Hart, James D. A Companion to California (2nd ed. 1987), 591 pp; encyclopedia of state history Hayes, Derek. Historical Atlas of California: With Original Maps, (2007), 256pp Pitt, Leonard, and Dale Pitt. Los Angeles A to Z: An Encyclopedia of the City and County (2000) Rawls, James J. ed. New Directions In California History: A Book of Readings (1988) Rawls, James and Walton Bean (2003). California: An Interpretive History. ISBN0-07-052411-4. 8th edition Rice, Richard B., William A. Bullough, and Richard J. Orsi. Elusive Eden: A New History of California 3rd ed (2001) Rolle, Andrew F. California: A History 6th ed. (2003) Starr, Kevin. (Note that there are numerous editions of this monumental state history, with slight title changes) Starr, Kevin California: A History (2005), one-vol. synthesis Americans and the California Dream, 1850-1915 (1973) (http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o& d=71529502)

History of California 1900 to present Inventing the Dream: California through the Progressive Era (1986) (http://www.questia.com/PM. qst?a=o&d=76788150) Material Dreams: Southern California through the 1920s(1991) (http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o& d=59159756) Endangered Dreams : The Great Depression in California (1997) The Dream Endures: California Enters the 1940s (1997) (http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o& d=24360325) Embattled Dreams: California in War and Peace, 1940-1950 (2003) Coast of Dreams: California on the Edge, 1990-2003 (2004) Sucheng, Chan , and Spencer C. Olin, eds. Major Problems in California History (1996)

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Environment, transportation, agriculture, water

Carle, David. Introduction to Water in California. (2004). 261 pp. Deverell, William and Hise, Greg, eds. Land of Sunshine: An Environmental History of Metropolitan Los Angeles. U. of Pittsburgh Press, 2005. 350 pp. excerpt and online search (http://www.amazon.com/dp/ 0822959399) Deverell, William. Railroad Crossing: Californians and the Railroad, 1850-1910. (1994). 278 pp. Godfrey, Anthony. The Ever-Changing View: A History of the National Forests in California. US Forest Service, 2005. 657 pp. Griggs, Gary; Patsch, Kiki; and Savoy, Lauret, eds. Living with the Changing California Coast. (2005). 540 pp. Hundley Jr., Norris. The Great Thirst: Californians and Water-A History (2nd ed 2001) excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/dp/0520224566) Isenberg, Andrew C. Mining California: An Ecological History. (2005). 242 pp. Jelinek, Lawrence. Harvest Empire: A History of California Agriculture (1982) Merchant, Carolyn ed. Green Versus Gold: Sources In California's Environmental History (1998) readings in primary and secondary sources excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/dp/1559635800) Pincetl, Stephanie S. Transforming California: A Political History of Land Use and Development (2003) excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/dp/0801873126) Righter, Robert W. The Battle over Hetch Hetchy: America's Most Controversial Dam and the Birth of Modern Environmentalism. (2005). 303 pp. Sackman, Douglas Cazaux. Orange Empire: California and the Fruits of Eden. (2005). 386 pp. Street, Richard Steven. Beasts of the Field: A Narrative History of California Farmworkers, 1769-1913. (2004). 904 pp. Thompson, Gregory Lee. The Passenger Train in the Motor Age: California's Rail and Bus Industries, 1910-1941. (1993). 247 pp.

Scholarly specialty studies

Abelmann, Nancy, and John Lie. Blue Dreams: Korean Americans and the Los Angeles Riots (1995) (http:// www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=100946216) Aron, Stephen. "Convergence, California and the Newest Western History," California History Volume: 86#4 September 2009. pp 4+ historiography. Fogelson, Robert M. The Fragmented Metropolis: Los Angeles, 1850-1930 (1993) Miller, Sally M., and Daniel A. Cornford eds. American Labor in the Era of World War II (1995) (http://www. questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=15166874) essays by scholars, mostly on California Roger W. Lotchin. Fortress California, 1910-1961 (2002) George E. Mowry. The California Progressives (1963)

History of California 1900 to present Sackman. Douglas Cazaux. Orange Empire: California and the Fruits of Eden. (2005) comprehensive, multidimensional history of citrus industry Stephanie S. Pincetl. Transforming California: A Political History of Land Use and Development (2003) Sitton, Tom and William F, Deverell, eds. Metropolis in the Making: Los Angeles in the 1920s (2001) Danielle Jean Swiontek. With Ballots and Pocketbooks: Women, Labor, and Reform in Progressive California (2006)

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76

History of California cities

History of Los Angeles
For the main article, see Los Angeles. Los Angeles changed rapidly after 1848, when California was transferred to the United States as a result of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo that ended the Mexican-American War. Much greater changes were to come from the completion of the Transcontinental Railroad in 1876. For the next 120 years of Los Angeles' growth, it was plagued by often violent ethnic and class conflict, reflected in the struggle over who would control the city's identity, image, geography and history.

Prehistory
Recent archeological studies show there was a seafaring culture in Southern California in 8,000 B.C. By 3,000 B.C. the area was occupied by the Hokan-speaking people of the Milling Stone Period who fished, hunted sea mammals, and gathered wild seeds. They were later replaced by migrants possibly fleeing drought in the Great Basin who spoke a Uto-Aztecan language called Tongva, who were later named by the Spanish as the Gabrielinos and Fernandeos. The Tongva people called the Los Angeles region Yaa in Tongva.[1] By the time of the arrival of the Spaniard in the 18th century A.D., there were 250,000 to 300,000 native people in California and 5,000 in the Los Angeles basin. Since contact with Europeans, the people in what became Los Angeles were known as Gabrielinos and Fernandeos, after the missions associated with them.[2] The land occupied and used by the Gabrielinos covered about four thousand square miles. It included the enormous floodplain drained by the Los Angeles and San Gabriel rivers and the southern Channel Islands, including the Santa Barbara, San Clemente, Santa Catalina, and San Nicholas Islands. They were part of a sophisticated group of trading partners that included the Chumash to the north, the Cahuilla and Mojave to the east, and the Juaneos and Luiseos to the south. Their trade extended to the Colorado River and included slavery.[3] The lives of the Gabrielinos were governed by a set of religious and cultural practices that included belief in creative supernatural forces. They worshipped a creator god, Chinigchinix, and a female virgin god, Chukit. Their Great Morning Ceremony was based on a belief in the afterlife. In a purification ritual similar to the Eucharist, they drank tolguache, a hallucinogenic made from jimson weed and salt water. Their language was called Kizh or Kij, and they practiced cremation.[4] [5] [6] Generations before the arrival of the Europeans, the Gabrielinos had identified and lived in the best sites for human occupation. The survival and success of Los Angeles would depend greatly on the presence of a nearby and prosperous Gabrielino village called Yaanga. Its residents would provide the colonists with seafood, fish, bowls, pelts, and baskets. For pay, they would dig ditches, haul water, and provide domestic help. They often intermarried with the Mexican colonists.[7]

History of Los Angeles

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History
Spanish Era 17691821
In 1542 the first Europeans to visit the Los Angeles region were Captain Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo and his crew. They were sailing up the coast looking for a new passage to Asia. In 1602, Captain Sebastin Vizcano dropped anchor at Santa Catalina Island and near San Pedro. It would be another 166 years before another European would visit the region.[2] The Spanish expedition of Alta California Los Angeles had its beginnings between 1765 and 1771 in the plans of a royal bureaucrat visiting New Spain, General Jos de Glvez. He was in charge of implementing Bourbon administrative reforms. His reorganization included plans for the further exploration of Alta California and the settlement of a whole line of missions and presidios ("military forts"). The military forts were not self-sustaining, and the missions would supply them with goods and food. Galvez petitioned the king to approve these plans with these arguments: 1. It would provide new revenues for the Vice Royalty governing New Spain. 2. It would protect the Spanish Empire in North America, especially from the encroaching Russians. 3. It would provide a base for increasing trade with Asia. The plans also had the support of the Franciscans who wanted to open new missions in Alta California. Galvez's petition resulted in the formation of a joint land-and -sea expedition. Its primary purpose was to occupy Monterey (which had been visited by Vizcano in 1602) and establish new missions and presidios there and in San Diego. To lead the expedition, Galvez appointed the new governor of California Lieutenant Colonel Gaspar de Portola and Father Junipero Serra, Franciscan head of the former Jesuit missions in Baja California.[8] During the land expedition from San Diego to Monterey, engineer Michael Costanso and Father Juan Crespi accompanied Portola. They kept careful notes of all they observed. Reaching the future site of Los Angeles, the party camped out along side a river. Portola named the river Porciuncula. The name came from an approaching Franciscan religious celebration that honored the mother church of the Franciscans, the Porziuncola ("small piece of land") in the Italian frazione of Saint Mary of the Angels.[9] Father Crespi made these observations: Thursday, 3, 1769. At half past six, we left the camp and forded the Porciuncula River, which runs down from the valley, flowing through it from the mountains to the plain. After crossing the river we entered a large vineyard of wild grapes and an infinity of rosebushes in full bloom. All the soil is black and loamy, and is capable of producing every kind of grain and fruit which may be planted. We went west, continually over good land well covered with grass. After traveling about half a league we came to the village of this region, the people of which, on seeing us, came out to the road.[10]

The "Old Plaza Church" facing the Plaza, 1869. The brick reservoir in the middle of the Plaza was the original terminus of the Zanja Madre.

History of Los Angeles Plans for the pueblo The one person most responsible for the founding of Los Angeles was the new Governor of California, Felipe de Neve. In 1777 Neve toured Alta California and decided to establish civic pueblos for the support of the military presidios. Neve was a Renaissance person. The new pueblos would reduce the secular power of the missions by reducing the dependency of the military on them. At the same time, they would promote the development of industry and agriculture. Neve identified Santa Barbara, San Jose, and Los Angeles as sites for his new pueblos. His plans for them closely followed a set of Spanish city-planning laws contained in the Laws of the Indies promulgated by King Philip II in 1573. Those laws were responsible for laying the foundations of the largest cities in the region, including Los Angeles, San Francisco, Tucson, and San Antonioas well as Sonoma, Monterey, Santa Fe, San Jose, and Laredo.[8] The royal regulations were based on the ancient teachings of Vitruvius, who set down the rules for founding of new cities in the Roman Empire. Basically, the Spanish laws called for an open central plaza, surrounded by a fortified church, administrative buildings, and streets laid out in a grid, defining rectangles of limited size to be used for farming (suertes) and residences (solares).[11] It was in accordance with such precise planningspecified in the Law of the Indiesthat Governor Neve founded the pueblo of San Jose de Guadalupe, California's first municipality, on the great plain of Santa Clara on 29 November 1777.[12] The Los Angeles Pobladores The Los Angeles Pobladores ("townspeople") is the name given to the 44 original settlers, 22 adults and 22 children, who founded the town. In December, 1777 Viceroy Antonio Mara de Bucareli y Ursa and Commandant General Teodoro de Croix gave approval for the founding of a civic municipality at Los Angeles and a new presidio at Santa Barbara. Croix put the California lieutenant governor Fernando Rivera y Moncada in charge of recruiting colonists for the new settlements. He was originally instructed to recruit 55 soldiers, 22 settlers with families and 1,000 head of livestock that included horses for the military. After an exhausting search that took him to Mazatlan, Rosario, and Durango, Rivera y Moncada only recruited 12 settlers and 45 soldiers. Like the people of most towns in New Spain, they were a mix of Indian and Spanish backgrounds. Croix instructed Rivera y Moncada to delay no longer and proceed north. The soldiers, settlers, and livestock were assembled at Alamos, Sonora, before departure.[13] They were divided into two groups. One group, under Alfrez Jos de Ziga and Alfrez Ramon Laso de la Vega, set out for the coast. They crossed the Gulf of California on launches and then travelled overland to San Diego and up to San Gabriel.[13] The second group, under Rivera y Moncada, took an overland route over the desert, passing by the new missions on the Colorado River, La Pursima Concepcin and Mission San Pedro y San Pablo de Bicuer. The group arrived at the Colorado River in June 1781. Rivera y Moncada sent most of his party ahead, but he stayed behind to rest the livestock before their drive across the desert. His party would never reach San Gabriel. The Quechan and Mojave Indians rose up against the party for encroaching on their farmlands and for other abuses inflicted by the soldiers. The Quechan Revolt was swift and killed 95 settlers and soldiers, including Rivera y Moncada.[13] Governor Neve had arrived in San Gabriel in April to finish his plans, El Reglamento, and select the exact location for Los Angeles. He carefully attended to every detail. While waiting for the colonists to arrive, he visited Yaanga, the Indian village near his selected site. He selected several children for reception into the Church and baptized a young couple and had their marriage blessed. In his Reglamento, the newly baptized Indians were no longer to reside in the mission but live in their traditional rancheras (villages). Neve's new plans for the Indians' role in his new town drew instant disapproval from the

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History of Los Angeles mission priests.[14] Ziga's party arrived at the mission on 18 July 1781. Because they had arrived with smallpox, they were immediately quarantined a short distance away from the mission. Members of the other party would arrive at different times by August. They made their way to Los Angeles and probably received their land before September.[14] The founding The official date for the founding of the city is September 4, 1781. According to a written message sent by Governor Neve to report the pueblo's juridical foundation, that was when 44 pobladores, or settlers, gathered at San Gabriel Mission and, escorted by soldiers and two padres from the mission, set out for the chosen spot that Cresp had recorded twelve years earlier. According to historian Antonio Rios-Bustamante, however, the families had arrived from Mexico earlier in 1781, in two groups, and some of them had most likely been working on their assigned plots of land since the early summer.[15] The name first given to the settlement is debated. Historian Doyce P. Nunis has said that the Spanish named it "El Pueblo de la Reyna de los Angeles" ("The Town of the Queen of the Angels"). For proof, he pointed to a map dated 1785, where that phrase was used. Frank Weber, the diocesan archivist, replied, however, that the name given by the founders was "El Pueblo de Nuestra Senora de los Angeles de Porciuncula," or "the town of Our Lady of the Angels of Porciuncula." and that the map was in error.[9] The early pueblo At the end of the first year only eight of the original founders were still in the pueblo; three had been forced out "for being useless to themselves and the town." But the town grew as soldiers and other settlers came into town and stayed. In 1784 a chapel was built on the Plaza. The pobladores were given title to their land two years later. By 1800, there were 29 buildings that surrounded the Plaza, flat-roofed, one-story adobe buildings with thatched roofs made of tule.[16] By 1821 Los Angeles had grown into a self-sustaining farming community, the largest in Southern California. Its development conformed strictly to the Law of the Indies and the Reglamento of Governor Neve. The pueblo itself included a square of 10,000 varas, five and a quarter miles on each side. The central Plaza was in the middle, 75 varas (208ft.) wide and 100 varas (277ft.) long. On the west side of the Plaza facing east, space was reserved for a church and municipal buildings. Each vecino received a solar (lot) 20 varas (55.5ft.) wide and 40 varas (110ft.) long.[12] Each settler also received four rectangles of land, suertes, for farming, two irrigated plots and two dry ones. Each plot was 200 square varas. The farm plots were separated from the pueblo by a tract of land 200 varas wide. Some plots of land, propios, were set aside for the pueblo's general use and revenue. Other plots of land, realengas, were set aside for future settlers. Land outside the city, baldos, included mountains, rivers, lakes, and forests, and belonged to the king.[8] [17] When the settlers arrived, the Los Angeles floodplain was heavily wooded with willows and oaks. The Los Angeles river flowed all year. Wildlife was plentiful, including deer, antelope, and bear, even an occasional grizzly. There were abundant wetlands and swamps. Steelhead and salmon swam the rivers. The first settlers built a water system consisting of ditches (zanjas) leading from the river through the middle of town and into the farmlands. Indians were employed to haul fresh drinking water from a special pool farther upstream. The city was first known as a producer of fine wine grapes. The raising of cattle and the commerce in tallow and hides would come later.[18] Because of the great economic potential for Los Angeles, the demand for Indian labor grew rapidly. Yaanga began attracting Indians from the islands and as far away as San Diego and San Luis Obispo. The village began to look like a refugee camp. Unlike the missions, the pobladores paid Indians for their labor. In exchange for their work as farm

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History of Los Angeles workers, vaqueros, ditch diggers, water haulers, and domestic help; they were paid in clothing and other goods as well as cash and alcohol. The pobladores bartered with them for prized sea-otter and seal pelts, sieves, trays, baskets, mats, and other woven goods. This commerce greatly contributed to the economic success of the town and the attraction of other Indians to the city.[7] During the 1780s, San Gabriel Mission became the object of an Indian revolt. The mission had expropriated all the suitable farming land; the Indians found themselves abused and forced to work on lands that they once owned. A young Indian healer, Toypurina began touring the area, preaching against the injustices suffered by her people. She won over four rancheras and led them in an attack on the mission at San Gabriel. The soldiers were able to defend the mission, and arrested 17, including Toypurina.[19] Because the Indians were exploited, starved, beaten, and raped in the pueblo as often as anywhere else, the officials knew they had to protect them to assure a cheap supply of labor. In 1787 Governor Pedro Fages drew up his "Instructions for the Corporal Guard of the Pueblo of Los Angeles." The Instructions included rules for employing Indians, not using corporal punishment, and protecting the Indian rancheras. As a result, Indians found themselves with more freedom to choose between the benefits of the missions and the pueblo-associated rancheras.[20] In 1784 California's first three ranchos were granted to soldiers, all in Los Angeles County. Rancho San Pedro was given to Juan Jos Dominguez, Rancho San Rafael to Jos Mara Verdugo, and Rancho Los Nietos to Mauel Nieto. The grants stipulated that Indian employees stay clear of San Gabriel, further drawing them away from the missions and closer to the life of the pueblo.[15] In 1795, Sergeant Pablo Cota led an expedition from the Simi Valley through the Conejo-Calabasas region and into the San Fernando Valley. His party visited the rancho of Francisco Reyes. They found the local Indians hard at work as vaqueros and caring for crops. Padre Vincente de Santa Maria was traveling with the party and made these observations: All of pagandom (Indians) is fond of the pueblo of Los Angeles, of the rancho of Reyes, and of the ditches (water system). Here we see nothing but pagans, clad in shoes, with sombreros and blankets, and serving as muleteers to the settlers and rancheros, so that if it were not for the gentiles there would be neither pueblos nor ranches. These pagan Indians care neither for the missions nor for the missionaries.[21] Not only economic ties but also marriage drew many Indians into the life of the pueblo. In 1784only three years after the foundingthe first recorded marriages in Los Angeles took place. The two sons of settler Basilio Rosas, Maximo and Jos Carlos, married two young Indian women, Mara Antonia and Mara Dolores.[22] The construction on the Plaza of La Iglesia de Nuestra Seora de Los ngeles took place between 1818 and 1822, much of it with Indian labor. The new church completed Governor Neve's planned transition of authority from mission to pueblo. The angelinos would no longer have to make the bumpy 11-mile (18km) ride to Sunday Mass at Mission San Gabriel. In 1820 the route of El Camino Viejo was established from Los Angeles, over the mountains to the north and up the west side of the San Joaquin Valley to the east side of San Francisco Bay. Although many Indians benefited from assimilation into the life of the pueblo, traditional Indians remained at the bottom of the social ladder and were exploited as workers.

