The Length, Time and Velocity Scales of Turbulence

Tony Burdens Lecture Notes, Spring 2008

These lecture notes are intended to make life easier for the lecturer and the students by reducing the amount of text that is rst written on the blackboard and then copied into note books. These notes should be complemented by reading in text books such as Turbulent Flows by S.B. Pope or A First Course in Turbulence by H. Tennekes and J.L. Lumley. When developing an understanding of turbulence it is a good idea to read in several dierent books. Literature recommendations are included at the end of each chapter in these notes.

The velocity scale of the turbulence In this lecture the velocity scale of the turbulence as a whole is denoted by uT . In general, uT K 1/2 where K = 1 ui ui is the mean kinetic energy in the turbulence. 2 Examples of uT can be found in the classical turbulent ows which have been studied earlier in the course. In a turbulent boundary layer uT u , the friction velocity. More generally in thin shear layers, u2 (/L)U0 U (in the notation of the lecture notes). T The length scale of the turbulence In this lecture the length scale of the turbulence as a whole is denoted by lT . Later on in this course, we will be able to say that lT has the same order of magnitude as the integral length scales. Examples of lT can be found in the classical turbulent ows which have been studied earlier in the course. In self-similar wake ows lT l1/2 , the width of the wake, and in a turbulent boundary layer lT y, the distance to the wall.

The Reynolds number of the turbulence is dened to be the dimensionless expression, ReT = l2 / viscous time scale u T lT = T = lT /uT convective time scale rate of change due to inertia etc. rate of change due to viscous stresses

example: the earths planetary boundary layer lT 1 km, uT 1 m/s 1 ReT 108

The energy-bearing eddies An eddy is a loose concept that is used when discussing the scales of motion in turbulence and in particular the swirling structures that can be observed in turbulent ow. If an eddy has length scale l and velocity scale u then its time scale is l/u. This is possibly the only rm property of an eddy. In some qualitative discussions the words eddy and scale are interchangeable. When ReT is large, we can talk about the so called energybearing eddies. These are the rather large, most intensive, eddies, that are directly generated by shear in the mean ow. We shall see that the kinetic energy in the turbulence is concentrated to these eddies. Since the energy-bearing eddies dominate the inuence of the turbulence on the mean ow the scales uT and lT are used to characterize both these eddies and the turbulence itself.

High-Reynolds number turbulence When ReT is large, viscosity has a negligible eect on the large eddies with scales uT and lT . In terms of the ratio of time scales in the denition of ReT above, the viscous stresses are quite simply too slow compared to the inertial forces which thus dominate the evolution of the large eddies. The mechanism that is generating the turbulence is putting energy into the eddies with scales uT and lT and inertial eects, represented by the non-linear convective terms in the Navier-Stokes equation, spread the energy in the turbulence over a broad range of length scales. The upper bound to these length scales is determined by the dimensions of the ow. In turbulent ow in a pipe, the upper bound to the length scale is of the order of magnitude of the diameter of the pipe. In a turbulent boundary layer, the upper bound is of the order of magnitude of the thickness of the boundary layer. In general, lT is a bit smaller than these upper bounds. The lower bound to the length scales is set by the inuence of viscosity. These small eddies, i.e. the eddies at the viscous cut-o, are the subject of the rest of this chapter. When ReT 1, the mechanism that is generating the turbulence is putting energy into the eddies with scales uT and lT , but all the viscous dissipation of the energy is taking place in the small eddies. In this slightly idealized situation the mean rate of viscous dissipation of the kinetic energy in the turbulence becomes a particularly important quantity and it can be used to characterize the turbulence.

Viscous dissipation general denition = the mean rate of viscous dissipation of the mean kinetic energy (per unit mass) of the turbulence. This energy is converted into heat, i.e. inner energy, but leads to a negligible temperature rise at low Mach nos, e.g. in incompressible ow. The mathematical expression for was derived as a term in the Kequation. Its detailed form is not relevant for the arguments presented in this lecture.