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History of Los Angeles

81

The Mexican Era 18211848

Mexico's independence from Spain in 1821 was celebrated with great festivity throughout Alta California. No longer subjects of the king, people were now ciudadanos, citizens with rights under the law. In the plazas of Monterey, Santa Barbara, Los Angeles, and other settlements, people swore allegiance to the new government, the Spanish flag was lowered, and the flag of independent Mexico raised.[15] Independence brought other advantages, including economic growth. There was a corresponding increase in population as more Indians were assimilated and others arrived from America, Europe, and other parts of Mexico. Before 1820, there were just 650 people in the pueblo. By 1841, the population nearly tripled to 1,680.[23] Secularization of the Missions During the rest of the 1820s the agriculture and cattle ranching expanded, as did the trade in hides and tallow. The new church was completed, and the political life of the city developed. Los Angeles was separated from Santa Barbara administration. The system of ditches which provided water from the river was rebuilt. Trade and commerce further increased with the secularization of the California missions by the Mexican Congress in 1833. Extensive mission lands suddenly became available to government officials, ranchers, and land speculators. The governor made more than 800 land grants during this period. Much of this progress, however, bypassed the Indians of the traditional villages who were not assimilated into the mestizo culture. Being regarded as minors who could not think for themselves, they were increasingly marginalized and relieved of their land titles, often by being drawn into debt or alcohol.[24] In 1834, Governor Pico was married to Maria Ignacio Alvarado in the Plaza church. It was attended by the entire population of the pueblo, 800 people, plus hundreds from elsewhere in Alta California. In 1835, the Mexican Congress declared Los Angeles a city, making it the official capital of Alta California. It was now the region's leading city. The same period also saw the arrival of many foreigners from the United States and Europe. They would play a pivotal role in the U.S. takeover. Early California settler John Bidwell included several historical figures in his recollection of people he knew in March, 1845. It then had probably two hundred and fifty people, of whom I recall Don Abel Stearns, John Temple, Captain Alexander Bell, William Wolfskill, Lemuel Carpenter,[25] [26] [27] David W. Alexander; also of Mexicans, Pio Pico (governor), Don Juan Bandini, and others.[28] Upon arriving in Los Angeles in 1831,Jean-Louis Vignes he bought 104 acres (0.42km2) of land located between the original Pueblo and the banks of the Los Angeles River. He planted a vineyard and started preparing to make wine.[29] He named his property El Aliso after the centuries old tree found near the entrance. The grapes available at the time, of the Mission variety, were brought to Alta California by the Franciscan Brothers at the end of the 18th century. They grew well and yielded large quantities of wine, but Jean-Louis Vignes was not satisfied with the results. Therefore, he decided to import better vines from Bordeaux, Cabernet Sauvignon Cabernet Franc and Sauvignon Blanc. In 1840, Jean-Louis Vignes made the first recorded shipment of California wine. The Los Angeles market was too small for his production, and he loaded a shipment on the Monsoon, bound for Northern California.[30] By 1842, he made regular shipments to Santa Barbara, Monterey and San Francisco. By 1849, El Aliso, was the most extensive vineyard in California. Vignes owned over 40,000 vines and produced 150,000 bottles, or 1000 barrels, per year.[31]

History of Los Angeles The Battle of Los Angeles In May, 1846, the Mexican American War broke out. Because of Mexico's inability to defend its northern territories, California was exposed to invasion. On August 6, 1846, Commodore Robert F. Stockton anchored off San Pedro and proceeded to march inland to occupy Los Angeles. On August 13, accompanied by John C. Frmont, Stockton marched into the Los Angeles Plaza with his brass band playing "Yankee Doodle" and "Hail Columbia." Stockton's troops occupied the headquarters and home of Governor Pico, who had fled to Mexico. After three weeks of occupation, Stockton left, leaving Lieutenant Archibald H. Gillespie in charge. Subsequent maltreatment by Gillespie and his troops caused a local force of 300 locals to rise up in protest, led by Captain Jos Mara Flores, Jos Antonio Carrillo, and Andrs Pico. Flores demanded the Americans surrender and promised safe passage to San Pedro. Gillespie accepted and departed, ending the first phase of the Battle of Los Angeles.[15] Full-scale warfare came to the area when Los Angeles residents dug up a colonial cannon that had been used for ceremonial purposes. They had buried it for safe-keeping when Stockton approached the city. They used it to fire on American Navy troops on 8 October 1846, in the Battle of Dominguez Rancho. The victorious locals named the cannon el piedrero de la vieja (the old woman's gun). In December, the Mexicans were again victorious at the Battle of San Pascual near present-day Escondido. Determined to take Los Angeles, Stockton regrouped his men in San Diego and marched north with six hundred troops, along with U.S. Army General Stephen Watts Kearny and his guide Kit Carson. Captain Frmont marched south from Monterey with 400 troops. After a few skirmishes outside the city, the two forces entered Los Angeles, this time without bloodshed. Confronted with overwhelming force, Andrs Pico, who had succeeded Flores as military commander and acting as chief administrative officer, met with Fremont. At a ranch in what is now Studio City, they signed the Treaty of Cahuenga on 13 January 1847. That formally ended the California phase of the Mexican-American War. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on 2 February 1848, ended the war and ceded California to the U.S.[15]

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The Transitional Era 18481870

According to historian Mary P. Ryan, "The U.S. army swept into California with the surveyor as well as the sword and quickly translated Spanish and Mexican practices into cartographic representations."[32] Under colonial law, land held by grantees was not disposable. It reverted to the government. It was determined that under U.S. property law, lands owned by the city were disposable. Also, the diseos (property sketches) held by residents did not secure title in an American court. California's new military governor Bennett C. Riley ruled that land could not be sold that was not on a city map. In 1849, Lieutenant Edward Ord surveyed Los Angeles to confirm and extend the streets of the city. His survey put the city into the real-estate business, creating its first real-estate boom and filling its treasury.[33] Street names were changed from Spanish to English. Further surveys and street plans quickly replaced the original plan for the pueblo with a new civic center south of the Plaza and a new use of space. The fragmentation of Los Angeles real estate on the Anglo-Mexican axis had begun. Under the Spanish system, the residences of the power-elite clustered around the Plaza in the center of town. In the new American system, the power elite would reside in the outskirts. The emerging minorities, including the Chinese, Italians, French, and Russians, joined with the Mexicans near the Plaza.[8]

History of Los Angeles The gangs of Los Angeles In 1848, the gold discovered in Coloma first brought thousands of miners from Sonora northern Mexico on the way to the gold fields. So many of them settled in the area north of the Plaza that it came to be known as Sonoratown. During the Gold Rush years in northern California, Los Angeles became known as the Queen of the Cow Counties for its role in supplying beef and other foodstuffs to hungry miners in the north. Among the cow counties, Los Angeles County had the largest herds in the state followed closely by Santa Barbara and Monterey Counties.[34] With the temporary absence of a legal system, the city was quickly submerged in lawlessness. Many of the New York regiment disbanded at the end of the war and charged with maintaining order were thugs and brawlers. They roamed the streets joined by gamblers, outlaws, and prostitutes driven out of San Francisco and mining towns of the north by Vigilance Committees or lynch mobs. Los Angeles came to be known as the "toughest and most lawless city west of Santa Fe."[35] Some of the residents resisted the new Anglo powers by resorting to social banditry against the gringos. In 1856, Juan Flores threatened Southern California with a full-scale revolt. He was hanged in Los Angeles in front of 3,000 spectators. Tiburcio Vasquez, a legend in his own time among the Mexican-born population for his daring feats against the Anglos, was captured in present-day Santa Clarita, California on May 14, 1874. He was found guilty of two counts of murder by a San Jose jury in 1874, and was hanged there in 1875. Los Angeles had several active Vigilance Committees during that era. Between 1850 and 1870, mobs carried out approximately 35 lynchings of Mexicansmore than four times the number that occurred in San Francisco. Los Angeles was described as undoubtedly the toughest town of the entire nation.[36] The homicide rate between 1847 and 1870 averaged 158 per 100,000 (13 murders per year), which was 10 to 20 times the annual murder rates for New York City during the same period.[37] The fear of Mexican violence and the racially motivated violence inflicted on them further marginalized the Mexicans, greatly reducing their economic and political opportunities.[38] John Gately Downey, the seventh Governor of California was sworn into office on January 14, 1860, thereby becoming the first Governor from Southern California. Governor Downey was born and raised in Castlesampson, County Roscommon, Ireland, and came to Los Angeles in 1850. He was responsible for keeping California in the Union during the Civil War. The plight of the Indians In 1836, the Indian village of Yaanga was relocated near the future corner of Commercial and Alameda Streets. In 1845, it was relocated again to present-day Boyle Heights. With the coming of the Americans, disease took a great toll among Indians. Between 1848 and 1880, the total population of Los Angeles went from 75,050 to 12,500. Self-employed Indians were not allowed to sleep over in the city. They faced increasing competition for jobs as more Mexicans moved into the area and took over the labor force. Those who loitered or were drunk or unemployed were arrested and auctioned off as laborers to those who paid their fines. They were often paid for work with liquor, which only increased their problems.[39] Los Angeles was incorporated as an American city on April 4, 1850. Five months later, California was admitted into the Union. Although the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo required the U.S. to grant citizenship to the Indians of former Mexican territories, the U.S. did not get around to doing that for another 80 years. The Constitution of California deprived Indians of any protection under the law, considering them as non-persons. As a result, it was impossible to bring an Anglo to trial for killing an Indian or forcing them off their property. Anglos concluded that the "quickest and best way to get rid of (their) troublesome presence was to kill them off, (and) this procedure was adopted as a standard for many years."[40] When New England author and Indian-rights activist Helen Hunt Jackson toured the Indian villages of Southern California in 1883, she was appalled by the racism of the Anglos living there. She found they treated Indians worse

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History of Los Angeles than animals, hunted them for sport, robbed them of their farmlands, and brought them to the edge of extermination. While Indians were depicted by whites as lazy and shiftless, she found most of them to be hard-working craftsmen and farmers. Jackson's tour inspired her to write her 1884 novel, Ramona, which she hoped would give a human face to the atrocities and indignities suffered by the Indians in California. And it did. The novel was enormously successful, inspiring four movies and a yearly pageant in Hemet, California. Many of the Indian villages of Southern California survived because of her efforts, including Morongo, Cahuilla, Soboba, Temecula, Pechanga, and Warner Hot Springs.[41] Remarkably, the Gabrielino Indians, now called Tongva, also survived. in 2006, the Los Angeles Times reported that there were 2,000 of them still living in Southern California. Some were organizing to protect burial and cultural sites. Others were trying to win federal recognition as a tribe to operate a casino.[42]

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Industrial Expansion and Growth 18701913

In the 1870s, Los Angeles was still little more than a village of 5,000. By 1900, there were over 100,000 occupants of the city. Several men actively promoted Los Angeles, working to develop it into a great city and to make themselves rich. Angelenos set out to remake their geography to challenge San Francisco with its port facilities, railway terminal, banks and factories. The Farmers and Merchants Bank of Los Angeles was the first incorporated bank in Los Angeles, founded in 1871 by John G. Downey and Isaias W.

An 1887 aerial photo of Los Angeles, taken from a balloon.

Hellman. The Chinese Massacre of 1871 The first Chinese arrived in Los Angeles in 1850. The great majority came from Guangdong Province in southeastern China, seeking a fortune in Gum Saan, ("Gold Mountain") the Chinese name for America. Instead of finding fortunes, they were exploited for their labor in the gold mines and in building the first railroad into California. Henry Huntington came to value their expertise as engineers. He later said he would not have been able to build his portion of the transcontinental railroad without them.[43] After the transcontinental railroad was completed, the Chinese sought jobs in the burgeoning California cities, where they faced massive discrimination on the part of organized labor. As a result, they filled in where there was less competition, running laundries, restaurants, and vegetable stands. In a time of great exploitation and monopoly by the railroad barons, the unions blamed Chinese for lowering the wages and living standards of Anglo workers. The newspapers of both Los Angeles and San Francisco were filled with anti-Chinese propaganda.[43] The thriving Chinatown, on the eastern edge of the Plaza, was the site of terrible violence on October 24, 1871. A gunfight between rival Chinese factions over the abduction of a woman resulted in the accidental death of a white man. This enraged the bystanders, and a mob of about 500 Anglos and Latinos descended on Chinatown. They randomly lynched 19 Chinese men and boys, only one of whom may have been involved in the original killing.

History of Los Angeles Homes and businesses were looted. Only ten rioters were tried. Eight were convicted of manslaughter, but their convictions were overturned the following year on a legal technicality. This was later referred to as the Chinese Massacre of 1871. The massacre was the first time that Los Angeles was reported on the front pages of newspapers all over the world, even crowding out reports of the terrible Chicago fire that had taken place two weeks earlier. While the racist Los Angeles Star went so far to call the massacre "a glorious victory," others fretted about the city's racist and violent image. With the coming economic opportunities of the railroads, city fathers set themselves to wipe out mob violence.[8] Their efforts, however, led to more restrictive measures against the Chinese. In 187879, the City Council passed several measures adversely affecting Chinese vegetable merchants. The merchants went on strike. Los Angeles went without vegetables for several weeks, finally bringing the city to the bargaining table. Historian William Estrada wrote: "This little-known event may have helped the Chinese to better understand their role in the community as well as the power of organization as a means for community self-defense. The strike was a sign that Los Angeles was undergoing dramatic social, economic, and technological change and that the Chinese were a part of that change."[8] The coming of the railroads Historian Blake Gumprecht wrote, "The completion of a transcontinental railroad to Los Angeles in 1876 changed Southern California forever."[18] The first railroad, San Pedro Railroad, was inaugurated in October, 1869 by John G. Downey and Phineas Banning. It ran 21 miles (34km) between San Pedro and Los Angeles. The town continued to grow at a moderate pace until its connection with the Central Pacific and San Francisco in 1876, and more directly with the East by the Santa Fe system (through its subsidiary California Southern Railroad) in 1885. The Central Pacific Railroad had a significant impact in the immediate growth of the City of Los Angeles. The Central Pacific Railroad owners could have chosen San Diego over Los Angeles to be their final freight destination but the owners and the City of San Francisco feared that San Diego would become a rival importing power with its large natural bay. Instead, Central Pacific picked Los Angeles to be their southern hub and prompted the rapid expansion of the city's economic growth and expansion. The completion of the latter line precipitated one of the most extraordinary of American railway wars and land booms, which resulted in giving southern California a great stimulus. Phineas Banning excavated a channel out of the mud flats of San Pedro Bay leading to Wilmington in 1871. Banning had already laid track and shipped in locomotives to connect the port to the city. Harrison Gray Otis, founder and owner of the Los Angeles Times, and a number of business colleagues embarked on reshaping southern California by expanding that into a harbor at San Pedro using federal dollars. This put them at loggerheads with Collis P. Huntington, president of the Southern Pacific Railroad Company and one of California's "Big Four" investors in the Central Pacific and Southern Pacific. (The "Big Four" are sometimes numbered among the "robber barons" of the Gilded Age). The line reached Los Angeles in 1876 and Huntington directed it to a port at Santa Monica, where the Long Wharf was built. April 1872, John G. Downey went to San Francisco and was successful in representing Los Angeles in discussions with Collis Huntington concerning Los Angeless efforts to bring the Southern Pacific Railroad through Los Angeles. The San Pedro forces eventually prevailed (though it required Banning and Downey to turn their railroad over to the Southern Pacific). Work on the San Pedro breakwater began in 1899 and was finished in 1910. Otis Chandler and his allies secured a change in state law in 1909 that allowed Los Angeles to absorb San Pedro and Wilmington, using a long, narrow corridor of land to connect them with the rest of the city. The debacle of the future Los Angeles harbor

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History of Los Angeles was termed the Free Harbor Fight.[44] In 1898, Henry Huntington purchased the Los Angeles Railway (the 'yellow cars') and two years later founded the Pacific Electric Railway (the 'red cars'). Los Angeles Railway served the city and the Pacific Electric Railway served the rest of the county. At its peak, the Pacific Electric was the largest electrically operated interurban railway in the world. Over 1000 miles (1600km) of tracks connected Los Angeles with Hollywood, Pasadena, San Pedro, Venice Beach, Santa Monica, Pomona, San Bernardino, Long Beach, Santa Ana, Huntington Beach, and other points and was recognized as best public transportation system in the world. Oil discovery Oil was discovered by Edward L. Doheny in 1892, near the present location of Dodger Stadium. The Los Angeles City Oil Field was the first of many fields in the basin to be exploited, and in 1900 and 1902, respectively, the Beverly Hills Oil Field and Salt Lake Oil Field were discovered just a few miles west of the original find.[45] Los Angeles became a center of oil production in the early 20th century, and by 1923 the region was producing one-quarter of the world's total supply; it is still a significant producer, with the Wilmington Oil Field having the fourth-largest reserves of any field in California.[45] Winds of revolution The immigrants arriving in the city to find jobs often brought the revolutionary zeal and idealism of their homelands. These often included anarchists such as Russian Emma Goldman and Ricardo Flores Magn and his brother Enrique of the Partido Liberal Mexicano. They were later joined by the socialist candidate for mayor Job Harriman, Chinese revolutionaries, the novelist Upton Sinclair, "Wobblies" (members of the Industrial Workers of the World, the IWW), and Socialist and Communist labor organizers such as the Japanese-American Karl Yoneda and the Russian-born New Yorker Meyer Baylin. The Socialists were the first to set up a soapbox in the Plaza, which would serve as the location of union rallies and protests and riots as the police attempted to break up meetings.[8] Class conflict surges At the same time that the L.A. Times was whipping up enthusiasm for the expansion of Los Angeles it was also trying to turn it into a union-free or open shop town. Fruit growers and local merchants who had opposed the Pullman strike in 1894 subsequently formed the Merchants and Manufacturers Association (M & M) to support the L.A. Times anti-union campaign. The California labor movement, with its strength concentrated in San Francisco, had largely ignored Los Angeles for years. It changed, in 1907, however, when the American Federation of Labor decided to challenge the open shop of "Otis Town." In 1909, the city fathers placed a ban on free speech from public streets and private property except for the Plaza. Locals had claimed that it had been an Open Forum forever. The area was of particular concern to the owners of the L.A. Times, Harrison Grey Otis and his son-in-law Harry Chandler. At the turn of the century, Otis and Chandler as part of a syndicate had acquired thousands of acres of farmland in Baja California that stretched across the border into Imperial County. It was called the California-Mexican Land and Cattle Company, or the C-M Ranch. In exchange for favorable reports about the presidency of Porfirio Diaz in Mexico, Otis and his associates enjoyed unfettered business freedom in Baja California. Under Diaz, American capitalists bought millions of acres of Mexican land, mines, factories, banks, oil rights (Doheny), public utilities, and most of the nation's railroads. The Diaz regime was marked with increasing poverty, violent political repression, and the support of President Wilson. The Otis-Chandler plans for both their Mexican holdings and the city required a steady supply of cheap labor and keeping the unions from succeeding as they had done in San Francisco.[46]

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History of Los Angeles In 1910, the century's first full-scale revolution took place in Baja California, led by two factions, wealthy landowner Francisco Madero and the Partido Liberal Mexicano (PLM). The PLM was based in the L.A. Plaza and led by anarchist Ricardo Flores Magn, a talented journalist and charismatic speaker who occupies a special place in the story of Los Angeles. He is the prototype of the 20th-century Mexican-American political and social activist.[47] Publishing the popular bi-lingual Regeneracion newspaper in Los Angeles, Magon's movement posed a direct challenge to Otis and Chandler's hold on the border region. The paper not only reported on the revolution in Mexico, but also social and political conditions in the U.S. It examined the U.S. penal system, the plight of agricultural workers, child labor, Margaret Sanger's crusade for women, and most of all the battle against the open shop in Los Angeles. The paper also connected readers with the social services and cultural happenings available in the expanding Plaza area. Magon wrote: "We do not struggle for abstractions, but for materialities. We want land for all, bread for all. Inevitably blood must run, so that conquests obtain benefits for all and not for a specific social class."[48] The insurgents of the Baja Revolution consisted of no more than 200 anarchists, socialists, and Wobblies. Their basic goal was the redistribution back to Mexican peasants of Baja California land, of which 78 percent was owned by foreign interests.[48] The owners of the Times drew the conclusion that the Mexican rebels and union organizers in L.A. were connected. This conflict came to a head with the bombing of the Times in 1910, which killed 10 people, and injured 17. Two months later, the Llewellyin Iron Works near the plaza was bombed. A meeting was hastily called of the Chamber of Commerce and Manufacturers Association. The L.A. Times wrote: "radical and practical matters (were) considered, and steps taken for the adaption of such as are adequate to cope with a situation tardily recognized as the gravest that Los Angeles has ever been called upon to face."[49] The authorities indicted John and James McNamara, both associated with the Iron Workers Union, for the bombing; Clarence Darrow, who had successfully defended Big Bill Haywood, Moyer and Pettibone in Idaho, represented them. At the same time the McNamara brothers were awaiting trial, Los Angeles was preparing for a city election. Job Harriman, running on the socialist ticket, was challenging the establishment's candidate. Harriman's campaign, however, was tied to the asserted innocence of the McNamaras. But the defense was in trouble: the prosecution not only had evidence of the McNamaras' complicity, but had trapped Darrow in a clumsy attempt to bribe one of the jurors. On December 1, 1911, four days before the final election, the McNamaras entered a plea of guilty in return for prison terms. The L.A. Times accompanied its report of the guilty plea with a faked photograph of Samuel Gompers trampling an American flag. Harriman lost badly. The Otis-Chandler interests were further challenged when Madero became President of Mexico in 1911. Commercial interests in L.A. felt radical measures had to be taken. Mexican and labor organizers were scapegoated. In June 1911, the police raided the offices of Regeneracion. Magon and his younger brother Enrique were arrested with two others and charged with conspiracy to lead an armed expedition against a "friendly nation." The trial was a great media event and drew great crowds. Among those who showed up to speak on behalf of the brothers were socialist labor organizer Mary Harris "Mother" Jones, American anarchist Emma Goldman, and Eugene V. Debs. The four were convicted and sentenced to 23 months at the federal prison in Macneil Island, Washington.[48] On Christmas Day, 1913, police attempted to break up an IWW rally of 500 taking place in the Plaza. Encountering resistance, the police waded into the crowd attacking them with their clubs. One citizen was killed. In the aftermath, the authorities attempted to impose martial law in the wake of growing protests. Seventy-three people were arrested in connection with the riots. The City Council introduced new measures to control public speaking. The Times scapegoated all foreign elements even calling onlookers and taco venders as "cultural subversives."[50] In 1916, the Magn brothers were arrested on charges of defamation and sending indecent materials through the mail. Ricardo was able to get released on bail. He gave a rousing speech at Italian Hall to 700 of the International

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History of Los Angeles Workers Defense League. He called Mexican President Carranza a "lackey of President Wilson" and Wilson "the bandit of Wall Street." The speech was given wide circulation in the press throughout the Southwest and in Mexico. Ricardo was convicted and sent to Leavenworth. In 1922, he died in his cell, maybe murdered by a guard. His body was returned by train to Mexico City, where he was given a hero's welcome by a crowd of thousands consisting of workers, labor organizers, and government officials singing La Marsellaise and the Internationale.[51] The open shop campaign continued from strength to strength, although not without meeting opposition from workers. By 1923, the Industrial Workers of the World had made considerable progress in organizing the longshoremen in San Pedro and led approximately 3,000 men to walk off the job. With the support of the L.A. Times, a special "Red Squad" was formed within the Los Angeles Police Department and arrested so many strikers that the city's jails were soon filled. Some 1,200 dock workers were corralled in a special stockade in Griffith Park. The L.A. Times wrote approvingly that "stockades and forced labor were a good remedy for IWW terrorism." Public meetings were outlawed in San Pedro, Upton Sinclair was arrested at Liberty Hill in San Pedro for reading the United States Bill of Rights on the private property of a strike supporter (the arresting officer told him "we'll have none of 'that Constitution stuff'") and blanket arrests were made at union gatherings. The strike ended after members of the Ku Klux Klan and the American Legion raided the IWW Hall and attacked the men, women and children meeting there. The strike was defeated. Los Angeles developed another industry in the early 20th century when movie producers from the East Coast relocated there. These new employers were likewise afraid of unions and other social movements: during Upton Sinclair's campaign for Governor of California under the banner of his "End Poverty In California" (EPIC) movement, Louis B. Mayer turned MGM's Culver City studio into the unofficial headquarters of the organized campaign against EPIC. MGM produced fake newsreel interviews with whiskered actors with Russian accents voicing their enthusiasm for EPIC, along with footage focusing on central casting hobos huddled on the borders of California waiting to enter and live off the bounty of its taxpayers once Sinclair was elected. Sinclair lost. Los Angeles also acquired another industry in the years just before World War II: the garment industry. At first devoted to regional merchandise such as sportswear, the industry eventually grew to be the second largest center of garment production in the United States. Unions began to make progress in organizing these workers as the New Deal arrived in the 1930s. They made even greater gains in the war years, as Los Angeles grew even further. Today, the ethnic makeup of the city and the politically progressive views of surrounding West Hollywood and Hollywood have made Los Angeles a strong union town. However, many garment workers in central LA, most of whom are Mexican immigrants, still work in sweat shop conditions. The battle of the Los Angeles River The Los Angeles River flowed clear and fresh all year, supporting 45 Gabrielino villages in the area. The source of the river was the aquifer under the San Fernando Valley, supplied with water from the surrounding mountains. The rising of the underground bedrock at the Glendale Narrows (near today's Griffith Park) squeezed the water to the surface at that point. Then, through much of the year, the river emerged from the valley to flow across the floodplain 20 miles (32km) to the sea. The area also provided other streams, lakes, and artesian wells.[18] Early settlers were more than a little discouraged by the region's diverse and unpredictable weather. They watched helplessly as long droughts weakened and starved their livestock, only to be drowned and carried off by ferocious storms. During the years of little rain, people would build too close to the riverbed, only to see their homes and barns later swept out to sea during a flood. The location of the Los Angeles Plaza had to be moved twice because of previously having been built too close to the riverbed.[8]

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History of Los Angeles Worse, floods would change the river's course. When the settlers arrived, the river joined Ballona Creek to discharge in Santa Monica Bay. A fierce storm in 1835 diverted its course to Long Beach, where it stays today. Early citizens could not even maintain a footbridge over the river from one side of the city to the other. After the American takeover, the city council authorized spending of $20,000 for a contractor to build a substantial wooden bridge across the river. The first storm to come along dislodged the bridge, used it as a battering ram to break through the embankment, and scattered its timbers all the way to the sea.[18] Some of the most concentrated rainfall in the history of the United States has occurred in the San Gabriel Mountains north of Los Angeles and Orange Counties. On April 5, 1926, a rain gauge in the San Gabriels collected one inch in one minute. In January, 1969, more water fell on the San Gabriels in nine days than New York City sees in a year. In February 1978, almost a foot of rain fell in 24 hours, and, in one blast, an inch and a half in five minutes. This storm caused massive debris flows throughout the region, one of them unearthing the corpses in the Verdugo Hills Cemetery and depositing them in the town below. Another wiped out the small town of Hidden Springs in a tributary of the Big Tujunga River, killing 13 people.[52] The greatest daily rainfall recorded in California was 26.12inches on January 23, 1943 at Hoegees near Mt. Wilson in the San Gabriel Mountains. Fifteen other stations reported over 20inches in two days from the same storm. Forty-five others reported 70 percent of the average annual rainfall in two days.[53] Quibbling between city and county governments delayed any response to the flooding until a massive storm in 1938 flooded Los Angeles and Orange Counties. The federal government stepped in. To transfer floodwater to the sea as quickly as possible, the Army Corps of Engineers paved the beds of the river and its tributaries. The Corps also built several dams and catchment basins in the canyons along the San Gabriel Mountains to reduce the debris flows. It was an enormous project, taking years to complete.[52] Today, the Los Angeles River functions mainly as a flood control. A drop of rain falling in the San Gabriel Mountains will reach the sea faster than an auto can drive. During today's rainstorms, the volume of the Los Angeles River at Long Beach can be as large as the Mississippi River at St. Louis. The drilling of wells and pumping of water from the San Fernando Valley aquifer dried up the river by the 1920s. By 1980, the aquifer was supplying drinking water for 800,000 people. In that year, it was discovered that the aquifer had been contaminated. Many wells were shut down, as the area qualified as a Superfund site [54] Water from a distance For its first 120 years, the Los Angeles River supplied the town with ample water for homes and farms. It was estimated that the annual flow could have support a town of 250,000 peopleif the water had been managed right. But Angelinos were among the most profligate users of water in the world. In the semi-arid climate, they were forever watering their lawns, gardens, orchards, and vineyards. Later on, they would need more to support the growth of commerce and manufacturing. By the beginning of the 20th century, the town realized it would quickly outgrow its river and need new sources of water.[18] Legitimate concerns about water supply were exploited to gain backing for a huge engineering and legal effort to bring more water to the city and allow more development. The city fathers had their eyes on the Owens River, about 250 miles (400km) northeast of Los Angeles in Inyo County, near the Nevada state line. It was a permanent stream of fresh water fed by the melted snows of the eastern Sierra Nevada. It flowed through the Owens River Valley before emptying into the shallow, saline Owens Lake, where it evaporated.

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History of Los Angeles

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Sometime between 1899 and 1903, Harrison Gray Otis and his son-in-law successor, Harry Chandler, engaged in successful efforts at buying up cheap land on the northern outskirts of Los Angeles in the San Fernando Valley. At the same time, they enlisted the help of William Mulholland, chief engineer of the Los Angeles Water Department (later the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power or LADWP), and J.B. Lippencott, of the United States Reclamation Service. Lippencott performed water surveys in the Owens Valley for the Service while Photograph of Bunker Hill in 1900, looking north from today's Pershing Square secretly receiving a salary from the City of Los Angeles. He succeeded in persuading Owens Valley farmers and mutual water companies to pool their interests and surrender the water rights to 200,000 acres (800km) of land to Fred Eaton, Lippencott's agent and a former mayor of Los Angeles. Lippencott then resigned from the Reclamation Service, took a job with the Los Angeles Water Department as assistant to Mulholland, and turned over the Reclamation Service maps, field surveys and stream measurements to the city. Those studies served as the basis for designing the longest aqueduct in the world. By July 1905, the Times began to warn the voters of Los Angeles that the county would soon dry up unless they voted bonds for building the aqueduct. Artificial drought conditions were created when water was run into the sewers to decrease the supply in the reservoirs and residents were forbidden to water their lawns and gardens. On election day, the people of Los Angeles voted for $22.5 million worth of bonds to build an aqueduct from the Owens River and to defray other expenses of the project. With this money, and with a special Act of Congress allowing cities to own property outside their boundaries, the City acquired the land that Eaton had acquired from the Owens Valley farmers and started to build the aqueduct. On the occasion of the opening of the Los Angeles Aqueduct on November 5, 1913 Mullholland's entire speech was five words: "There it is. Take it."

Boom town 19131941

Notable events Swimming pool desegregation An end to racial segregation in municipal swimming pools was ordered in summer 1931 by Superior Court Judge Walter S. Gates after Ethel Prioleau, the widow of an Army major, sued the city, complaining that she, a Negro living at 1311 W. 35th Street,[55] was not allowed to use the swimming pool in nearby Exposition Park because of her race but had to travel 3.6 miles to the "negro swimming pool" at 1357 East 22nd street. Other city pools were opened to Negroes but closed to whites one day a week. The City Council, by a vote of 6 to 6 on one occasion and 8 to 6 a week later refused to have the city attorney appeal the case.[56] [57]

Wilson Block, Spring & First Streets, 1920

History of Los Angeles Summer Olympics Los Angeles hosted the 1932 Summer Olympics. The Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, which had opened in May, 1932 with a seating capacity of 76,000, was enlarged to accommodate over 100,000 spectators for Olympic events. It is still in use by the USC Trojans football team. Olympic Boulevard, a major thoroughfare, honors the occasion. Griffith Park fire A devastating brush fire on October 3, 1933, killed 29 and injured another 150 workers who were clearing brush in Griffith Park. Annexations and consolidations The City of Los Angeles mostly remained within its original 28 square-mile (73km) landgrant until the 1890s. The original city limits are visible even today in the layout of streets that changes from a north-south pattern outside of the original land grant to a pattern that is shifted roughly 15 degrees east of the longitude in and closely around the area now known as Downtown. The first large additions to the city were the districts of Highland Park and Garvanza to the north, and the South Los Angeles area. In 1906, the approval of the Port of Los Angeles and a change in state law allowed the city to annex the Shoestring, or Harbor Gateway, a narrow and crooked strip of land leading from Los Angeles south towards the port. The port cities of San Pedro and Wilmington were added in 1909 and the city of Hollywood was added in 1910, bringing the city up to 90 square miles (233km) and giving it a vertical "barbell" shape. Also added that year was Colegrove, a suburb west northwest of the city near Hollywood; Cahuenga, a township northwest of the former city limits; and a part of Los Feliz were annexed to the city.

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Christmas in Los Angeles, 1928

The opening of the Los Angeles Aqueduct provided the city with four times as much water as it required, and the offer of water service Walkway and front faade of Los Angeles Public became a powerful lure for neighboring communities. The city, Library's Central Library, circa 1935 saddled with a large bond and excess water, locked in customers through annexation by refusing to supply other communities. Harry Chandler, a major investor in San Fernando Valley real estate, used his Los Angeles Times to promote development near the aqueduct's outlet. By referendum of the residents, 170 square miles (440km) of the San Fernando Valley, along with the Palms district, were added to the city in 1915, almost tripling its area, mostly towards the northwest. Over the next seventeen years dozens of additional annexations brought the city's area to 450 square miles (1,165km) in 1932. (Numerous small annexations brought the total area of the city up to 469 square miles (1,215km) as of 2004.) Most of the annexed communities were unincorporated towns but ten incorporated cities were consolidated into Los Angeles: Wilmington (1909), San Pedro (1909), Hollywood (1910), Sawtelle (1922), Hyde Park (1923), Eagle Rock (1923), Venice (1925), Watts (1926), Barnes City (1927), and Tujunga (1932). Annexation references: Municipal Secession Fiscal Analysis Scoping Study www.valleyvote.net Annexation and Detachment Map (PDF) lacity.org [59].
[58]

History of Los Angeles Olvera Streetan idealized Mexican past In 1926, socialite Christine Sterling became alarmed when the City Council posted a condemn sign on the old Francisco Avila Adobe near the Los Angeles Plaza. She became very dedicated to the preservation of the area and developed the idea of creating a tourist site with a romantic theme of Old Mexico. Her efforts finally won the attention of Harry Chandler of the Los Angeles Times who staged a $1000-a-plate luncheon on her behalf. Chandler also set up a for-profit business, the Plaza de Los Angeles Corporation, with himself and Sterling in charge. Chandler's interest in developing the idealized Mexican marketplace was twofold: 1. It would give him a way to control the level of free-speech activities on the Plaza and 2. it would present an image of "good Mexicans" who did not include union organizers and angry workers protesting their exploitation. Ceramic figures of a Mexican sleeping at the foot of a cactus with a sombrero over his head would symbolize the stereotype Chandler wanted to project. Sterling and Chandler's efforts finally paid off with the opening of Olvera Street in 1930. Sterling spent the rest of her life managing the tourist attraction as a profitable business.[8] Civic corruption and police brutality The downtown business interests, always eager to attract business and investment to Los Angeles, were also eager to distance their town from the syndicated crime and violence that defined the stories of Chicago and New York. In spite of their concerns, massive corruption in City Hall and the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD)and the fight against itwere dominant themes in the city's story from early 20th-century to the 1950s.[60] In the 1920s, for example, it was common practice for the city's mayor, councilmen, and attorneys to take contributions from madams, bootleggers, and gamblers. The top aide of the mayor was involved with a protection racket. Thugs with eastern-Mafia connections were involved in often violent conflicts over bootlegging and horse-racing turf. The mayor's brother was selling jobs in the LAPD. In 1933, the new mayor Frank Shaw started giving out contracts without competitive bids and paying city employees to favor crony contractors. The city's Vice Squad functioned city-wide as the enforcer and collector of the city's organized crime, with revenues going to the pockets of city officials right up to the mayor. In 1937, the owner of downtown's Clifton's Cafeteria, Clifford Clinton led a citizen's campaign to clean up city hall. He and other reformers served on a Grand Jury investigating the charges of corruption. In a minority report, the reformers wrote: A portion of the underworld profits have been used in financing campaigns [of] city and county officials in vital positions [While] the district attorneys office, sheriffs office, and Los Angeles Police Department work in complete harmony and never interfere with important figures in the underworld.[61] The police Intelligence Squad spied on anyone even suspected of criticizing the police. They included journalist Carey Williams, the district attorney, Judge Bowron, and two of the County Supervisors. The persistent courage of Clinton, Superior Court Judge, later Mayor, Fletcher Bowron, and former L.A.P.D. detective Harry Raymond turned the tide. The police became so nervous that the Intelligence Squad blew up Raymond's car and nearly killed him. The public was so enraged by the bombing that it quickly voted Shaw out of office, one of the first big-city recalls in the country's history. The head of the intelligence squad was convicted and sentenced to two years to life. Police Chief James Davis and 23 other officers were forced to resign.[61] Fletcher Bowron replaced Shaw as mayor in 1938 to preside over one of the most dynamic periods in the history of the city. His 'Los Angeles Urban Reform Revival would bring major changes to the government of Los Angeles. In 1950, he appointed William H. Parker was sworn in as Chief of Police. Parker pushed for more independence from political pressures that would enable him to create a more professionalized police force. The public supported him and voted in charter changes that isolated the police department from the rest of government.[62]

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History of Los Angeles Through the 1960s, the LAPD was promoted as one of the most efficient departments in the world. But Parker's administration would be increasingly charged with police brutalityresulting from his recruiting of officers from the South with strong anti-black and anti-Mexican attitudes. Reaction to police brutality resulted in the Watts riots of 1965 and again, after the Rodney King beating, in the Los Angeles riots of 1992. Charges of police brutality dogged the Department through the end of the century. In the late 1990s, as a result of the Rampart scandal involving misconduct of 70 officers, the federal government was forced to intervene and assumed jurisdiction of the Department with a consent decree. Police reform has since been a major issue confronted by L.A.'s recent mayors. Social critic Mike Davis has recently argued that attempts to "revitalize" downtown Los Angeles decreases public space and further alienates poor and minority populations. This enforced geographical separation of diverse populations goes back to the city's earliest days.[63]

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World War II and postwar 19411950

During World War II, Los Angeles grew as a center for production of aircraft, war supplies and ammunitions. Thousands of African Americans and European Americans from the South and the Midwest migrated to the West to fill factory jobs. By 1950, Los Angeles was an industrial and financial giant created by war production and migration. Los Angeles assembled more cars than any city other than Detroit, made more tires than any city but Akron, made more furniture than Grand Rapids, and stitched more clothes than any city except New York. In addition, it was the national capital for the production of motion pictures, radio programs and, within a few years, television shows. Construction boomed as tract houses were built in ever expanding suburban communities financed by the largess of the Federal Housing Administration. Los Angeles continued to spread out, particularly with the development of the San Fernando Valley and the building of the freeways launched in the 1940s. When the local street car system went out of business, Los Angeles became a city built around the automobile, with all the social, health and political problems that this dependence produces. The famed urban sprawl of Los Angeles became a notable feature of the town, and the pace of the growth accelerated in the first decades of the 20th century. The San Fernando Valley, sometimes called "America's Suburb", became a favorite site of developers, and the city began growing past its roots downtown toward the ocean and towards the east. This is also the time when General Motors persuaded most urban regions in North America to shut down their light rail street car systems and replace them for more flexible, but polluting and inefficient, bus systems. This drastically changed growth and travel patterns in the city in subsequent years and contributed to the severe air pollution events that Los Angeles became famous for.

Listening post and air raid lights, Pershing Square, 1941

"Fifty years ago this house at 201 N. Flower St. was offered for rental at $20 a month. Today [1946] its four apartments are bringing in $70 monthly. LA Times, 5-7-46 This house no longer stands, and is in the approximate location of the Walt Disney Concert Hall.

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The years 19502000

Beginning November 6, 1961, Los Angeles suffered three days of destructive brush fires. The Bel-AirBrentwood and Santa Ynez fires destroyed 484 expensive homes and 21 other buildings along with 15,810 acres (64km) of brush in the Bel-Air, Brentwood, and Topanga Canyon neighborhoods. Most of the homes destroyed had wooden shake roofs, which not only led to their own loss but also sent firebrands up to three miles (5km) away. Despite this, few changes were made to the building codes to prevent future losses. The repeal of a law limiting building height and the controversial redevelopment of Bunker Hill, which destroyed a picturesque though decrepit neighborhood, ushered in the construction of a new generation of skyscrapers. Bunker Hill's 62-floor First Interstate Building (later named Aon Center) was the highest in Los Angeles when it was completed in 1973. It was surpassed by the Library Tower (now called the U.S. Bank Tower) a few blocks to the north in 1990, a 310 m (1,018ft) building that is the tallest west of the Mississippi. Outside of Downtown, the Wilshire Corridor is lined with tall buildings, particularly near Westwood. Century City, developed on the former 20th Century Fox back lot, has become another center of high-rise construction on the Westside. During the latter decades of the 20th century, the city saw a massive increase of street gangs. At the same time, crack cocaine became widely available and dominated by gangs in the 1980s. Although gangs were disproportionately confined to lower-income inner-city sections, fear knew no boundaries citywide. Since the early 1990s, the city saw a decrease in crime and gang violence with rising prices in housing, revitalization, urban development, and heavy police vigilance in many parts of the city. With its reputation, it had led to Los Angeles being referred as "The Gang Capital of America". A subway system, developed and built through the 1980s as a major goal of mayor Tom Bradley, stretches from North Hollywood to Union Station and connects to light rail lines that extend to the neighboring cities of Long Beach, Norwalk, and Pasadena, among others. Also, a commuter rail system, Metrolink, has been added that stretches from nearby Ventura and Simi Valley to San Bernardino, Orange County, and Riverside. The funding of the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority project is funded by a half cent tax increase added in the mid 1980s, which yields $400 million every month. Although the regional transit system is growing, subway expansion was halted in the 1990s over methane gas concerns, political conflict, and construction and financing problems during Red Line Subway project, which culminated in a massive sinkhole on Hollywood Boulevard. As a result, the original subway plans have been delayed for decades as light rail systems, dedicated busways, and limited-stop "Rapid" bus routes have become the preferred means of mass transit in LA's expanding series of gridlocked, congested corridors. The 1995 murder of Stephanie Kuhen in Los Angeles led to condemnation from President Bill Clinton and a crackdown on Los Angeles-area gangs.[64] [65] Proposition 14 and the battle for space Since its beginning, the city was geographically divided by ethnicity. In the 1920s, Los Angeles was the location of the first restrictive covenants in real estate. By the Second World War, 95 percent of Los Angeles housing was off-limits to blacks and Asians. Minorities who had served in WWII or worked in L.A.'s defense industries returned to face increasing patterns of discrimination in housing. More and more, they found themselves excluded from the suburbs and restricted to housing in East or South Los Angeles, Watts, and Compton. Such real-estate practices severely restricted educational and economic opportunities. Historian Peter Radkowski wrote: By the 1960s, the fair housing conflict of California would evolve into a collision of legislative action, racial backlash, and judicial ruling: the Rumford Act on the floors of the state capitol; Proposition 14 at the ballot box; Mulkey v. Reitman before the Supreme Court of California, and Reitman v. Mulkey before the Supreme Court of the United States. These events explicitly shaped a gubernatorial election in California, and arguably set in motion a sea change in political allegiances and presidential elections.[66]

History of Los Angeles In 1955, William Byron Rumford, the first black from Northern California to serve in the California State Legislature, introduced a fair-housing bill. In 1959, the California Legislature passed the California Fair Employment Practices Act sponsored by Augustus Hawkins of Los Angeles. That same year, the state's Unruh Civil Rights Act addressed fair housing but did not have any teeth. The aggrieved party had to sue to get compensation. In 1963, California Legislature passed and Governor Pat Brown signed the Rumford Fair Housing Act which outlawed restrictive covenants and the refusal to rent or sell housing on the basis of race, ethnicity, gender, marital status, or physical disability. In reaction to the Rumford Act, a well-funded coalition of realtors and landlords immediately began to campaign for a referendum that would amend the state Constitution to protect property owners' ability to deny minorities equal access to housing. Known as Proposition 14, it caused a storm of deep and bitter controversy across the state. Radkowski wrote: The debate over Proposition 14 cultivated a whirlwind of information and misunderstanding, marked by angry exchanges on the merits, and running through the entire debate a plague of bitterness, ill feelings, and slurs. On any given day, the effort to overturn the Rumford Act might involve highbrow jurisprudence, righteous indignation, or racial epithet. In many ways, the Rumford Act played as bawdy and violent as the land and mineral grabs of the original California Gold Rush: Rumford received an invitation to a stag dinner partycomplete with one hour of entertainmentthat was sponsored by the Associated Home Builders of the Greater East Bay; while across the state, pamphlets and pickets revealed the ugly fascist undercurrents of support for Proposition 14.[66] While conservatives such as Cardinal McIntyre of Los Angeles argued that blacks are "better off in Los Angeles than anywhere else," blacks knew that they were kept out of participating in the city's prosperity. On May 26, 1963, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. told a crowd of 35,000 at Wrigley Field, "We want to be free whether we're in Birmingham or in Los Angeles." In November, 1964, California voters passed Proposition 14 by a wide margin. In August, 1965, the Watts Riots broke out. Lasting six days, it left 32 dead, 1,032 injured, 3,952 arrested, $40 million in damage, and 1,000 buildings damaged or destroyed. According to later reports, the riot was a reaction to a long record of police brutality by the LAPD and other injustices suffered by blacks, including discrimination in jobs, housing, and education.[67] In 1966, the California State Supreme Court, in Mulkey v. Reitman, ruled that Proposition 14 violated the State Constitution's provisions for equal protection and due process. In 1967, in Reitman v. Mulkey, the U.S. Supreme Court confirmed the decision of the California Supreme Court and ruled that Proposition 14 had violated the 14th Amendment of the United States Constitution.[66] The federal Civil Rights Act of 1964[68] also addressed the issue, but made few provisions for enforcement. The U.S. Fair Housing Act (Title VIII of the Civil Rights Act of 1968) introduced meaningful federal enforcement mechanisms.[69] [70] [71] Economic changes The last of the automobile factories shut down in the 1990s; the tire factories and steel mills left earlier. Most of the agricultural and dairy operations that were still prospering in the 1950s have moved to outlying counties while the furniture industry has relocated to Mexico and other low-wage nations. Aerospace production has dropped significantly since the end of the Cold War or moved to states with better tax conditions, and the entertainment industry has found cheaper areas to produce films, television programs and commercials elsewhere in the United States and Canada. However, many studios still operate in Los Angeles, such as CBS Television City at the corner of Fairfax Avenue and Beverly Boulevard and 20th Century Fox in Century City.

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History of Los Angeles Those macroeconomic changes have brought major social changes with them. While unemployment dropped in Los Angeles in the 1990s, the newly created jobs tended to be low-wage jobs filled by recent immigrants and other exploitable populations; by one calculation, the number of poor families increased from 36% to 43% of the population of Los Angeles County during this time. At the same time, the number of immigrants from Mexico, Central America and Latin America has made Los Angeles a "majority minority" city that will soon be majority Latino. The unemployment rate dropped from 6.9% to 6.8% in 2002, and is around 11.6% currently. The desire for residential housing in the downtown area has been noticed, and several historical buildings have been renovated as condos (while maintaining the original outside design), and many new apartment and condominium towers and complexes are being built. Since the 1980s, there's been an increasing gap between the rich and the poor, making Los Angeles the most socioeconomically divided city in the United States.[72] On November 10, 2004, the Los Angeles Daily News reported plans to turn the northeast San Fernando Valley into an industrial powerhouse, which would provide new and more jobs. Demographic changes Many communities in Los Angeles have changed their ethnic character over time. For many decades, Los Angeles was predominantly white, American-born, and Protestant until the late 20th Century.[73] [74] [75] South L.A. was mostly white until the 1950s, but then became predominantly black until the 1990s, and is now mostly Latino. While the Latino community within the City of Los Angeles was once centered on the Eastside, it now extends throughout the city. The San Fernando Valley, which represented a bastion of white flight in the 1960s and provided the votes that allowed Sam Yorty to defeat the first election run by Tom Bradley, is now as ethnically diverse as the rest of the city on the other side of the Hollywood Hills. By the end of the 20th century, some of the annexed areas began to feel cut off from the political process of the megalopolis, leading to a particularly strong secession movement in the San Fernando Valley and weaker ones in San Pedro and Hollywood. The referendums to split the city were rejected by voters in November 2002.

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Population growth
The population of Los Angeles reached more than 100,000 with the 1900 census (Los Angeles Evening Express, October 1, 1900) [76], more than a million in 1930, more than two million in 1960, and more than 3 million in 1990.
Year 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 Population 131 315 365 650 1,300 2,240 1,610 4,385 5,730 11,200 50,400 102,500 319,200

History of Los Angeles

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1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 576,700 1,238,048 1,504,277 1,970,358 2,479,015 2,816,061 2,966,850 3,485,398 3,694,820

2010 3,792,621 Sources: Historical Population Data of California Spanish & Mexican Period, 1781 to 1840 [78]
[77]

; Historical Resident Population of Los Angeles during the

Special topics in Los Angeles history

African-Americans in Los Angeles
Despite, the fact that Los Angeles is one of only U.S. major cities founded by settlers who were predominantly of African descent, the city had 2,100 Black Americans in 1900, according to census figures, and by 1920 approximately 15,000. In 1910, the city had the highest percentage of black home ownership in the nation, with more than 36 percent of the city's African-American residents owning their own homes. Black leader W. E. B. Du Bois described L.A. in 1913 as a "wonderful place" since they were less subjected to racial discrimination due to their population being small and the ongoing tensions between Anglos and Mexicans. That changed in the 1920s when restrictive covenants that enforced segregation became widespread. Blacks were mostly confined along the South Central corridor, Watts, and small enclaves in Venice and Pacoima, which received far fewer services than other areas of the city.[73] [79] After WWII, the city's black population grew in substantial numbers as many continued to flee from the South for better opportunities although they remained in segregated enclaves. Even after the Supreme Court banned the legal enforcement of race-oriented restrictive covenants in the Shelley v. Kraemer case (1948), black homeownership declined severely [79] although the population continued to increase. The city had 63,774 blacks in 1940 and by 1950, they were approximately 170,000 of the population. By 1960, Los Angeles had the fifth largest black population in the United States, larger than any city in the South. The Watts riots of 1965 followed a minor traffic incident and lasted four days after decades of police mistreatment and other racial injustices toward blacks. Thirty-four people were killed and 1,034 injured at a cost of $40 million in property damage and looting. So many businesses burned on 103rd Street that it became known as "Charcoal Alley." The City did help take a few steps to deal with the lack of social services for the black community, but black unemployment was relatively high following de-industrialization that closed all of the high-paying industrial jobs that opened up to black and Latino workers. Things got worse following the Watts riot gang warfare and the drug trade reached crisis levels by the 1980s which were disproportionately high in minority communities.[73] [80] By 1990, the LAPD, which had followed a para-militaristic model since Chief Parker's regime in the 1950s, became more alienated from minority communities following accusations of racial profiling.[74] In 1992, a jury in suburban Simi Valley acquitted white Los Angeles police officers involved in the beating of a black motorist, Rodney King, the year before. After four days of rioting, more than fifty deaths, and billions of dollars of property losses, mostly in the Central City, the National Guard and the police finally regained control.

History of Los Angeles Since the 1980s, more middle-class black families have left the central core of Los Angeles to settle in other California municipalities or out of state.[73] In 1970, blacks made up 18 percent of the city's population. That percentage has dropped to 10 percent in 2010 as many continue to leave to settle elsewhere. Los Angeles still has the largest black population of any city in the Western United States.

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Latinos in Los Angeles

The anti-union, open-shop heritage of the Chandlers and the Los Angeles Times continued to assure Los Angeles of a steady supply of cheap labor from Mexico and Central America throughout the 20th century. This was met by the increasing opposition of anti-immigration forces throughout the country. A steady migration of Mexicans to California from 1910 to 1930 expanded the Mexican and Latino population in Los Angeles to 97,116 or 7.8%. In 1930, a large repatriation of 400500,000 Mexican immigrants and their children began after the onset of the Depression, massive unempoyment, encouragement by the government of Mexico, the threat of deportation and welfare agencies willing to pay for the tickets of those leaving (some 2 million European immigrants left as well).[81] At the same time, the city celebrated its 150th anniversary in 1931 with a grand "fiesta de Los Angeles" featuring a blond "reina" in historic ranchera costume. By 1940 the Latino population dropped to 7.1%, but remained at sightly over 100,000.[73] During World War II, hostility toward Mexican-Americans took a different form, as local newspapers portrayed Chicano youths, who sometimes called themselves "pachucos" as barely civilized gangsters. Anglo servicemen attacked young Chicanos dressed in the pachuco uniform of the day: long coats with wide shoulders and pleated, high-waisted, pegged pants, or zoot suits. In 1943, twenty-two young Chicanos were convicted of a murder of another youth at a party held at a swimming hole southeast of Los Angeles known as the "sleepy lagoon" on a warm night in August 1942; they were eventually freed after an appeal that demonstrated both their innocence and the racism of the judge conducting the trial. Today, the event is known as the Zoot Suit Riots. In the 1990s, redistricting led to the election of Latino members of the City Council and the first Latino members of the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors since its inception. In 1994, California Voters passed Proposition 187, which denied undocumented immigrants and their families in California welfare, health benefits, and education. With the growth of the Latino community, primarily immigration from Mexico, but also from Central America and South America, it is now the largest ethnic bloc in Los Angeles. By 1998, Latinos outnumbered Anglos in the city by over a million and account for 50 percent of the County's population. The Latinos are re-establishing their position and visibility in the city's economic and political life. By anyone's account, Los Angeles is once again a Latino city. City Council member Antonio Villaraigosa was elected mayor in 2005, the first Latino elected to that office since the 1872.[82] In 2006 anti-immigration forces supported the federal The Border Protection, Anti-Terrorism, and Illegal Immigration Control Act (H.R. 4437). The act would make "unlawful presence" an "aggravated felony." On 25 March, a million Latinos staged La Gran Marcha on City Hall to protest the bill. It was the largest demonstration in California history. Similar protests in other cities across the country made this a turning point in the debate on immigration reform.[8]

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Asians in Los Angeles

Less than a century after the founding of Los Angeles, Chinatown was a thriving community near the downtown railroad depot. Thousands of Chinese came to northern California in the 1850s, initially to join the Gold Rush and then taking construction jobs with the railroads. They began moving south as the transcontinental railroad linked Los Angeles with the rest of the nation. The towns continuous Chinese presence dates from 1850, when two house servants, Ah Luce and Ah Fon, appeared in the census. The Chinese population increased to 16 in 1860 and 178 in 1870. Eighty percent of the Chinese residents then were male, and most worked as launderers, cooks and vegetable peddlers.[83] Later, Chinese workers who helped to build the aqueduct to the Owens River and worked in the fields of the San Joaquin Valley spent their winters in a segregated ethnic enclave in Los Angeles. In 1871, eleven years before the passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, a violent anti-Chinese demonstration swept through Los Angeles' Chinatown, killing Chinese residents and plundering their dry good stores, laundries and restaurants. The labor vacuum created by the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was filled by Japanese workers and, by 1910, the settlement now known as "Little Tokyo" had risen next to Chinatown. During the years between the two world wars, Los Angeles' Asian American community also included small clusters of Korean Americans and Filipinos, the latter filling the void which followed the exclusion of the Japanese in 1924. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States government authorized the evacuation and incarceration in concentration camps of all Japanese living in California irrespective of citizenship. Since World War II, immigration from Asia and the Pacific has increased dramatically. The influx of immigrants from the Philippines, Korea, Taiwan, the Pacific Islands and Southeast Asia has led to the development of identifiable enclaves such as Koreatown in the central city and Samoans in Wilmington and a Thai neighborhood in Hollywood.

Sources
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History of Los Angeles

[18] Gumprecht, Blake. 1999. The Los Angeles River: It's Life, Death, and Possible Rebirth. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. [19] Estrada, William David. 2005. "Toypurina, Leader of the Tongva People," Oxford Enchyclopedia of Latinos and Latinas in the United States, ed. Suzanne Oboler and Deena J. Gonzalez, vol. 4, pp. 242243. New York: Oxford University Press. [20] Mason, William Marvin. 1975. "Fages' Code of Conduct Toward Indians, 1787." Journal of California Anthropology, 2:1, pp. 90100. [21] Forbes, Jack D. 1966. The Tongva of Tujunga to 1801, Archeological Survey Annual Report, appendix 2. Los Angeles: University of California. [22] Mason, William Marvin. 1978. "The Garrisons of San Diego Presidio: 17701794." Journal of San Diego History, 24, no. 4:411. [23] Northrop, Marie E. ed. 1960. "the Los Angeles Padron of 1844 as Copied from the Los Angeles City Archives." Historical Society of Southern California Quarterly, 42, no. 4, December, 360417. 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[28] John Bidwell: "First-Person Narratives of California's Early Years, 18491900," Library of Congress Historical Collections, "American Memory": John Bidwell (Pioneer of '41): Life in California Before the Gold Discovery, from the collection "California As I Saw It." [29] Gaughan, Tim (June 19, 2009). "Where the valley met the vine: The Mexican period" (http:/ / napavalleyregister. com/ lifestyles/ food-and-cooking/ wine/ where-the-valley-met-the-vine-the-mexican-period/ article_2ae8cae7-9655-5f01-9391-9278fed3b9b3. html). Napa Valley Register (Napa, CA: Lee Enterprises, Inc.). . Retrieved September 30, 2011. [30] Foucrier, Annick. Op. Cit. Page 53 [31] McGroarty, John Steven. History of Los Angeles County. The American Historical Society. Chicago and New York 1923. Page 31 [32] Ryan, Mary P. 2006. "A Durable Center of Urban Space: The Los Angeles Plaza." Urban History, 33, part 3, December, p. 464 [33] "Robinson, William Wilcox. 1966. Maps of Los Angeles; From Ord's Survey of 1849 to the Boom of the Eighties. Los Angeles: Dawson's Book Shop. [34] Robert Glass Cleland, A history of California: the American period, The Macmillan company, 1922. Chapter XXI (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=4WdgAQbv13EC& source=gbs_navlinks_s) [35] Robinson, William Wilcox. 1981. Los Angeles from the Days of the Pueblo: A Brief History and Guide to the Plaza Area. San Francisco: California Historical Society. [36] Charles Dwight Willard, The Heralds History of Los Angeles City (Los Angeles: Kingsley-Barnes & Neuner Co., 1901), 280. [37] Eric Monkkonen, Western Homicide: The Case of Los Angeles, 18301870, Pacific Historical Review, 74 (Nov. 2005), 609. [38] Villa, Ral Romero. 2002. Barrio Logos: Place and Space in Urban Chicano Culture and Literature. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press [39] Robinson, William Wilcox. 1952. The Indians of Los Angeles: Story of a Liquidation of a People. Los Angeles: Glen Dawson Press. [40] Cook, Sherburne F. 1971. "The Aboriginal Population of Upper California." In The California Indians: A Sourcebook. ed. R. F. Heizer and M. A. Whipple, 2nd ed. Berkeley: University of California Press [41] Mathes, Valerie Sherer. 1997. Helen Hunt Jackson and Her Indian Reform Legacy. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. [42] Garrison, Jessica. 2006. "Battle over a Casino Divides Gabrielino Indians." Los Angeles Times, November 26. [43] Mason, William Marvin. 1967. "The Chinese in Los Angeles." The Museum Alliance Quarterly, Fall. pp.1520. [44] Queenan, Charles F. (May 10, 1992). "'Great Free Harbor Fight' : At Stake Was the Port Site for the Growing City of L.A." (http:/ / articles. latimes. com/ 1992-05-10/ news/ we-2562_1_los-angeles-times). Los Angeles Times. . [45] "Oil and Gas Statistics: 2007 Annual Report" (ftp:/ / ftp. consrv. ca. gov/ pub/ oil/ annual_reports/ 2007/ 0102stats_07. pdf) (PDF). California Department of Conservation. December 31, 2007. . Retrieved August 25, 2009. [46] Gottlieb, Robert and Irene Wolt. 1977. Thinking Big: The Story of the Los Angeles Times, Its :Publishers and Their Influence on Southern California. New York: G. P. Putnam and Sons. [47] Gmez-Quiones, Juan. 1973. Sembradores: Ricardo Flores Magn y el Partido Liberal Mexicano: A Eulogy and Critique. Los Angeles: University of California at Los Angeles Chicano Studies Center and Aztln Publications. [48] Langham, Thomas C. 1981. Border Trials: Ricardo Flores Magn and the Mexican Liberals. El Paso: Texas Western Press. [49] Los Angeles Times. 1910. "Dynamite Bomb Fails to Cripple Llewellyn Iron Works Plant." December 26. [50] Los Angeles Times. 1913. "Rioters Must Face the Law." December 28. [51] MacLachlan, Colin M. 1991. Anarchism and the Mexican Revolution: The Polltical Trials of Ricardo Flores Magn in the United States. Berkeley: University of Callifornia Press. [52] McPhee, John. 1989. "Los Angeles Against the Mountains." In The Control of Nature. 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History of Los Angeles

[55] Location of the Prioleau residence at Mapping L.A. (http:/ / projects. latimes. com/ mapping-la/ neighborhoods/ neighborhood/ exposition-park/ ?q=1311+ W. + 35th+ Street& lat=34. 024562& lng=-118. 297823& g=Geocoder. ca) [56] "City Swimming Pools Opened to All Races," Los Angeles Times, June 26, 1931, page A1 (http:/ / proquest. umi. com. ezproxy. lapl. org/ pqdweb?did=384415211& sid=48& Fmt=10& clientId=13322& RQT=309& VName=HNP) Library card required [57] "Vote Drops City's Pool Racial Case," Los Angeles Times, July 4, 1931, page A-1 (http:/ / proquest. umi. com. ezproxy. lapl. org/ pqdweb?did=384473201& sid=22& Fmt=10& clientId=13322& RQT=309& VName=HNP) Library card required [58] http:/ / www. valleyvote. net/ lafco/ lafcostudy. htm [59] http:/ / navigatela. lacity. org/ common/ mapgallery/ pdf/ annex34x44. pdf [60] Rayner, Richard. 2009. A Bright and Guilty Place: Murder, Corruption, and L.A.'s Scandalous Coming of Age. New York: Doubleday [61] Domanick, Joe: 1998. "Public Corruption, L.A.-Style: Where Have the Notorious Gone?" Los Angeles Times, January 25, M-6. (Online access) (http:/ / 8. 12. 42. 31/ 1998/ jan/ 25/ opinion/ op-11942) [62] Sitton, Tom. 2005. Los Angeles Transformed: Fletcher Bowron's Urban Reform Revival, 19381953. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press [63] Davis, M. 1999. "Fortress Los Angeles: The militarization of public space." In M. Sorkin ed., Variations on a theme park: The new American city and the end of public space. pp. 154180. New York: Hill and Wang. Online (http:/ / www. lcc. gatech. edu/ ~broglio/ 1101/ davis. html) [64] "Child killing sparks action against Los Angeles gangs." The Christian Science Monitor. September 25, 1995. Volume 87, Issue 210. Page 4. [65] Pelisek, Christine. " Avenues of Death (http:/ / www. laweekly. com/ 2005-07-14/ news/ avenues-of-death/ )." LA Weekly. July 14, 2005. [66] Radkowski, Peter P. F. III. 2006. "Managing the Invisible Hand of the California Housing Market, 19421967." Accessed online 11.14.09: (http:/ / www. law. berkeley. edu/ files/ radkowski_paper. pdf) [67] Jeffries,Vincent & Ransford, H. Edward. 1969. "Interracial Social Contact and Middle-Class White Reaction to the Watts Riot". Social Problems 16.3,: 312324. [68] Civil Rights Act of 1964 (http:/ / finduslaw. com/ civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21) [69] Bauman, Robert. 2007. The Black Power and Chicano Movements in the Poverty Wars in Los Angeles, Journal of Urban History, vol 33 no.2, pp.277295 [70] Bauman, Robert. 2008. From Watts to East L.A.: Race and the War on Poverty in Los Angeles'.' Norman. Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. [71] Sides, Josh. 2003. L.A. City Limits: African American Los Angeles from the Great Depression to the Present Berkeley: University of California Press. [72] Gibbs Smith, 2006. Picturing Los Angeles, ISBN 1586857339 [73] California Race and Hispanic Origin for Selected Cities and Other Places: Earliest Census to 1990 (http:/ / www. census. gov/ population/ www/ documentation/ twps0076/ CAtab. pdf) [74] John Buntin, L.A. Noir, 2009 ISBN 978-0-307-35207 [75] http:/ / www. laalmanac. com/ population/ po24la_zip. htm [76] http:/ / www. ulwaf. com/ LA-1900s/ 00. 10. html [77] http:/ / bld. lib. ca. us/ virtualreference/ calif_historical_census_population. htm [78] http:/ / www. laalmanac. com/ population/ po01. htm [79] (http:/ / www. saje. net/ site/ c. hkLQJcMUKrH/ b. 2315829/ k. 4634/ Environmental_Justice_Timeline_in_Los_Angeles. htm) [80] http:/ / www. streetgangs. com/ history/ history. html [81] see"Unwanted Mexican Americans" by Abraham Hoffman [82] MecoyBeeLosAngelesBureau, Laura (2005-07-02). "Leading the way Villaraigosa becomes first Latino mayor of Los Angeles since 1872". The Sacramento Bee: pp.A.3. ISSN0890-5738. [83] Scott Zesch, "Chinese Los Angeles in 18701871: The Makings of a Massacre," Southern California Quarterly, 90 (Summer 2008): 109158; William R. Locklear, "The Celestials and the Angels: A Study of the Anti-Chinese Movement in Los Angeles to 1882," The Historical Society of Southern California Quarterly, 42 (March 1960), 239256.

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This articleincorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Spanish and Mexican history Source: University of Southern California Project: Los Angeles: Past, Present, and Future, 1996. Adopted by the El Pueblo de Los Angeles Historical Monument.

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Bibliography
Some of the best history appears in the appropriate chapters of the multivolume history of California by Kevin Starr[1]

Guides, architecture, geography

Herman, Robert D. Downtown Los Angeles: A Walking Guide (2004) 270 pages Fodor. Los Angeles: plus Disneyland & Orange County ed. by Maria Teresa Burwell, (2007) 368 pages excerpt and text search (http://books.google.com/books?id=upPlrqZIrOYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:los+ intitle:angeles&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=2004&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=2009& num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES) Mahle, Karin, and Martin Nicholas Kunz. Los Angeles: Architecture & Design (2004) 191pp Nelson, Howard J. The Los Angeles Metropolis. (1983). 344 pp. geography Pitt, Leonard and Dale Pitt. Los Angeles A to Z: An Encyclopedia of the City and County. (1997). 605 pp. short articles by experts excerpts and text search (http://books.google.com/books?id=_P8OE2iz1u4C& printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Los+intitle:Angeles+intitle:A+intitle:to+intitle:Z+inauthor:pitt&lr=& as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0& as_pt=ALLTYPES)

Contemporary issues
Abu-Lughod, Janet L. New York, Chicago, Los Angeles: America's Global Cities (1999) online edition (http:// www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&se=gglsc&d=5002586558) Dear, Michael J., H. Eric Schockman, and Greg Hise, eds. Rethinking Los Angeles (1996) interprets LA in terms of "postmodern urbanism" model. It consists of several fundamental characteristics: a global-local connection; a ubiquitous social polarization; and a reterritorialization of the urban process in which hinterland organizes the center (in direct contradiction to the Chicago School model of cities). The resultant urbanism is distinguished by a centerless urban form termed "keno capitalism." Fine, David. Imagining Los Angeles: A City in Fiction. (2000). 293 pp. Flanigan, James. Smile Southern California, You're the Center of the Universe: The Economy and People of a Global Region (2009) excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/dp/0804756252) Fulton, William. The Reluctant Metropolis: The Politics of Urban Growth in Los Angeles. (1997). 395 pp. Gottlieb, Robert. Reinventing Los Angeles: Nature and Community in the Global City (2007) excerpt and text search (http://books.google.com/books?id=6k7HDmlWuNUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:los+ intitle:angeles&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=2004&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=2009& num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES) Scott, Allen J. and Soja, Edward W., eds. The City: Los Angeles and Urban Theory at the End of the Twentieth Century. (1996). 483 pp.

History
Bills, Emily, Connecting Lines: L.A.s Telephone History and the Binding of the Region, Southern California Quarterly, 91 (Spring 2009), 2767. Bollens, John C. and Geyer, Grant B. Yorty: Politics of a Constant Candidate. (1973). 245 pp. Mayor 196173 Fogelson, Robert M. The Fragmented Metropolis: Los Angeles, 18501930 (1967), focus on planning, infrastructure, water, and business Friedricks, William. Henry E. Huntington and the Creation of Southern California (1992), on Henry Edwards Huntington (18501927), railroad executive and collector, who helped build LA and Southern California through the Southern Pacific railroad and also trolleys.

History of Los Angeles Garcia, Matt. A World of Its Own: Race, Labor, and Citrus in the Making of Greater Los Angeles, 1900-1970. (2001). 330 pp. Hart, Jack R. The Information Empire: The Rise of the Los Angeles Times and The Times Mirror Corporation. (1981). 410 pp. Jaher, Frederic Cople. The Urban Establishment: Upper Strata in Boston, New York, Charleston, Chicago, and Los Angeles. (1982). 777 pp. Klein, Norman M. and Schiesl, Martin J., eds. 20th Century Los Angeles: Power, Promotion, and Social Conflict. (1990). 240 pp. Lavender, David. Los Angeles, Two Hundred Years. (1980). 240 pp. heavily illustrated popular history Leader, Leonard. Los Angeles and the Great Depression. (1991). 344 pp. Mullins, William H. The Depression and the Urban West Coast, 19291933: Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle, and Portland. (1991). 176 pp. Nicolaides, Becky M. My Blue Heaven: Life and Politics in the Working-Class Suburbs of Los Angeles, 19201965. (2002). 412 pp. O'Flaherty, Joseph S. An End and a Beginning: The South Coast and Los Angeles, 18501887. (1972). 222 pp. O'Flaherty, Joseph S. Those Powerful Years: The South Coast and Los Angeles, 18871917 (1978). 356 pp. Payne, J. Gregory and Ratzan, Scott C. Tom Bradley: The Impossible Dream. (1986). 368 pp., mayor 1973 to 1993 and a leading African American Raftery, Judith Rosenberg. Land of Fair Promise: Politics and Reform in Los Angeles Schools, 18851941. (1992). 284 pp. Rolle, Andrew. Los Angeles: From Pueblo to City of the Future. (2d. ed. 1995). 226 pp.; the only historical survey by a scholar Sitton, Tom and Deverell, William, eds. Metropolis in the Making: Los Angeles in the 1920s. (2001). 371 pp. Verge, Arthur C. Paradise Transformed: Los Angeles during the Second World War. (1993). 177 pp. Verge, Arthur C. "The Impact of the Second World War on Los Angeles" Pacific Historical Review 1994 63(3): 289-314. 0030-8684 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/3640968) Planning, environment and autos Bottles, Scott L. Los Angeles and the Automobile: The Making of the Modern City. (1987). 302 pp. Davis, Margaret Leslie. Rivers in the Desert: William Mulholland and the Inventing of Los Angeles. (1993). 303 pp. Davis, Mike. City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles. (1990). 462 pp Desfor, Gene, and Roger Keil. Nature And The City: Making Environmental Policy In Toronto And Los Angeles (2004) 290pp Deverell, William, and Greg Hise. Land of Sunshine: An Environmental History of Metropolitan Los Angeles (2006) 350 pages excerpt and text search (http://books.google.com/books?id=jjdmih4_9wQC& printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:los+intitle:angeles&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=2004& as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=2009&num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES) Dewey, Scott Hamilton. Don't Breathe the Air: Air Pollution and U.S. Environmental Politics, 19451970. (2000). 321pp., focuses on LA smog Hise, Greg. Magnetic Los Angeles: Planning the Twentieth-Century Metropolis. (1997). 294 pp. Jacobs, Chip, and William Kelly. Smogtown: The Lung-Burning History of Pollution in Los Angeles (2008) Keane, James Thomas. Fritz B. Burns and the Development of Los Angeles: The Biography of a Community Developer and Philanthropist. (2001). 287 pp. Longstreth, Richard. The Drive-In, the Supermarket, and the Transformation of Commercial Space in Los Angeles, 1914-1941. (1999). 248 pp.

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History of Los Angeles Longstreth, Richard. City Center to Regional Mall: Architecture, the Automobile, and Retailing in Los Angeles, 19201950. (1997). 504 pp. Mulholland, Catherine. William Mulholland and the Rise of Los Angeles. (2000). 411 pp. online edition (http:// www.questia.com/library/book/william-mulholland-and-the-rise-of-los-angeles-by-catherine-mulholland.jsp) Post, Robert C. Street Railways and the Growth of Los Angeles (1989). 170pp. Rajan, Sudhir Chella. The Enigma of Automobility: Democratic Politics and Pollution Control. (1996). 202 pp.

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Hollywood
Balio, Tino. Grand Design: Hollywood as a Modern Business Enterprise, 19301939. (1993). 483 pp. May, Lary. The Big Tomorrow: Hollywood and the Politics of the American Way (2000) Schatz, Thomas. The Genius of the System: Hollywood Filmmaking in the Studio Era. (1988). 492 pp. * Smith, Catherine Parsons. Making Music in Los Angeles: Transforming the Popular. University of California Press, 2007. (A social history covering c. 18871940) Vaughn, Stephen. Ronald Reagan in Hollywood: Movies and Politics. (1994). 359 pp. Wells, Walter. Tycoons and Locusts: A Regional Look at Hollywood Fiction of the 1930s (1973) online edition (http://www.questia.com/library/book/ tycoons-and-locusts;-a-regional-look-at-hollywood-fiction-of-the-1930s-by-harry-t-moore-walter-wells.jsp)

Ethnicity, race and religion

Abelmann, Nancy and Lie, John. Blue Dreams: Korean Americans and the Los Angeles Riots. (1995). 272 pp. Acua, Rodolfo F. Anything but Mexican: Chicanos in Contemporary Los Angeles. (1996). 328 pp. Allen, James P. and Turner, Eugene. The Ethnic Quilt: Population Diversity in Southern California. (1997). 282 pp. Bedolla, Lisa Garca. Fluid borders: Latino power, identity, and politics in Los Angeles (2005) 278 pages; excerpt and text search (http://books.google.com/books?id=zkQmPRWzay8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:los+ intitle:angeles&lr=&as_drrb_is=b&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=2004&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=2009& num=30&as_brr=0&as_pt=ALLTYPES) Cannon, Lou. Official Negligence: How Rodney King and the Riots Changed Los Angeles and the LAPD. (1997). 698 pp. online edition (http://www.questia-online-library.com/library/book/ official-negligence-how-rodney-king-and-the-riots-changed-los-angeles-and-the-lapd-by-lou-cannon.jsp) Degraaf, Lawrence B. "The City of Black Angels: Emergence of the Los Angeles Ghetto, 18901930". Pacific Historical Review 1970 39(3): 323352. in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/3637655) Engh, Michael E. "'A Multiplicity and Diversity of Faiths': Religion's Impact on Los Angeles and the Urban West, 18901940," Western Historical Quarterly 1997 28(4): 462492. 0043-3810 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/ stable/969882) Engh, Michael E. Frontier Faiths: Church, Temple, and Synagogue in Los Angeles, 18461888. (1992). 267 pp. Greenwood, Roberta S., ed. Down by the Station: Los Angeles Chinatown, 1880-1933. (1996). 207 pp. Griswold del Castillo, Richard. The Los Angeles Barrio, 18501890: A Social History. (1979). 217 pp. Gutierrez, Ramon A., and Patricia Zavella, eds. Mexicans in California: Transformations and Challenges essays by leading scholars (2009)

History of Los Angeles Hamilton, Nora and Chinchilla, Norma Stoltz. Seeking Community in a Global City: Guatemalans and Salvadorans in Los Angeles. (2001). 296 pp. Hayashi, Brian Masaru. "For the Sake of Our Japanese Brethren": Assimilation, Nationalism, and Protestantism among the Japanese of Los Angeles, 18951942 (1995). 217 pp. Horne, Gerald. Fire This Time: The Watts Uprising and the 1960s. (1995). 424 pp. Keil, Roger. Los Angeles: Globalization, Urbanization, and Social Struggles. (1998). 295 pp. Leclerc, Gustavo; Villa, Ral; and Dear, Michael, eds. Urban Latino Cultures: La Vida Latina en L.A. (1999). 214 pp. Loza, Steven. Barrio Rhythm: Mexican American Music in Los Angeles. (1993). 320 pp. Min, Pyong Gap. Caught in the Middle: Korean Communities in New York and Los Angeles. (1996). 260 pp. Modell, John. The Economics and Politics of Racial Accommodation: The Japanese of Los Angeles, 19001942. (1977). 201 pp. Monroy, Douglas. Rebirth: Mexican Los Angeles from the Great Migration to the Great Depression. (1999). 322 pp. Moore, Deborah Dash. To the Golden Cities: Pursuing the American Jewish Dream in Miami and L.A. (1994). 358 pp.

105

Oberschall, Anthony. "The Los Angeles Riot of August 1965," Social Problems, Vol. 15, No. 3 (Winter, 1968), pp.322341 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/799788), black riots in Watts Ong, Paul, ed. The New Asian Immigration in Los Angeles and Global Restructuring. (1994). 330 pp. Ros-Bustamante, Antonio and Castillo, Pedro. An Illustrated History of Mexican Los Angeles, 1781-1985. (1986). 196 pp. Saito, Leland T. Race and Politics: Asian Americans, Latinos, and Whites in a Los Angeles Suburb. (1998). 250 pp. Snchez, George J. Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture, and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 19001945. (1993). 367 pp. online edition (http://www.questia.com/library/book/ becoming-mexican-american-ethnicity-culture-and-identity-in-chicano-los-angeles-1900-1945-by-george-j-sanchez. jsp) Sides, Josh. L. A. City Limits: African American Los Angeles from the Great Depression to the Present (2003) online edition (http://www.questia.com/library/book/ la-city-limits-african-american-los-angeles-from-the-great-depression-to-the-present-by-josh-sides.jsp) Valle, Victor M. and Torres, Rodolfo D. Latino Metropolis. (2000). 249 pp. Waldinger, Roger and Bozorgmehr, Mehdi, eds. Ethnic Los Angeles. (1996). 497 pp. studies by sociologists Weber, Francis J. Magnificat: The Life and Times of Timothy Cardinal Manning. (1999). 729 pp. The Catholic archbishop from 1970 to 1985. Weber, Francis J. His Eminence of Los Angeles: James Francis Cardinal McIntyre. (1997). 707 pp.Catholic archbishop from 1948 to 1970. Weber, Francis J. Century of Fulfillment: The Roman Catholic Church in Southern California, 18401947. (1990). 536 pp.

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Primary sources
Caughey, John and LaRee Caughey, eds. Los Angeles: Biography of a City. (1976). 510 pp. short excerpts from primary and secondary sources Diehl, Digby, ed. Front Page: 100 Years of the Los Angeles Times, 1881-1981. (1981). 287 pp. Rodrguez, Luis. Always Running: La Vida Loca: Gang Days in L.A. (1993); autobiographical novel online edition (http://www.questia.com/library/book/ always-running-la-vida-loca-gang-days-in-la-by-luis-j-rodriguez.jsp) Violence in the CityAn End or a Beginning?, A Report by the Governor's Commission on the Los Angeles Riots, 1965 Official Report online (http://www.usc.edu/libraries/archives/cityinstress/mccone/contents. html), report on 1965 black riot in Watts; called the "McCone Report" after its chairman References
[1] See Starr, Americans and the California Dream, 1850-1915 (1973) (http:/ / www. questia. com/ PM. qst?a=o& d=71529502), focuses on novelists; Inventing the Dream: California through the Progressive Era (1986) (http:/ / www. questia. com/ PM. qst?a=o& d=76788150); Material Dreams: Southern California through the 1920s(1991) (http:/ / www. questia. com/ PM. qst?a=o& d=59159756); excerpt and text search (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ dp/ 019507260X); Endangered Dreams: The Great Depression in California (1997); excerpt and text search (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ dp/ 0195118022); The Dream Endures: California Enters the 1940s (1997) (http:/ / www. questia. com/ PM. qst?a=o& d=24360325); Embattled Dreams: California in War and Peace, 1940-1950 (2003); excerpt and text search (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ dp/ 0195168976); Golden Dreams: California in an Age of Abundance, 1950-1963 (2009) excerpt and text search (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ dp/ 0195153774); and Coast of Dreams: California on the Edge, 1990-2003. (2004).

External links
Los Angeles in the 1900s, a collection of newspaper articles and illustrations from 1900 through 1909 (http:// www.ulwaf.com/LA-1900s/index04.html) Famous Fires of the LAFD (http://www.lafire.com/famous_fires/fires.htm) Historic Cemeteries of Los Angeles (http://www.usc.edu/libraries/archives/la/cemeteries/) Los Angeles: Early Days (http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/37842/los-angeles-early-days) slideshow by Life magazine Wilshire Wonders: A History of Wilshire Boulevard (kcet.org) (http://kcet.org/explore-ca/web-stories/ drivingpassions/wilshire/) 1947 project (http://www.1947project.com/) After one year dedicated to 1947, the "1947 project" blog shifted its focus to 1907 in L.A. City streets that existed in 19034 but are no longer extant (http://www.ulwaf.com/LA-1900s/SpecialReports/ Streets.html#Romeo)

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History of San Francisco

The history of the city of San Francisco, California, and its development as a center of maritime trade, have been greatly influenced by its location at the entrance to one of the world's best natural harbors. San Francisco is the name of both the city and the county, which share the same boundaries. The first Native Americans to settle this region found the Bay to be a vast natural resource for hunting and gathering their provisions and for the establishment of many small villages. Collectively, these early Native Americans were known as the Ohlone, and the language they spoke belonged to the Miwok family. Their trade patterns included places as far away as Baja California, the Mojave Desert and Yosemite.[1] The first Europeans to see what would become San Francisco were members of a Spanish exploratory voyage led by Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo. Cabrillo, sailing north from Mexico, explored the coast as far north as Point Reyes, but failed to discover the entrance to San Francisco Bay. An English expedition led by Sir Francis Drake also sailed past the bay entrance, in 1579.[2] Drake mapped the coast and called the cliffs by the bay Nova Albion, but made little effort to claim or settle the land. The earliest European colonial enterprises came in 1796, led north from Mexico by Spaniards Don Gaspar de Portol and Fra. Junipero Serra. The Spanish found this location to be of great strategic significance, establishing both military and religious settlements. The Presidio of San Francisco was the center of military activities, while Mission San Francisco de Ass began the missionization of some 10,000 Ohlone who lived in the area.[3] The Mission was also known as Mission Dolores because of its nearness to a creek named after Our Lady of Sorrows. The small settlement that grew up near the Mission was known as Yerba Buena, after the herb of the same name that grew in abundance there. Today's city took its name from the Mission, and Yerba Buena remained the name of a San Francisco neighborhood until the late 1970s and early 1980s, when the area began to be known as SoMa. The Moscone Center and Yerba Buena Gardens were built within the old Yerba Buena area. San Francisco became part of the United States with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848. San Francisco is now estimated to be the twelfth largest city in the United States,[4] and has been characterized by rapid economic change and cultural diversity.

Precolonial history
European visitors to the San Francisco Bay Area were preceded approximately 8,000 years earlier by Native Americans. Linguistic and paleontological evidence is controversial as to whether these earliest inhabitants of the area now known as San Francisco were the ancestors of the Ohlone population encountered by the Spanish in the late 18th century.[5] The cultural unit, Ohlone, to which the San Francisco natives belonged did not recognize the city or county boundaries imposed later by Americans, and were part of a contiguous set of bands that lived from south of the Golden Gate to San Jos.[6] There is no mention of Native Americans in Sir Francis Drake's accounts of his trip to the San Francisco Bay in 1579, which is consistent with the seasonal use pattern of the area described in the archaeological record.[7] When the Spanish arrived, they found the area inhabited by the Yelamu tribe, which belongs to a linguistic grouping later called the Ohlone. The Ohlone speakers are distinct from Pomo speakers north of the San Francisco Bay, and are part of the Miwok group of languages. Their traditional territory stretched from Big Sur to the San Francisco Bay, although their trading area was much larger. Miwok-speaking Indians also lived in Yosemite, and Ohlone-speakers intermarried with Chumash and Pomo speakers as well.[8] The Spanish conquest of the San Francisco Bay Area came later than to Southern California. For one thing, San Francisco's characteristic foggy weather and geography led early European explorers such as Juan Cabrillo to bypass the Golden Gate and miss entering San Francisco Bay, although it seems clear from historical accounts of navigation that they passed close to the coastline north and south of the Golden Gate.[9]

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Arrival of Europeans and early settlement

A Spanish exploration party, led by Portol and arriving on November 2, 1769, was the first documented European sighting of San Francisco Bay. Portol claimed the area for Spain as part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain.[10] Seven years later a Spanish mission, Mission San Francisco de Ass (Mission Dolores), was established by Fra. Junipero Serra, and a military fort was built, the Presidio of San Francisco.[11] [12] In 1786 French explorer, the Comte de la Prouse visited San Francisco and left a detailed account of it.[13] Six years later, in 1792 British explorer George Vancouver also stopped in San Francisco, in part, according to his journal, to spy on the Spanish settlements in the area.[14] In addition to Western Europeans, Russian fur-traders also visited the area. From 1770 until about 1841, Russian traders colonized an area that ranged from Alaska south to Fort Ross in Sonoma County, California. The naming of San Francisco's Russian Hill neighborhood is attributed to the remains of Russian fur-traders and sailors found there. Upon independence from Spain in 1821, the area became part of Mexico. In 1835, Englishman William Richardson erected the first significant homestead outside the immediate vicinity of the Mission Dolores,[15] near a boat anchorage around what is today Portsmouth Square. Together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro, he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement, and the town, named Yerba Buena after the herb, which was named by the missionaries that found it abundant nearby, began to attract American settlers. In 1838, Richardson petitioned and received a large land grant in Marin County and, in 1841, he moved there to take up residence at Rancho Sauselito. Richardson Bay to the north bears his name. The British Empire briefly entertained the idea of purchasing the bay from Mexico in 1841, claiming it would "Secure to Great Britain all the advantages of the finest port in the Pacific for her commercial speculations in time of peace, and in war for more easily securing her maritime ascendency". However little came of this, and San Francisco would become a prize of the United States rather than that of British naval power.[16] On July 31, 1846, Yerba Buena doubled in population when about 240 Mormon pioneers from the East coast arrived on the ship Brooklyn, led by Sam Brannan. Brannan, also a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, would later become well known for being the first publicist of the California Gold Rush of 1849 and the first millionaire resulting from it. US Navy Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7, 1846, during the Mexican-American War, and US Navy Captain John Berrien Montgomery and US Marine Second Lieutenant Henry Bulls Watson of the USS Portsmouth arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later by raising the flag over the town plaza, which is now Portsmouth Square in honor of the ship. Henry Bulls Watson was Portsmouth Square, 1851. placed in command of the garrison there. In August 1846, Lt. Washington A. Bartlett was named alcalde of Yerba Buena. On January 30, 1847, Lt. Bartlett's proclamation changing the name Yerba Buena to San Francisco took effect.[17] [18] The city and the rest of California officially became American in 1848 by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the Mexican-American War. California was admitted to the U.S. as a state on
View of Presidio of San Francisco circa 1817 by Louis Choris

History of San Francisco September 9, 1850the State of California soon chartered San Francisco as both a City and a County. Situated at the tip of a windswept peninsula without water or firewood, San Francisco lacked most of the basic facilities for a 19th century settlement. These natural disadvantages forced the town's residents to bring water, fuel and food to the site. The first of many environmental transformations was the city's reliance on filled marshlands for real estate. Much of the present downtown is built over the former Yerba Buena Cove, granted to the city by military governor Stephen Watts Kearny in 1847.

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1848 gold rush

The California gold rush starting in 1848 led to a large boom in population, including considerable immigration. Between January 1848 and December 1849, the population of San Francisco increased from 1,000 to 25,000. The rapid growth continued through the 1850s and under the influence of the 1859 Comstock Lode silver discovery. This rapid growth complicated city planning efforts, leaving a legacy of narrow streets that continues to cause traffic problems today. San Francisco became America's largest city west of the Mississippi River, until it lost that title to Los Angeles in 1920.[20]

The population boom included many workers from China who came to work in the gold mines and later on the Transcontinental Railroad. The Chinatown district of the city became and is still one of the largest in the country; today as a result of that legacy, the city as a whole is roughly one-fifth Chinese, one of the largest concentrations outside of China. Many businesses founded to service the growing population exist today, notably Levi Strauss & Co. clothing, Ghirardelli chocolate, and Wells Fargo bank. Many famous Charles Cora and James Casey are lynched by the Committee of Vigilance, 1856. railroad, banking, and mining tycoons or "robber barons" such as Charles Crocker, Mark Hopkins, Collis P. Huntington, and Leland Stanford settled in the city in its Nob Hill neighborhood. The sites of their mansions are now famous and expensive San Francisco hotels (Mark Hopkins Hotel and the Huntington Hotel). As in many mining towns, the social climate in early San Francisco was chaotic. Committees of Vigilance were formed in 1851, and again in 1856, in response to crime and government corruption. This popular militia movement lynched 12 people, kidnapped hundreds of Irishmen and government militia members, and forced several elected officials to resign. The Committee of Vigilance relinquished power both times after it decided the city had been "cleaned up." This mob activity later focused on Chinese immigrants, creating many race riots.[21] These riots culminated in the creation of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882 that aimed to reduce Chinese immigration to the United States by limiting immigration to males and reducing numbers of immigrants allowed in the city.[22] [23] The law was not repealed until 1943 with the Magnuson Act. The City of San Francisco was the county seat of the County of San Francisco from 1849 to 1856. Until 1856, the city limits extended west to Divisadero Street and Castro Street and south to 20th Street. In response to the lawlessness and vigilantism that escalated rapidly between 1855 and 1856, the State of California decided to divide

San Francisco harbor in 1850 or 1851. During this time, the harbor would become so crowded that ships often had to wait days before [19] unloading their passengers and goods.

History of San Francisco the County; and carved out the city core from the rest of San Francisco County. A straight line was drawn across the tip of the San Francisco Peninsula just north of San Bruno Mountain. Everything south of the line became the new County of San Mateo, while everything north of the line became part of the new consolidated City-County of San FranciscoCalifornia's first and, to date, only consolidated city-county. In autumn of 1855, a ship bearing refugees from an ongoing cholera epidemic in the Far East (authorities disagree as to whether this was the S.S. Sam or the S.S. Carolina but primary documents indicate that the Caroline was involved in the epidemic of 1850 and the SS Uncle Sam in the epidemic of 1855) docked in San Francisco. As the city's rapid Gold Rush area population growth had significantly outstripped the development of infrastructure, including sanitation, a serious cholera epidemic quickly broke out. The responsibility for caring for the indigent sick had previously rested on the state, but faced with the San Francisco cholera epidemic, the state legislature devolved this responsibility to the counties, setting the precedent for California's system of county hospitals for the poor still in effect today. The Sisters of Mercy were contracted to run San Francisco's first county hospital, the State Marine and County Hospital, due to their efficiency in handling the cholera epidemic of 1855. By 1857, the order opened St. Mary's Hospital on Stockton Street, the first Catholic hospital west of the Rocky Mountains. In 1905, The Sisters of Mercy purchased a lot at Fulton and Stanyan Streets, the current location of St. Mary's Medical Center, the oldest continually operating hospital in San Francisco. Due to the Gold Rush, and despite the Vigilantes, and the gradual implementation of law and order in San Francisco, its red-light district at the time became known as the Barbary Coast which became a hotbed of gambling, prostitution and most notoriously for Shanghaiing. It is now overlapped by Chinatown, North Beach, Jackson Square, and the Financial District.

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Paris of the West

It was during the 1860s to the 1880s when San Francisco began to transform into a major city, starting with massive expansion in all directions, creating new neighborhoods such as the Western Addition, the Haight-Ashbury, Eureka Valley, the Mission District, culminating in the construction of Golden Gate Park in 1887. The City's famous Cable Cars were built around this time, a unique invention devised by Andrew Smith Hallidie in order to traverse the City's steep hills while connecting the new residential developments. San Francisco grew in cultural prominence at this time as famous writers Mark Twain, Bret Harte, Ambrose Bierce, Rudyard Kipling, Robert Louis Stevenson, and Oscar Wilde spent time in the city, while local characters developed such as Emperor Norton.

Keller cartoon from the Wasp of San Francisco depicting Oscar Wilde on the occasion of his visit there in 1882.

By the 1890s, much like across the United States, San Francisco was suffering from machine politics and corruption, and was ripe for political reform. Adolph Sutro ran for mayor in 1894 under the auspices of the Populist Party and won handily without campaigning. Unfortunately, except for the Sutro Baths, Mayor Sutro substantially failed in his efforts to improve the city. The next mayor, James D. Phelan elected in 1896, was more successful, pushing through a new city charter that allowed for the

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ability to raise funds through bond issues. He was able to get bonds passed to construct a new sewer system, seventeen new schools, two parks, a hospital, and a main library. After leaving office in 1901, Phelan became interested in remaking San Francisco into a grand and modern Paris of the West. In 1900, a ship brought with it rats infected with bubonic plague. Mistakenly believing that interred corpses contributed to the transmission of plague, and possibly also motivated by the opportunity for profitable land speculation, city leaders banned all burials within the city. Cemeteries moved to the undeveloped area just south of the city limit, now the town of Colma, California. A Ross Alley in San Francisco's Chinatown 1898. (Photo fifteen-block section of Chinatown was quarantined while city by Arnold Genthe) leaders squabbled over the proper course to take, but the outbreak was finally eradicated by 1905. However, the problem of existing cemeteries and the shortage of land in the city remained. In 1912 (with fights extending until 1942), all remaining cemeteries in the city were evicted to Colma, where the dead now outnumber the living by more than a thousand to one. The above-ground Columbarium of San Francisco was allowed to remain, as well as the historic cemetery at Mission Dolores, the grave of Thomas Starr King at the Unitarian Church, and the San Francisco National Cemetery at the Presidio of San Francisco.[24]

1906 earthquake and fire

On April 18, 1906, a devastating earthquake resulted from the rupture of over 270 miles of the San Andreas Fault, from San Juan Bautista to Eureka, centered immediately offshore of San Francisco. The quake is estimated by the USGS to have had a magnitude of 7.8 on the Richter scale. Water mains ruptured throughout San Francisco, and the fires that followed burned out of control for days, destroying approximately 80% of the city, including almost all of the downtown core. Many residents were trapped between the water on three sides Nob Hill, looking down Sacramento Street, during the fire that and the approaching fire, and a mass evacuation across burned down the city after the Earthquake. the Bay saved thousands. Refugee camps were also set up in Golden Gate Park, Ocean Beach, and other undeveloped sections of the city. The official death toll at the time was 478, although it was officially revised in 2005 to 3,000+. The initial low death toll was concocted by civic, state, and federal officials who felt that reporting the actual numbers would hurt rebuilding and redevelopment efforts, as well as city and national morale.

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Reconstruction
Almost immediately after the quake re-planning and reconstruction plans were hatched to quickly rebuild the city. One of the more famous and ambitious plans, proposed before the fire, came from famed urban planner, Daniel Burnham. His bold plan called for Haussmann style avenues, boulevards, and arterial thoroughfares that radiated across the city, a massive civic center complex with classical structures, what would have been the largest urban park in the world, stretching from Twin Peaks to Lake Merced with a large athenaeum at its peak, and various other By the time of this postcard circa 1920s, San Francisco had been proposals. This plan was dismissed at the time and by fully rebuilt. critics now, as impractical and unrealistic to municipal supply and demand. Property owners and the Real Estate industry were against the idea as well due to the amounts of their land the city would have to purchase to realize such proposals. While the original street grid was restored, many of Burnham's proposals eventually saw the light of day such as a neo-classical civic center complex, wider streets, a preference of arterial thoroughfares, a subway under Market Street, a more people friendly Fisherman's Wharf, and a monument to the city on Telegraph Hill, Coit Tower. In 1907 and 08, the city was rocked by graft investigations and trials involving bribery of the Board of Supervisors from so-called public service corporations that put mayor Eugene Schmitz and Abe Ruef in jail.

"Greater San Francisco" movement of 1912

In 1912, there was a movement to create a Greater San Francisco in which southern Marin County, the part of Alameda County which includes Oakland, Piedmont and Berkeley, and northern San Mateo County from San Bruno northwards would have become outer Boroughs of San Francisco, with the City and County of San Francisco functioning as Manhattan, based on the New York City model. East Bay opposition defeated the San Francisco expansion plan in the California legislature, and later attempts at San Francisco Bay Area metropolitan area consolidation in 1917, 1923, and 1928 also failed to be implemented.[25] [26]

Panama-Pacific Exposition of 1915

In 1915, the city hosted the Panama-Pacific Exposition, officially to celebrate the opening of the Panama Canal, but also as a showcase of the vibrant completely rebuilt city less than a decade after the Earthquake. After the exposition ended, all of its grand buildings were demolished except for the rebuilt Palace of Fine Arts which survives today in an abbreviated form, while the remainder of the fairgrounds were re-developed into the Marina District.
Floodlit pavilion at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition.

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1930s-World War II
1934 saw San Francisco become the center of the West Coast waterfront strike. Lasted eighty-three days, two workers were killed, but the result led to the unionization of all of the West Coast ports of the United States. The San Francisco Oakland Bay Bridge was opened in 1936 and the Golden Gate Bridge in 1937. The 1939 Golden Gate International Exposition was held on Treasure Island. It was in this period that the island of Alcatraz, a former military stockade, began its service as a federal maximum security prison, housing notorious inmates such as Al Capone, and Robert Franklin Stroud, The Birdman of Alcatraz. During World War II, San Francisco was the major mainland supply point and port of embarkation for the war in the Pacific. It also saw the largest and oldest enclave of Japanese outside of Japan, Japantown, completely empty out many of its residents as a result of Executive Order 9066 that forced all Japanese of birth or decent in the United States to be interned. By 1943 many large sections of the neighborhood remained vacant due to the forced internment. The void was quickly filled by thousands of African Americans who had left the South to find wartime industrial jobs in California as part of the Great Migration. Many African Americans also settled in the Fillmore District and most notably near the Bayview-Hunters Point shipyards, working in the dry-docks there. The same docks at Hunters Point would be used for loading the key fissile components of the first atomic bomb onto the USS Indianapolis in July 1945 for transfer to Tinian.

The USS San Francisco steams under the Golden Gate Bridge in 1942, during World War II.

The War Memorial Opera House which opened in 1932, was the site of some Japantown residents form a line outside significant post World War II history. In 1945, the conference that formed the to appear for "processing" in response to Civilian Exclusion Order Number 20. United Nations was held there, with the UN Charter being signed nearby in the Herbst Theatre on June 26. Additionally the Treaty of San Francisco which formally ended war with Japan and established peaceful relations, was drafted and signed here six years later in 1951.

Post-World War II
After World War II, many American military personnel who fell in love with the city when they left for or returning from the Pacific, settled in the city, prompting the creation of the Sunset District, Visitacion Valley, and the total build out of San Francisco. During this period, Caltrans commenced an aggressive freeway construction program in the Bay Area. However, Caltrans soon encountered strong resistance in San Francisco, for the city's high population density meant that virtually any right-of-way would displace a large number of people. Caltrans tried to minimize displacement (and its land acquisition costs) by building double-decker freeways, but the crude state of civil engineering at that time resulted in construction of some embarrassingly San Francisco circa 1950. ugly freeways which ultimately turned out to be seismically unsafe. In 1959, the Board of Supervisors voted to halt construction of any more freeways in the city, an event known as the Freeway

History of San Francisco Revolt. Although some minor modifications have been allowed to the ends of existing freeways, the city's anti-freeway policy has remained in place ever since. 1958 saw the New York Giants move to San Francisco to become the San Francisco Giants, with their first stadium, Candlestick Park constructed in 1959.

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Urban renewal
In the 1950s San Francisco mayor George Christopher hired Harvard graduate Justin Herman to head the redevelopment agency for the city and county. Justin Herman began an aggressive campaign to tear down so-called blighted areas of the city that were really working class, non-white neighborhoods. Enacting eminent domain whenever necessary, he set upon a plan to tear down huge areas of the city and replace them with modern construction. Critics accused Herman of racism for what was perceived as attempts to create segregation and displacement of blacks. Many black residents were forced to move from their homes near the Fillmore jazz district to newly constructed projects such as the near the naval base Hunter's Point or even to cities such as Oakland. He began leveling entire areas in San Francisco's Western Addition and Japantown neighborhoods. Herman also completed the final removal of the produce district below Telegraph Hill, moving the produce merchants to the Alemany boulevard site. His planning led to the creation of Embarcadero Center, the Embarcadero Freeway, Japantown, the Geary Street superblocks, and eventually Yerba Buena Gardens.

The 1960-1970s
Summer of Love and Counterculture Movement.
Following World War II, San Francisco became a magnet for America's counterculture. During the 1950s, City Lights Bookstore in the North Beach neighborhood was an important publisher of Beat Generation literature. Some of the story of the evolving arts scene of the 1950s is told in the article San Francisco Renaissance. During the latter half of the following decade, the 1960s, San Francisco was the center of hippie and other alternative culture. In 1967, thousands of young people entered the Haight-Ashbury district during what became known as the Summer of Love. The San Francisco Sound emerged as an influential force in rock music, with such acts as Jefferson Airplane and the Grateful Dead achieving international prominence. These groups blurred the boundaries between folk, rock and jazz traditions and further developed rock's lyrical content.

The rise of the "Gay Mecca".

San Francisco's frontier spirit and wild and ribald character started its reputation as a gay mecca in the first half of the 20th century. World War II saw a jump in the gay population when the US military actively sought out and dishonorably discharged homosexuals. From 1941 to 1945, more than 9,000 gay servicemen and women were discharged, and many were processed out in San Francisco.[27] The late 1960s also brought in a new wave of lesbians and gays who were more radical and less mainstream and who had flocked to San Francisco not only for its gay-friendly reputation, but for its reputation as a radical, left-wing center. These new residents were the prime movers of Gay Liberation and often lived communally, buying decrepit Victorians in the Haight and fixing them up. When drugs and violence began to become a serious problem in the Haight, many lesbians and gays simply moved "over the hill" to the Castro replacing Irish-Americans who had

Rioters outside San Francisco City Hall the evening of May 21, 1979, reacting to the voluntary manslaughter verdict for Dan White, that ensured White would serve only five years for the double murders of Harvey Milk and George Moscone.

History of San Francisco moved to the more affluent and culturally homogeneous suburbs. The Castro became known as a Gay Mecca, and its gay population swelled as significant numbers of gay people moved to San Francisco in the 1970s and 1980s. The growth of the gay population caused tensions with some of the established ethnic groups in the southern part of the city. On November 27, 1978 Dan White, a former member of the Board of Supervisors and former police officer, assassinated the city's mayor George Moscone and San Francisco's first openly gay elected official, Supervisor Harvey Milk. The murders and the subsequent trial were marked both by candlelight vigils and riots within the gay community. In the 1980s, the HIV (formerly called LAV, HTLV-III, also known as AIDS virus) created havoc on the gay male community. Today, the gay, lesbian, and bisexual populations of the city are estimated to be approximately 15%, and they remain influential in the city's life. During the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s San Francisco became a major focal point in the North Americanand international-- punk, thrash metal, and rave scenes. The 1970s also brought other major changes to the city such as the construction of its first subway system, BART, which connects San Francisco with other cities in the Bay Area in 1972. At stations in downtown San Francisco, BART connects with MUNI, the city subway, which has lines that run underground along Market Street, and then along surface streets through much of the city. .San Francisco's tallest building, the Transamerica Pyramid was also completed during that year. San Francisco also saw a wave of violence during this time such as the Zebra Killings, the Zodiac Murders, and the Golden Dragon massacre.

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1980s
During the administration of Mayor Dianne Feinstein (19781988), San Francisco saw a development boom referred to as "Manhattanization." Many large skyscrapers were built primarily in the Financial District but the boom also included high-rise condominiums in some residential neighborhoods. An opposition movement gained traction among those who felt the skyscrapers ruined views and destroyed San Francisco's unique character. Similar to the freeway revolt in the city decades earlier, a "skyscraper revolt" forced the city to embed height restrictions in the planning code. For many years, the limits slowed construction of new skyscrapers. She had also spearheaded the development and construction of the city's convention center, the Moscone Center, preserved and renovated the city's Cable Cars, and attracted the 1984 Democratic National Convention. During the early 1980s, homeless people began appearing in large numbers in the city, the result of multiple factors including the closing of state institutions for the mentally ill, the Reagan administration drastically cutting Section 8 housing benefits, and social changes which increased the availability of addictive drugs. Combined with San Francisco's attractive environment and generous welfare policies the problem soon became endemic. Mayor Art Agnos (198892) was the first to attack the problem, and not the last; it is a top issue for San Franciscans even today. Agnos allowed the homeless to camp in the Civic Center park, which led to its title of "Camp Agnos." The failure of this policy led to his losing the election to Frank Jordan in 1991. Jordan launched the "MATRIX" program the next year, which aimed

Diane Feinstein was mayor of San Francisco throughout the 1980s.

A building in the Marina District at Beach and Divisadero settled onto its buckled garage supports during the Loma Prieta Quake.

History of San Francisco to displace the homeless through aggressive police action. And it did displace them - to the rest of the city. His successor, Willie Lewis Brown, Jr., was able to largely ignore the problem, riding on the strong economy into a second term. Present mayor Gavin Newsom's policy on the homeless is the controversial "Care Not Cash" program, which calls for ending the city's generous welfare policies towards the homeless and instead placing them in affordable housing and requiring them to attend city funded drug rehabilitation and job training programs. In August 1989, San Francisco was surpassed for the first time in population by San Jose (located in silicon valley), the world center of the computer industry. San Jose has continued since then to grow in population since it is surrounded by large tracts of developable land. Thus, San Francisco is now the second largest city in population in the San Francisco Bay Area after San Jose.

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1989 Loma Prieta earthquake

On October 17, 1989, an earthquake measuring 6.9 on the Richter magnitude scale struck on the San Andreas Fault near Loma Prieta Peak in the Santa Cruz mountains, approximately 70 miles (113km) south of San Francisco, a few minutes before Game 3 of the 1989 World Series was scheduled to begin at Candlestick Park. The quake severely damaged many of the city's freeways including the Embarcadero Freeway and the Central Freeway. The quake also caused extensive damage in the Marina District and the South of Market neighborhoods. Despite the significant destruction the earthquake had caused throughout the greater Bay Area, only 67 died. The World Series resumed a week later with the loss of the Giants to the Oakland A's.

1990s
The 1990s saw the demolition of the quake damaged Embarcadero and Central Freeway, restoring the once blighted Hayes Valley and the restoration of its waterfront promenade, The Embarcadero. In 1994 as part of the Base Realignment and Closure plan, the former military bases of San Francisco Naval Shipyard in Bayview-Hunters Point was closed and returned to the city while the Presidio was turned over to the National Park Service and since converted a into national park. In 1996, the city elected its first and to date only African American mayor, former Speaker of the California State Assembly, Willie Brown. Brown called for expansions to the San Francisco budget to provide for new employees and programs. During Brown's tenure, San Franciscos budget increased to US$5.2 billion and the city added 4,000 new employees. His tenure saw the development and construction of the new Mission Bay neighborhood, and baseball stadium for the Giants, AT&T Park which was 100% privately financed.

Dot-com Boom
During the dot-com boom of the late 1990s, large numbers of entrepreneurs and computer software professionals moved into the city, followed by marketing and sales professionals, and changed the social landscape as once poorer neighborhoods became gentrified. The rising rents forced many people, families, and businesses to leave. San Francisco has the smallest share of children of any major U.S. city, with the city's 18 and under population at just 14.5 percent. [28]

2000s
In 2001, the markets crashed, the boom ended, and many left San Francisco. South of Market, where many dot-com companies were located, had been bustling and crowded with few vacancies, but by 2002 was a virtual wasteland of empty offices and for-rent signs. Much of the boom was blamed for the city's "fastest shrinking population", reducing the city's population by 30,000 in just a few years. While the bust has helped put an ease on the city's apartment rents, the city remains expensive. By 2003, the city's economy had recovered from the dot-com crash thanks to a resurgent international tourist industry and the Web 2.0 boom that saw the creation of many new internet

History of San Francisco and software start-up companies in the city, attracting white-collar workers to recent University graduate young adults from all over the world. [29] [30] Residential demand as well as rents rose again, and as a result of such demand, city officials relaxed building height restrictions and zoning codes to construct residential condominiums in SOMA such as One Rincon Hill, 300 Spear Street, and Millennium Tower, although the late 2000s recession has indefinitely halted many construction projects such as Rincon Hill. [31] Part of this development is the reconstruction of the Transbay Terminal Replacement Project. 2010 also saw the San Francisco Giants win their first World Series title since moving from New York City. The estimated 1 million people that attended their victory parade is considered one of the largest in city history. [32]

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Historic populations
1852 - 34,776[33] 1860 - 56,802 1870 - 149,473 1880 - 233,959 1890 - 298,997 1900 - 342,782 1910 - 416,912 1920 - 506,676 1930 - 634,394 1940 - 634,536[34] 1950 - 775,357 1960 - 740,316 1970 - 715,674 1980 - 678,974 1990 - 723,959 2000 - 776,733 2010 - 805,235[35]

Notes
[1] The Ohlone Way, by Malcolm Margolin, Heyday Books, 1978. [2] "Francis Drake and New Albion," by Adolph S. Oko, California Historical Society Quarterly, 1964. [3] Sifting the Evidence: Perceptions of life at the Ohlone (Costanoan) Missions of Alta California, by Russell Skowronek, American Society for Ethnohistory, 1998 [4] United States Census Bureau (http:/ / www. cenus. gov/ popest/ cities/ tables/ SUB-EST2008-01. xls) Estimate, July 1, 2008 [5] Ohlone Past and Present by Lowell Bean (ed.) et al., Ballena Press Anthropological Papers No. 42, 1994 [6] ibid. [7] Ibid. [8] ibid. [9] "Seekers of the Northern Mystery," by Iris Engstrand, California Historical Quarterly, p78ff, 1997. [10] "Visitors: San Francisco Historical Information" (http:/ / www. sfgov. org/ site/ visitor_index. asp?id=8091). City and County of San Francisco. . Retrieved September 3, 2006. [11] De La Perouse, Jean Francois; Yamane, Linda Gonsalves; Margolin, Malcolm. Life in a California Mission: Monterey in 1786 : The Journals of Jean Francois De La Perouse. ISBN0-930588-39-8. [12] For the Revillagigedo Census of 1790, see The Census of 1790, California (http:/ / sfgenealogy. com/ spanish/ cen1790. htm), California Spanish Genealogy. Retrieved on 2008-08-04. Compiled from William Marvin Mason. The Census of 1790: A Demographic History of California. (Menlo Park: Ballena Press, 1998). 75-105. ISBN 978-0-87919-137-5. [13] De La Perouse, Life in a California Mission. [14] Vancouver's Report (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ prsf/ coast_defense/ spanish/ vancouver/ vancouvr. htm) Presidio of San Francisco, National Park Service.

History of San Francisco

[15] "From the 1820s to the Gold Rush" (http:/ / www. sfmuseum. org/ hist1/ early. html). The Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco. . Retrieved August 28, 2006. [16] Porter, Andrew (1999). The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume III: The Ninenteenth Century. Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-820565-1. [17] History of Yerba Buena Gardens. (http:/ / www. yerbabuenagardens. com/ history. html) Yerba Buena Gardens. Accessed August 28, 2003 [18] Theodore H. Hittell, History of California, Vol. 2 (1898) p. 596 (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ historycaliforn03hittgoog#page/ n606/ mode/ 1up/ ) [19] Powers, Dennis (2006). Treasure Ship: The Legend and Legacy of the S.S. Brother Jonathan. New York, New York: Kensington/Citadel Press. [20] "U.S. Census POPULATION OF THE 100 LARGEST CITIES AND OTHER URBAN PLACES IN THE UNITED STATES: 1790 TO 1990" (http:/ / www. census. gov/ population/ www/ documentation/ twps0027. html). . Retrieved April 20, 2006. [21] Bodenner, Chris. "Chinese Exclusion Act." Issues & Controversies in American History @ FACTS.com. 20 Oct. 2006. Facts On File News Services. 24 Dec. 2010 <http://www.2facts.com> [22] http:/ / historymatters. gmu. edu/ d/ 5046/ [23] Kennedy, David M. Cohen, Lizabeth, Bailey, Thomas A. The American Pageant. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002> [24] "San Francisco Cemeteries" (http:/ / www. sanfranciscocemeteries. com). . Retrieved July 12, 2005. [25] Is Regional Government the Answer to Suburban Sprawl?Public Interest Fall 1999 by Fred Siegel: (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m0377/ is_1999_Fall/ ai_56639776/ pg_6/ ) [26] The San Francisco Bay Areaa Metropolis in Perspective by Mel Scott Berkeley:1985 University of California PressSee chapter 9--The Greater San Francsico Movement Pages 133-148 Google Books Result: The San Francisco Bay Areaa Metropolis in Perspective by Mel Scott Berkeley:1985 University of California PressGreater San Francisco Movement: (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=DAavqoBhBakC& pg=PP2& lpg=PP2& dq="The+ San+ Francisco+ Bay+ Area--A+ Metropolis+ in+ Perspective"& source=bl& ots=JFkyGzrY3W& sig=eIXhO5Z7TNuuoD3-hPY0Zsoje3U& hl=en& ei=KtJbS-S8CYS4swOLnsmZAw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=3& ved=0CBcQ6AEwAg#v=snippet& q=Greater San Francisco Movement& f=false) [27] Berube, Allan (1990). Coming Out Under Fire The History of Gay Men and Women in World War Two. Free Press. ISBN0-7432-1071-9. [28] http:/ / news. sfobserver. com/ news/ view_article. html?article_id=8351949ee6ac559b5939f034bd28f1ef [29] http:/ / www. sfgate. com/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi?file=/ c/ a/ 2006/ 06/ 22/ MNG6HJIDMM1. DTL [30] http:/ / www. sfgov. org/ site/ uploadedfiles/ moed/ economic_strat/ ExecutiveSummary_EconomicPerformanceReview. pdf [31] http:/ / www. sfgate. com/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi?f=/ c/ a/ 2009/ 10/ 07/ BA6Q1A1V5H. DTL [32] http:/ / www. sfgate. com/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi?f=/ c/ a/ 2010/ 11/ 04/ MNM51G6DMS. DTL [33] 1850 census was lost in fire. This is the figure for 1852 California Census. [34] 1940 Census. Population Report. Vol. 1. p. 32-33 [35] http:/ / 2010. census. gov/ news/ releases/ operations/ cb11-cn68. html

118

Further reading
Surveys
Ferlinghetti, Lawrence (1980). Literary San Francisco: A pictorial history from its beginnings to the present day. Harper & Row. ISBN978-0-06-250325-1. OCLC6683688. Maupin, Armistead (1978). Tales of the City. Harper Collins. ISBN978-0-06-096404-7. OCLC29847673. Sinclair, Mick. San Francisco: A Cultural and Literary History (2003) Solnit, Rebecca. Infinite City: A San Francisco Atlas (University of California Press, 2010). 144 pp. ISBN 978-0-520-26250-8; online review (https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=34658) Starr, Kevin. Americans and the California Dream, 1850-1915 (1973); Starr's multivolume history of the state has extensive coverage of the city's politics, culture and economy

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Earthquake, infrastructure & environment

Bronson, William (2006). The Earth Shook, the Sky Burned. Chronicle Books. ISBN978-0-8118-5047-6. OCLC65223734. Cassady, Stephen (1987). Spanning the Gate. Square Books. ISBN978-0-916290-36-8. OCLC15229396. Dillon, Richard H. (1998). High Steel: Building the Bridges Across San Francisco Bay. Celestial Arts (Reissue edition). ISBN978-0-88029-428-7. OCLC22719465. Dreyfus, Philip J. Our Better Nature: Environment and the Making of San Francisco (2009) Thomas, Gordon and Witts, Max Morgan (1971). The San Francisco Earthquake. Stein and Day. ISBN978-0-8128-1360-9. OCLC154735.

Ethnicity & Race

Broussard, Albert S. Black San Francisco: The Struggle for Racial Equality in the West, 1900-1954 (1994) Burchell, R. A. The San Francisco Irish, 1848-1880 (1980) Chen, Yong. Chinese San Francisco, 1850-1943: A Trans-Pacific Community (2002) Garibaldi, Rayna, and Bernadette C. Hooper. Catholics of San Francisco (2008) Rosenbaum, Fred. Cosmopolitans: A Social and Cultural History of the Jews of the San Francisco Bay Area (2011)

Yung, Judy. Unbound Feet: A Social History of Chinese Women in San Francisco (1995)

Gold Rush & early days

Hittell, John S. A history of the city of San Francisco and incidentally of the State of California (1878), 498pp; famous classic online edition (http://books.google.com/books?id=E3vOnKUx1_gC) Lotchin, Roger W. (1997). San Francisco, 18461856: From Hamlet to City. University of Illinois Press. ISBN978-0-252-06631-3. OCLC35650934. Richards, Rand. Mud, Blood, and Gold: San Francisco in 1849 (2008)

Politics
Bean, Walton. Boss Rueff's San Francisco: The Story of the Union Labor Party, Big Business, and the Graft Prosecution (1967) Carlsson, Chris, and LisaRuth Elliott. Ten Years That Shook the City: San Francisco 1968-1978 (2011) Davies, Andrea Rees. Saving San Francisco: Relief and Recovery after the 1906 Disaster (2011) DeLeon, Richard E. Left Coast City: Progressive Politics in San Francisco, 1975-1991 (1992) Ethington, Philip J. The Public City: The Political Construction of Urban Life in San Francisco, 1850-1900 (2001) Hartman, Chester (2002). City for Sale: The Transformation of San Francisco. University of California Press. ISBN978-0-520-08605-0. OCLC48579085. Kazin, Michael. Barons of Labor: The San Francisco Building Trades and Union Power in the Progressive Era (1988)

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Social
Asbury, Hubert (1989). The Barbary Coast: An Informal History of the San Francisco Underworld. Dorset Press. ISBN978-0-88029-428-7. OCLC22719465. Lotchin, Roger W. The Bad City in the Good War: San Francisco, Los Angeles, Oakland, and San Diego (2003)

External links
History of Yerba Buena's Renaming (http://www.sparkletack.com/2009/01/26/ san-francisco-timecapsule-012609/), from San Francisco History Podcast San Francisco History Index (http://www.zpub.com/sf/history/) Website with many historic photos and documents of San Francisco history (http://www.americahurrah.com/) Shaping San Francisco, the lost history of San Francisco (http://www.shapingsf.org/) Found SF wiki project (http://foundsf.org/) Historic Pictures of 19th Century San Francisco (http://sanfrancisco.cityviews.us/), from the Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum Historic San Francisco photographs, including the 1906 Earthquake and Fire (http://www.jbmonaco.com/), by JB Monaco, a local photographer during that period Videos of San Francisco from the Prelinger Collection at archive.org (http://www.archive.org/movies/ movieslisting-browse.php?collection=prelinger&cat=San Francisco) Videos of San Francisco from the Shaping San Francisco collection at archive.org (http://www.archive.org/ movies/movieslisting-browse.php?collection=shaping_sf) A Map and Timeline (http://www.timespacemap.com/search/eventsearch.htm?_what=san_francisco& _zoom=11&_ll=37.764201,-122.433014&_maptype=0) of many of the events mentioned in this article San Francisco Then and Now (http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/52421/ san-francisco-then-and-now) - extensive slideshow by Life magazine Across From City Hall (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LvwHmGaofiU) video on the "Camp Agnos" era at Civic Center Plaza

History of San Diego

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History of San Diego

The recorded history of the San Diego, California, region goes back to the Spanish penetration of California in the 16th century.

Pre-colonial and colonial period

The area has long been inhabited by the Kumeyaay Native American people. The first European to visit the region was Juan Rodrguez Cabrillo. Cabrillo was Portuguese (his name in Portuguese was Joao Rodrigues Cabrilho) but he was a long-term resident of Spanish America. He was commissioned by Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza to continue the explorations of California. In 1542, Cabrillo discovered San Diego Bay, which he named San Miguel.[1] He went ashore, probably in the Ballast Point area of Point Loma. His landing is re-enacted every year at the Cabrillo Festival sponsored by Cabrillo National Monument.

Cabrillo National Monument, San Diego

The bay and the area of present-day San Diego were given their current name sixty years later by Sebastin Vizcano when he was mapping the coastline of Alta California for Spain in 1602.[2] The explorers camped near a Native American village called Nipaguay and celebrated mass in honor of San Diego de Alcala (Saint Didacus of Alcal). California was then part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain under the Audiencia of Guadalajara. In 1769, Gaspar de Portol and his expedition founded the Presidio of San Diego (military post), and on July 16, Franciscan friars Junpero Serra, Juan Viscaino and Fernando Parron raised and 'blessed a cross', establishing the first mission in upper Las Californias, Mission San Diego de Alcala.[3] Colonists began arriving in 1774. In the following year the Kumeyaay indigenous people rebelled against the Spanish. They killed the priest and two others, and burned the mission.[4] Father Serra organized the rebuilding, and two years later a fire-proof adobe and tile-roofed structure was built. By 1797 the mission had become the largest in California, with a population of more than 1,400 presumably converted Native American "Mission Indians" relocated to and associated with it.

Mexican period
In 1821 Mexico won victory over the Spanish Empire in the Mexican War for Independence. The Mexican Province of Alta California was created. The San Diego Mission was secularized in 1834, and 432 people petitioned Governor Jos Figueroa to form a pueblo. Commandant Santiago Arguello endorsed it. Juan Mara Osuna was elected the first alcalde ('mayor'), winning over Po Pico in the 13 ballots cast. Beyond town Mexican land grants expanded the number of California Ranchos that modestly added to the local economy. The original town of San Diego was located at the foot of Presidio Hill, in the area which is now Old Town San Diego State Historic Park. The location was not ideal, being several miles away from navigable water. Imported goods and exports (primarily tallow and hides) had to be carried over the La Playa Trail[5] to the anchorages in Point Loma. This arrangement was suitable only for a very small town. In 1830 the population was about 600; in 1838 the town lost its pueblo status because of its dwindling population, estimated as 100 to 150 residents.[6]

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Joining the United States

Alta California became part of the United States in 1850 following the U.S. victory in the Mexican-American War and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. San Diego, still little more than a village, was incorporated as a city and was named the county seat of the newly established San Diego County. The United States Census reported the population of the town as 650 in 1850 and 731 in 1860.[7] In 1867 a newcomer to San Diego named Alonzo Horton became convinced that the town needed a location nearer the water to improve trade. He bought 960 acres (390ha) of bayfront land several miles south of the town, an area that would become Downtown San Diego. He built a wharf and began to promote development there. The area was referred to as New Town or the Horton Addition. Despite opposition from the residents of the original settlement, which became known as Old Town, businesses and residents flocked to New Town and San Diego experienced the first of its many real estate booms. In 1871 government records were moved to a new county courthouse in New Town, and by the 1880s New Town (or downtown) had totally eclipsed Old Town as the heart of the growing city.[8] In 1878, San Diego was predicted to become a rival of San Franciscos trading ports. As a result, the manager of Central Pacific Railroad at the time, Charles Crocker, decided not to build a station from Northern California to San Diego, fearing that San Diego would take all the trades from coming in to San Francisco. Although he had wanted to build a railway to Southern California to engage in trade, Crocker decided on the then small town Los Angeles, which did not have any sort of trading port at the time. In 1885 a transcontinental railroad transfer route came to San Diego, and the population boomed, reaching 16,159 by 1890. In 1906 the San Diego and Arizona Railway of John D. Spreckels was built to provide San Diego with a direct transcontinental rail link to the east by connecting with the Southern Pacific Railroad lines in El Centro, California. It became the San Diego and Arizona Eastern Railway, and then in 1933 the Spreckels' heirs sold it to the Southern Pacific Railroad.

Consolidation as an urban center

Military presence
Significant U.S. Navy presence began in 1901, with the establishment of the Navy Coaling Station in Point Loma, and expanded greatly during the 1920s.[9] Camp Kearny was established in 1917, closed in 1920, later reopened, and eventually became the site of Marine Corps Air Station Miramar. Naval Base San Diego was established in 1922, as was the San Diego Naval Hospital. The Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego was commissioned in 1921 and the San Diego Naval Training Center[10] in 1923. (The Naval Training Center was closed on April 30, 1997.)

The upper floor of the Hill building, located at 6th and F streets, was the temporary location of the San Diego Normal School. Students and staff can be seen in the windows here in 1898. The school would later expand and change names several times until deciding on the current name, San Diego State University.

World's Fairs
San Diego hosted two World's Fairs, the Panama-California Exposition in 1915, and the California Pacific International Exposition in 1935. The expositions left a lasting legacy in the form of Balboa Park, the San Diego Zoo, and popularizing Mission Revival Style and Spanish Colonial Revival Style architecture locally and in Southern California as a regional aesthetic, and influencing design in the nation.

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Modern San Diego

Since World War II, the military has played a leading role in the local economy. Following the end of the Cold War the military presence diminished considerably. San Diego has since become a center of the emerging biotech industry and is home to telecommunications giant Qualcomm.

Recent scandals
Beginning in 2003, the public became aware of an ongoing pension fund scandal which left the city with an estimated $1.4 billion pension fund gap. Despite mounting problems with city finances, the incumbent Mayor Dick Murphy narrowly won re-election in 2004 with a plurality of votes. The result was controversial because a third candidate, city councilmember Donna Frye, had run as a write-in candidate in the general election despite uncertainty about whether that was permitted by the city code and city charter. Frye may have gotten more votes than Murphy, but more than 5,000 write-in votes for her were disqualified because the voter did not fill a bubble in addition to writing in her name.[11] Just a few months into his second term and under mounting pressure, Murphy announced in April 2005 that he would resign by mid-July. A few days after his resignation took effect, two city councilmembers, Ralph Inzunza and deputy mayor Michael Zucchet, were convicted for taking bribes in a scheme to get the city's "no touch" laws at strip clubs repealed. Zucchet, as deputy mayor, was slated to replace Murphy as mayor. Inzunza and Zucchet resigned; a third accused councilmember died before trial. Zucchet's conviction was later overturned. On July 26, 2005, a special election was held to replace Murphy. Frye received the most votes in the primary with 43% of the vote, but lacked the majority required to win outright. She lost the run-off election to the second place finisher, former San Diego police chief Jerry Sanders, on a November 8, 2005 ballot. Beyond the issues regarding the city government, San Diego has experienced scandal on the Federal level as well. On November 28, 2005, former member of the U.S. House of Representatives, Randy "Duke" Cunningham, resigned after a bribery scandal. Cunningham represented California's 50th congressional district, one of San Diego's congressional districts. Because of the scandal, San Diego briefly removed references to its longtime nickname, "America's Finest City", from its official city website [12], as reported by the Associated Press. As of December 5, 2005, the nickname appeared [13] on San Diego's website once again, as pledged by mayor Jerry Sanders at his inauguration ceremony. Other recent problems for San Diego have revolved around the city's troubled relationship with the San Diego Chargers and that football team's request for an improved venue. The somewhat embittered negotiations between the City and the Chargers have led many to speculate that the Chargers will attempt to leave San Diego, with Los Angeles as the supposed destination.

Urban renewal projects

The downtown area of San Diego suffered from neglect and blight in the 1960s, but under the initiative of the Centre City Development Corporation, the area has been rejuvenated. Since the 1980s the city has seen the opening of Horton Plaza, the revival of the Gaslamp Quarter, and the construction of the San Diego Convention Center. A recent boom on the construction of condos and skyscrapers (especially focusing on mixed-use facilities), a gentrification trend especially in Little Italy, and the inauguration of Petco Park in the once blighted East Village highlight the continuing development of downtown. Center city population is expected to rise to 90,000 residents within a decade; 30,000 people currently reside in downtown San Diego. A successful renewal by 'gentrification' is the Hillcrest neighborhood, known for its historic architecture, tolerance, diversity, and locally-owned businesses, including restaurants, cafs, bars, clubs, trendy thrift-stores, and other independent specialty stores.[14] Hillcrest has a high population density, compared to many other neighborhoods in San Diego, and it has a large and active lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) community.

History of San Diego This renewal extended to the surrounding neighborhoods in the 1990s, especially in older urban neighborhoods immediately north of Balboa Park such as North Park and City Heights.

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References
[1] San Diego Historical Society (https:/ / www. sandiegohistory. org/ bio/ cabrillo/ cabrillo. htm) [2] Journal of San Diego History, October 1967 (https:/ / www. sandiegohistory. org/ journal/ 67october/ began. htm) [3] Leffingwell, Randy (2005), California Missions and Presidios: The History & Beauty of the Spanish Missions. Voyageur Press, Inc., Stillwater, MN. ISBN 0-89658-492-5, p. 17 [4] Ruscin, Terry (1999), Mission Memoirs, Sunbelt Publications, San Diego, CA. ISBN 0-932653-30-8, p. 11 [5] Historic La Playa Trail Association website (http:/ / www. laplayatrail. org/ ) [6] San Diego Historical Society timeline (https:/ / www. sandiegohistory. org/ timeline/ timeline1. htm) [7] San Diego Historical Society population table (https:/ / www. sandiegohistory. org/ links/ sandiegopopulation. htm) [8] Engstrand, Iris Wilson, Californias Cornerstone, Sunbelt Publications, Inc., 2005, p. 80 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=RhCQUf1XQ84C& pg=PA87& lpg=PA87& dq=san+ diego+ "new+ town"+ horton& source=bl& ots=GKkR85eStS& sig=vemB-wSUJKMgseQu6P_1wXMdanU& hl=en& ei=ZdOrSv3FEY_oM-PK2fIN& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=4#v=onepage& q=san diego "new town" horton& f=false) [9] University of San Diego: Military Bases in San Diego (http:/ / history. sandiego. edu/ gen/ local/ kearny/ page00d. html) [10] Naval Training Center San Diego (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ NTCSanDiego. html) [11] "Trio's brief challenges Frye's eligibility as mayoral candidate" (http:/ / www. signonsandiego. com/ uniontrib/ 20050127/ news_2m27amicus. html). San Diego Union-Tribune. January 27, 2005. . Retrieved August 31, 2011. [12] http:/ / www. sandiego. gov/ [13] http:/ / www. fox6. com/ news/ local/ story. aspx?content_id=2A8604B3-615C-44D2-A1F7-B00EFA827172 [14] Croshaw, Jennifer (August 21, 2006). "A day in Hillcrest..." (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070514052319/ http:/ / www. signonsandiego. com/ feature/ 205/ ). San Diego Union Tribune. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. signonsandiego. com/ feature/ 205/ ) on 2006-08-21. . Retrieved 2010-02-24.

External links
San Diego Historical Society (http://www.sandiegohistory.org/histsoc.html)

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History of California Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=464224187 Contributors: A little insignificant, A10t2, AJLCary, Alansohn, Ale jrb, Alpha 4615, Antandrus, Arthena, Asiaticus, Auntof6, Ben Ben, Bender235, Benjamin Trovato, Benjh40, Bento00, Bettymnz4, BlankVerse, Brandmeister (old), Brianga, Buaidh, Colonies Chris, CopperSquare, Ctb500, Daa89563, Don'tKnowItAtAll, Doncram, Drorzm, Eumolpo, Falcorian, Fluffernutter, Gail, Hamiltondaniel, Hipocrite, Hippymac, Hmains, Hubertfarnsworth, Ikluft, Inka 888, J.delanoy, Jengod, Jeremiestrother, Jgarrett14, JhanCRUSH, Lateg, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, Look2See1, Ludude123, Mabdul, Materialscientist, Mcorazao, MelanieN, Mild Bill Hiccup, MissionInn.Jim, Nick Number, Nipisiquit, Nono64, NorCalHistory, Norcalal, Now05ster, OllieFury, Onebravemonkey, PKM, Persian Poet Gal, Pranav.nvs, R'n'B, Rainjar, Rich Farmbrough, Rjensen, Rjwilmsi, Ryuhaku, Saga City, Sanddune777, Sardanaphalus, Satchmo15, Scott Clarence Asman 1, Sgeureka, Skookum1, Slon02, StAnselm, TJRC, TarynD, The Transhumanist, Thingg, Tim1357, Tommy2010, TwistOfCain, Uncle Milty, Useight, Uyvsdi, Vrenator, WCCasey, Wikipelli, Will Beback, Woohookitty, Xiong Chiamiov, Zzyzx11, 170 anonymous edits History of California to 1899 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=464472084 Contributors: AVM, Adashiel, Adrian, Alai, Alex.tan, Alex43223, AlexiusHoratius, Ancheta Wis, Asiaticus, Auntof6, Avnative, Bastin, Bdesham, Bear Flag Museum, Bettymnz4, Binksternet, Birdy11743, BlankVerse, Bob Palin, Bobblehead, Bobo192, Bolivian Unicyclist, Brentt, Brion VIBBER, Buaidh, CanisRufus, Carlossuarez46, Cgingold, Chowbok, Chris Edgemon, Chris Roy, Chrisn4255, Chrisvls, Chuck8377, Computerjoe, Coolcaesar, Corriebertus, Cyrius, D'lin, D-Rock, Dananderson, Daniel 1992, Darlene4, Darth Panda, DaveLema, Davecrosby uk, Dawn Bard, Dbo789, Dcoetzee, Decumanus, Deville, DonDeigo, Durova, Ed g2s, Elf, Emargie, Emerson7, Entirelybs, Epbr123, Erebus555, Esperant, Everyking, Evrik, Ewlyahoocom, Fabartus, Filing Flunky, Fingers-of-Pyrex, Foobaz, Frankenpuppy, Fratrep, Frozenguild, Gaius Cornelius, Gentgeen, GeorgeLouis, Georgia guy, Ghewgill, Gogo Dodo, Gparker, Grafen, Graham87, Granucci, GunnerJr, Gurch, Haha169, Hajor, Hank chapot, HeartofaDog, High Plains Drifter, Hike395, Hmains, Hopiakuta, Howcheng, Hubertfarnsworth, Iamcuriousblue, Ian Pitchford, Ish ishwar, J3ff, JW1805, Ja 62, JamesAM, Jayjg, Jeff G., Jengod, Jfurr1981, Jgrady44, Jiang, JimWae, Jkelly, JohnnyCalifornia, Joseph Solis in Australia, JustAGal, KSchutte, King of Hearts, KingTT, Kingturtle, Kumioko, Kwamikagami, Lagringa, Langston, Law, LegCircus, Lightdarkness, Lockeownzj00, Look2See1, LtNOWIS, Lucobrat, MC10, MC23, MPF, MPerel, Magi Media, Magioladitis, Masterpiece2000, Mauler90, Mav, Mboverload, MelanieN, Michael Patrick, Michael Snow, MichaelSH, Midnightdreary, Minesweeper, MisfitToys, Misza13, Miwasatoshi, Moncrief, NawlinWiki, NekoDaemon, Nesteoil, Neurolysis, Neutrality, Nightkey, Nightsky, Nimur, NorCalHistory, North Shoreman, Nsayer, Oceanofperceptions, Onofre Bouvila, Otheus, PaterMcFly, Paxse, Pedant, Penubag, Permaculturekidd, Peruvianllama, Pfly, Pharillon, Philippe, PhnomPencil, Phoenix2, Pkuchinski, Postdlf, Quadell, Rd232, Rebeccawallace, Rich Farmbrough, Rjensen, Roballyn, Robert engr, Ruggiero, Ryuhaku, SAUNDERS, SMcCandlish, Sango123, Sardanaphalus, Schmiteye, Sfmontyo, SimonP, Skookum1, Slowking Man, Snoyes, Speedoflight, Squids and Chips, Ssd, Stagtoes, Stemonitis, Stwalkerster, SunCreator, Suukiddo, T-borg, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, TJRC, Tempra mental, TheManicD, Themfromspace, Think outside the box, Tijuana Brass, Tmangray, Toddst1, Tom, Tom612pl, TopazSun, TriniMuoz, Triumph Sisyphus, Ulfer, User2004, Valentinian, Vanka5, Versus22, WCCasey, Weedwhacker128, Wighson, Wik, Wikipediatastic, Will Beback, WinterSpw, Wnissen, Woohookitty, Xanzzibar, Zzedar, 321 anonymous edits California Gold Rush Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=464810055 Contributors: -Kerplunk-, .cosme., 12kellda, 17Drew, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 2D, 5 albert square, 6944J, A qallaf, Aaroncrick, Abb615, Abeg92, Abrech, Academic Challenger, Acalamari, Acroterion, Addshore, Aditya, Aelfthrytha, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Akarrer, Al Lemos, Al.locke, Alansohn, Alexandria, AlexiusHoratius, Allstarecho, Alsandro, Amauta1950, AnOddName, Ancheta Wis, Anderson.hvhs, Andonic, Andre22, Andrew Levine, Andrew Maiman, Andrewlp1991, Andy Marchbanks, Andycjp, Anna Lincoln, Anomalocaris, AnonGuy, Antandrus, Antiuser, Archiesteel, Ardnael, ArielGold, Arjun01, Armchairslugger, Arnon Chaffin, Arthena, Asiaticus, Astral, Atomicskier, Atub1, AuburnPilot, Avenged Eightfold, Avoided, AzaToth, B123e, BRUTE, Babygurl13573, Backslash Forwardslash, BarretBonden, Bartledan, Bbatsell, Bcdiaz, Beezhive, Ben Ben, Bencherlite, Bennybp, Berryboy187, Bigturtle, Binksternet, Blanchardb, BlankVerse, BlasterXP, Bleent, Blobglob, Blueapples, 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Raul654, Ravichandar84, Rawr3333333, Reach Out to the Truth, Reaper Eternal, Rebeccawallace, RedHillian, Redconfetti, Rees11, Regancy42, Res2216firestar, RespectMyAuthoriton, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, Richard0612, Rjensen, Rjthauer, Rjwilmsi, Rklawton, Roastytoast, RobertG, RockFlounder, Rodhullandemu, Rokstr, Ronbo76, Ronhjones, Rorschach, Rrburke, Rror, Rune.welsh, Runst, Ryan Vesey, Ryanthelor, Ryuhaku, SDC, SERSeanCrane, SJP, Salmo13, SaltyBoatr, Sam Korn, Samanathon, SandyGeorgia, Saperaud, Sardanaphalus, Sasquatch, ScaldingHotSoup, SchfiftyThree, Sciurin, Scythia, Seraphimblade, Shadowjams, Shanes, Shaver93, ShelfSkewed, Shimshon3, Shinpah1, Shoaler, Shutka, SimonTrew, Sionus, Skier Dude, Skinny McGee, Skizzik, Skulzman, SlimVirgin, Slx03, Slyguy, SmilesALot, Smiley Boy, Smkolins, Snowman7a, Snowolf, SoWhy, Soerenfm, Soerfm, Some jerk on the Internet, Sonya71, South Bay, SpLoT, Speaknoevil27, Special-T, SpuriousQ, Squash Racket, StAnselm, Staffwaterboy, StanZegel, SteelSkin, Stupidcow123, Superboy44777, Sxeptomaniac, TNTfan101, Talac56, Tangotango, Taquito1, Tariqabjotu, Taxman, Tbhotch, Teamjacob4ever, Tellyaddict, Tempodivalse, The High Fin Sperm Whale, The Italian Guy, The Legendary Dudeaga, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Wordsmith, TheKMan, Thehelpfulone, ThinkBlue, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, Tigga en, Tim B, Titanicola, Titoxd, Tlork Thunderhead, Tmangray, Tobby72, Tobeprecise, Tombomp, Tommy2010, Tony1, Tonyob, TooPotato, Townsend.h.b.2011, TravisMunson1993, Trawick, Traxs7, Treisijs, Trevor MacInnis, Trey, Tripodero, Trishamaybarnes, Ttwaring, Twooars, TylerJarHead, TypoDotOrg, UBeR, UCRstudent, Ulflarsen, Uncle Dick, Urmom120214, Utcursch, UtherSRG, Valfontis, Vanni.taing, VernoWhitney, Versus22, Vietgeta, Viriditas, Vishnu2011, Visik, Viskonsas, Vsmith, WHeimbigner, WJBscribe, WadeSimMiser, Wafulz, Waggers, Wayne Slam, Wbolger, Weedwhacker128, Werdan7, Where, WhisperToMe, White Shadows, Whyaduck, Wiki-wikify, WikiAvenger, Wikieditor06, Wikipelli, Wikitastik, Wilchett, Will Beback, Will fouts, William Avery, Willking1979, Wimt, Wine Guy, Winterstreet, Wknight94, Woohookitty, Wosch21149, Wysinger, Xavier andrade, Xiahou, Xis, Xp54321, Yahoooo123, Yamamoto Ichiro, Ybbor, Yemal, Z.E.R.O., Zachthebutcher, Zahine, Zalgo, Zarcadia, Zariane, Zazzazzaz, Zhou Yu, Zntrip, Zoe, Zoohouse, Zsero, Zygomorph, Zzuuzz, Zzyzx11, , , 2486 anonymous edits California in the American Civil War Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=459857670 Contributors: Aemasich, Armona, Asiaticus, Auntof6, BlankVerse, BrianGV, BusterD, Cadfael01, Candidulus, Celique, Chris the speller, Cmdrbond, Colonies Chris, CylonCAG, D0762, DMS, Darcrist, DevinCook, Dispenser, Doncram, Elefuntboy, Emargie, Evrik, Gentgeen, Ground Zero, Hajenso, Herostratus, Hlj, Hmains, Hubertfarnsworth, Iohannes Animosus, J.delanoy, Jengod, JimWae, Johnnie Yuma, Jordanp, Junglecat, Jvano, Ketiltrout, Kirill Lokshin, Ks0stm, LilHelpa, Lisatwo, M-le-mot-dit, MJBurrage, Mboverload, Member, Michael93555, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mozartmuzic, Naraht, NekoDaemon, Neutrality, Nick Number, Nightkey, Oneilius, Only Zuul, Peyre, Plainsong, R'n'B, Rjensen, Rjwilmsi, SJP, Sardanaphalus, Sashhenka, Scoolfire, Scott Mingus, Seleucus, Srich32977, Stevietheman, Strongbadmanofme, SyntaxError55, Tide rolls, Twisted86, Viriditas, WCCasey, Welsh, Wighson, Wild Wolf, Zntrip, 86 anonymous edits History of California 1900 to present Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=460565702 Contributors: About A Bicycle, Andrea105, Antandrus, Auntof6, Bachrach44, Beland, Ben Ben, Bobanny, Buaidh, Coolcaesar, DHN, Elf, Fratrep, F, Georgia guy, Glasperlenspiel, Goldsztajn, Gparker, Ground Zero, Hmains, Horologium, Howcheng, Hubertfarnsworth, Ianblair23, Indrian, Infernalfox, J.delanoy, Jengod, John of Reading, Johndouglass, Jpgordon, Karennacat, Kariteh, Ketiltrout, Korg, Look2See1, Meegs, Milton Stanley, Mysid, Neutrality, NorCalHistory, Nv8200p, Omnivorous, OpenLoop, Paraty, PaterMcFly, R'n'B, Rebeccawallace, Richard Myers, Rjensen, Ronline, Ryuhaku, SAUNDERS, Sardanaphalus, Schmiteye, Sfan00 IMG, Shadowjams, Srich32977, Station1, Stemonitis, Themfromspace, Townlake, Username314, Vanka5, Wackywace, Westsider, Wikicali00, Zambaccian, 74 anonymous edits

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History of Los Angeles Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=464471040 Contributors: ABF, Admiral Norton, Agtaz, Aitias, Alex '05, AlexTheMartian, Amakuru, Angusmclellan, Antandrus, Anthony Appleyard, Appraiser, Asiaticus, Attilios, Auntof6, Australian Matt, Avnative, Bahnfrend, Barkeep, Barrybeg, Barticus88, Bdubay, Belovedfreak, BlankVerse, Bloodshedder, Blueacre, Bluemoose, Bobak, Bobblewik, Bruce.guthrie, BruceSwanson, Cam, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanisRufus, Capricorn42, Cathpsmith, Cbl62, Cdc, Claatsch, Cmdrbond, Corvus cornix, Crackshoe, D6, DLZ, DabMachine, DanKeshet, Darklilac, Davehi1, DavidOaks, Deconstructhis, Deserthaze06, Drawnsmith, Durin, Edward, El C, Emargie, EmergentProperty, Emigrant85, Emmanuel touzery, Emmanuel181200, Eugene van der Pijll, EurekaLott, Evrik, Fastfission, Feezo, Ffirehorse, Fluffernutter, Freechild, Friedbrice, Fuhghettaboutit, Fullerton, Gamgee, GeorgeLouis, GirasoleDE, Glen, Graham87, Grossville, HauptmannD, Hello my name is jonny, Hmains, Horselover Frost, Hubertfarnsworth, Infernalfox, Irrawaddy, Ishu, Italo Svevo, JForget, JamesAM, Jengod, Jkfp2004, Jonathunder, Jrcrin001, Kate fulton, Kbthompson, Kevst3r, Kiore, KnightRider, Ksy92003, Kusma, Lan56, Levineps, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, LiteralKa, Lkhjgfdsa, LrdChaos, Magi Media, Malik Shabazz, Manway, Mauls, Mav, MementoVivere, Michael Hardy, Mike Dillon, Modster, Moncrief, Moreau36, Mufka, Napa56, NatureA16, Nixeagle, NorCalHistory, Noremacmada, Onenex500, PKM, Parallel or Together?, Paxse, Pedant17, PeterEastern, Pharos, Phil in the 818, PhilKnight, PhnomPencil, Phoenix2, Plasticup, Pol098, Polylerus, RUL3R, RandomCritic, Redthoreau, Reinyday, Rich Farmbrough, Richard Myers, RickK, Rjensen, Rjwilmsi, Rmartin, Robert K S, Rockfang, Rorschach, Rossami, Russ Logan, SDC, Sardanaphalus, Saumoarush, Scalziand, Scanlan, Schissel, Scoutersig, SemperBlotto, Slambo, Smyth, Solipsist, SpaceFlight89, Ssbohio, Stevey7788, Stevietheman, Student7, Sumsum2010, Sunquanliangxiuhao, SuzanneIAM, Tedder, The Universe Is Cool, Theshibboleth, Thingg, Thresome, Tillman, Tommy2010, Tpbradbury, TriniMuoz, Ucla90024, Ulric1313, Ultraviolet scissor flame, User2004, VirtualDelight, Wetman, WhisperToMe, Whyaduck, WikHead, Wiki Wikardo, Will Beback, Wiooiw, Wodrow, Woohookitty, World-liberation, Zackp, Zoicon5, Zollerriia, Zzyzx11, 278 anonymous edits History of San Francisco Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=462452774 Contributors: ARTEST4ECHO, Acjelen, Akhilleus, AlexiusHoratius, Alison9, Angela, Anoldtreeok, Apmanning, Atlant, Aude, Benjiboi, BillFlis, Bkell, COGDEN, Calvin 1998, Catherinemeyer, Cleshne, Cmr08, CommonsDelinker, D6, DaveOinSF, Dbourn, Dorftrottel, Durova, Dylan620, Dynaflow, Eaefremov, Elegy, Eman007, Emerson7, Emiellaiendiay, EurekaLott, Evrik, FrankSanMiguel, Fratrep, Freechild, GoingBatty, Goldenrowley, Grafen, Griot, GunnerGT, Hank chapot, Haus, Hmains, Hob, Howcheng, Hu12, Hubertfarnsworth, Hydrogen Iodide, Ian Lancaster, Infrogmation, Itzar, Jarden21, Jefkal, Jengod, Jncraton, John of Reading, Johnpacklambert, Joowwww, Keraunos, Kranix, Levalley, Levineps, LlywelynII, Lottamiata, Materialscientist, Mav, Mcanmoocanu, Mwelch, NorCalHistory, Omega132, Optigan13, PaterMcFly, Paul.h, PaulGarner, Paulvdc, Paxsimius, Philip Baird Shearer, R'n'B, Rebeccawallace, Redthoreau, Rich Farmbrough, Rjensen, Ryan Roos, Sam Blacketer, Sardanaphalus, Scewing, Schizobullet, Scoutersig, Sharnak, Smmcmktg, StephenMacmanus, Stevietheman, Suomi Finland 2009, The Mystery Man, Themfromspace, Thesmothete, Tillman, Tjmayerinsf, Tmangray, TopazSun, Toreau, Trekphiler, TriniMuoz, Ulric1313, Vanished User 03, Vanka5, Viajero, Vincent pearse, Viriditas, WCCasey, Walton One, WhisperToMe, Wikidemon, Willhsmit, Winstonhyypia, Woohookitty, Zedla, Zoticogrillo, Zyxwv99, 109 anonymous edits History of San Diego Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=457513848 Contributors: 28bytes, Anyonegettingthefreakyoldmanfeelingrightnow, CKBrown1000, Chicbicyclist, Chrishmt0423, Cooljuno411, CopperSquare, Dananderson, Delldot, Eco84, Elreal84, Emerson7, Falcon8765, Gilliam, GoingBatty, Grafen, Ground Zero, Hubertfarnsworth, Jengod, John254, Jtrost, Kipoc, KristinNomura, Law, Levineps, Look2See1, Lrd1rocha, Magi Media, MelanieN, Mythic Dawn Agent, Nehrams2020, Oatmeal batman, Oba Devi, P41, PQMark, Pinethicket, Pleasantville, Rjwilmsi, Sardanaphalus, ShelfSkewed, Smallman12q, Stevietheman, SusanLesch, TexasAndroid, Thiswaythatway, TriniMuoz, Weedwhacker128, Xuaxo, 44 anonymous edits

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File:1562 Americ Gutirrez.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1562_Americ_Gutirrez.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Diego Gutirrez, Hieronymus Cock Image:Gaspar de Portola statue.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gaspar_de_Portola_statue.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Bob n' Renee Image:Juba map.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Juba_map.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: H-stt Image:Mojave-sonoran deserts.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mojave-sonoran_deserts.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Rsduhamel at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by TimVickers at en.wikipedia. Image:Imperial sand dunes.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Imperial_sand_dunes.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Pretzelpaws at en.wikipedia File:USS Cyane.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USS_Cyane.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Benchill, Hoodinski, Jarekt Image:California Gold Rush relief map 2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:California_Gold_Rush_relief_map_2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NorCalHistory Image:SanFranciscoharbor1851c sharp.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SanFranciscoharbor1851c_sharp.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Andrei Stroe, Durova, Fanque, Howcheng, Infrogmation, Kozuch, Minisarm, Paris 16, Romary, Scewing, Thierry Caro, 2 anonymous edits Image:Tunnel view Yosemite.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tunnel_view_Yosemite.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Claude A. Muncey File:California island Vinckeboons5.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:California_island_Vinckeboons5.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Johannes Vingboons Image:Juniperro-serra.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Juniperro-serra.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Alno, Cookie, Coronellian, Friviere, Mutari, Prez Image:1920 Alta California mission trail.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1920_Alta_California_mission_trail.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Jibi44, PhilFree, 2 anonymous edits Image:firstbearflag.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Firstbearflag.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Conscious, Epolk, Himasaram, Homo lupus, Quibik, Starscream, Valentinian, 15 anonymous edits Image:California Clipper 500.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:California_Clipper_500.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NorCalHistory Image:CalifornianNewspaperGoldFoundMarch15-1848.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CalifornianNewspaperGoldFoundMarch15-1848.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: SaltyBoatr Image:CalGoldRushMap.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CalGoldRushMap.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ensigns & Thayer Image:Panning on the Mokelumne.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Panning_on_the_Mokelumne.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: en:User:NorCalHistory Image:Gold seeking river operations California.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gold_seeking_river_operations_California.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Chowbok, Editor at Large, 2 anonymous edits Image:X-60072.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:X-60072.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Nis Hoff Image:Quartz Stamp Mill.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Quartz_Stamp_Mill.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Archaeodontosaurus, Chowbok, Kenmayer, NorCalHistory, Sauprei, Tetris L Image:P-1252.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:P-1252.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Lordkinbote at en.wikipedia This image (call number P-1252) is from the collection of the Western History Department of the Denver Public Library (http://digital.denverlibrary.org/), and is in the public domain in the United States and possibly other jurisdictions. Image:SanFrancisco1851a.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SanFrancisco1851a.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anonymous Dissident, Berrucomons, BrokenSphere, Durova, G.dallorto, Infrogmation, Kozuch, Mattes, Romary, Takabeg, Thierry Caro, 1 anonymous edits Image:Gullgraver 1850 California.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gullgraver_1850_California.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Photo: L. C. McClure Image:The Attack.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Attack.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: es:User:NorCalHistory Image:Seal of California.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seal_of_California.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Original uploader was w:en:User:Zscout370Zscout370 at en.wikipedia Image:subduction magma rising.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Subduction_magma_rising.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: NorCalHistory File:1stBearFlag.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1stBearFlag.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Smurrayinchester Image:gillisflag.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gillisflag.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Rebrane, Stan Shebs, Wighson Image:JP Gillis Flag.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JP_Gillis_Flag.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Fry1989, Homo lupus, Rocket000 Image:2dMass3.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2dMass3.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Homo lupus, Thib Phil, Ulfer Image:Lange-no-on-one-1938.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lange-no-on-one-1938.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Goldsztajn Image:california poppies.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:California_poppies.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Andre Engels, FlickrLickr, FlickreviewR, Quadell Image:LosAngeles-Plaza-1869.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LosAngeles-Plaza-1869.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Bobak at en.wikipedia Image:LA-aerialphoto-baloon-06-27-1887.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LA-aerialphoto-baloon-06-27-1887.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Bobak at en.wikipedia Image:Downtown-LA-1900.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Downtown-LA-1900.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Bobak at en.wikipedia Image:LA,Spring & 1st, 1920.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LA,Spring_&_1st,_1920.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Infrogmation, Jbarta, Xnatedawgx Image:LA Xmas,1928.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LA_Xmas,1928.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Unknown LA Times employee Image:LAPL, 1935.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LAPL,_1935.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Photographer not credited Image:Pershing Square, 1941.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pershing_Square,_1941.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Tillman at en.wikipedia Image:FlowerSt1946.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FlowerSt1946.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Unknown employee Image:Hollywood sign.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hollywood_sign.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was NoNo at en.wikipedia Later versions were uploaded by Bratinella, Y6y6y6 at en.wikipedia. File:San Fran, 1822.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:San_Fran,_1822.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Foroa, Hiart, KAVEBEAR, Look2See1, Tillman File:Lynching-of-casey-and-cora.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lynching-of-casey-and-cora.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: DenghiComm, HenkvD, Hiart, Huebi, Infrogmation, Quadell, Rdiger Wlk, 1 anonymous edits File:Wasp cartoon on Oscar Wilde.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wasp_cartoon_on_Oscar_Wilde.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Andreagrossmann, Ausir, G.dallorto, Hailey C. Shannon, Infrogmation, Ktlynch, Man vyi, Mattes Image:Chinatownsf-large1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chinatownsf-large1.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Original uploader was Spencer195 at en.wikipedia Image:San Francisco Fire Sacramento Street 1906-04-18.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:San_Francisco_Fire_Sacramento_Street_1906-04-18.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Paul.h at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Thisglad at en.wikipedia.

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:MarketStreetSanFran.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MarketStreetSanFran.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Jmabel, Krinkle, Palamde, Skeezix1000, 2 anonymous edits File:Panama-Pacific International Exposition - Project Gutenberg eText 17625.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Panama-Pacific_International_Exposition_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_17625.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Infrogmation, Tagishsimon, Telrnya File:USS San Francisco (CA-38) enters San Francisco Bay, December 1942.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USS_San_Francisco_(CA-38)_enters_San_Francisco_Bay,_December_1942.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: US Navy Employee File:Civil-control-station.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Civil-control-station.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Blarf File:Lockheed R6V Constitutions over SF 1950.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lockheed_R6V_Constitutions_over_SF_1950.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Logawi at en.wikipedia File:Rioters outside San Francisco City Hall May 21 1979.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rioters_outside_San_Francisco_City_Hall_May_21_1979.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Daniel Nicoletta Original uploader was Moni3 at en.wikipedia File:Mayor Diane Feinstein Cable Car.jpeg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mayor_Diane_Feinstein_Cable_Car.jpeg License: Public Domain Contributors: AnonEMouse, BrokenSphere, Chris j wood, Infrogmation Image:LomaPrieta-Marina.jpeg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LomaPrieta-Marina.jpeg License: Public Domain Contributors: J.K. Nakata, United States Geological Survey FIle:2006.03.07.us.ca.SDcabrilho.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2006.03.07.us.ca.SDcabrilho.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Francisco Santos File:SDHillBuilding1898.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SDHillBuilding1898.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Department of Special Collections and University Archives, Library and Information Access, San Diego State University at http://infodome.sdsu.edu/projects/photos/index.shtml

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License
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