The small scales in high-Reynolds number turbulence When ReT 1, the large scales are unaected by the viscous stresses but inertial processes, described by the non-linear terms in the Navier-Stokes equation, spread the energy to smaller and smaller scales. This process continues until a scale is reached at which the viscous stresses are comparable to the inertial processes. These small scales, denoted u and l , satisfy, ul 1. Resmall = Viscous stresses have a signicant inuence on these smallest scales and the (local) viscous dissipation can be estimated by, small
2

u tvis

l 2 /

u , l2

where 1/tvis /l follows from the viscous term in the Navier-Stokes equation. Since ReT 1, most of the viscous dissipation is taking place at these small scales and we can write, small .

Quasi-equilibrium in high-Reynolds number turbulence We assume now that the time scales of eddies scale with their length scales so that small eddies have short time scales and larger eddies have longer time scales. Since the small scales, u and l , have short time scales, they can be expected to continuously adjust to, and t in with, the slower processes in the large scales. This implies that the rate at which energy is dissipated into heat in the small eddies will be determined by the rate at which energy is transfered from the large eddies to the small eddies, small f where f = the mean rate of transfer of energy (per unit mass) from the large energycontaining eddies to the small energy-dissipating eddies. This ow of energy in the so called cascade of energy from large scales to small scales is a central concept in the understanding of the physics of high-ReT turbulence. 2 2 Combining the viscous estimate, small u /l , with the quasi-equilibrium estimate, small f , we can say that the intensity of the small scales is determined by the rate of transfer of energy from the large scales to the small scales, u l2 Using Resmall
2

small

u l2

f .

1 to eliminate l , we nd, u u 2
2 2

(f )1/4 .

In this situation the small scales are said to be in quasi-equilibrium with the large scales. The scale of the small eddies is also determined by f ; u l2
2

l2

3 f

1/4

The simple equations presented above, Resmall 1 and small f ,

embody the essential physics of the small scales of high-ReT turbulence and it is worth making sure that you have grasped their full signicance.

The viscous dissipation revisited in high-Reynolds number turbulence If the small scales are in quasi-equilibrium with the large scales, then what is determining f , the transfer of energy from the large scales to the small scales? The only answer we can formulate at this stage is a little bit vague but turns out to be generally true. The transfer of energy out of the large scales is in balance with the other processes taking place in the large scales and this interaction determines uT and lT . Consequently, we can make the estimate, f u2 T tlarge u2 u3 T = T. lT /uT lT

Remarkably, this estimate for the viscous dissipation is independent of the viscosity itself! This circumstance is a consequence of the assumption of quasi-equilibrium of the small scales in high-ReT turbulence.

The Kolmogorov microscales The small velocity and length scales, u and l , can be given precise denitions by replacing by = in two of the above relationships; Resmall = and Together these lead to = lK = 3
1/4

ul u l2
2

becomes

uK lK = 1 u2 K 2 . lK

becomes

uK = ()1/4

and l

tK =

lK = uK u

1/2

For the sake of completeness note that we can write

and

uK .

Example An electric beater (elvisp) delivers energy to one litre of water at the rate of 10 Watt. = 10 Watt = 10 m2 /s3 1 kg och = 106 m2 /s = 0.02 mm.

Scale relations The quasi-equilibrium estimate, u3 /lT , implies that the contrast between the large T and small scales increases with the Reynolds number of the turbulence; 3/4 ReT , lT tK 1/2 ReT lT /uT and uK 1/4 ReT . uT

Example

the earths planetary boundary layer lT 1 km och ReT 108 1 mm.

Exercises (inlrningsvningar) a o 1. Derive the expressions for lK , uK and tK using dimensional analysis and assuming that they only depend on and . Why should they only depend on and ? Under which conditions? 2. How much power in the form of turbulent kinetic energy can a gas absorb before the small scales violate the criterion for a continuum?

The Equilibrium range of scales

(High ReT )

When ReT 1, the smaller scales are in quasi-equilibrium with the large energy-bearing scales. In terms of the length scale, l, of an eddy the smaller scales can be dened by, l lT .

This range of length scales is characterized by the mean rate of transfer of energy from the large scales to the small scales, f , together with the viscosity, . This assertion is just Kolmogorovs rst hypothesis.

The Inertial sub-range of the Equilibrium range When ReT 1, lT ReT range of length scales, l, satisfying,
3/4

(High ReT )

which means that there will be a substantial l lT .

In this range, l implies that viscous processes are negligible (hence the name inertial). This range of length scales is characterized by the mean rate of transfer of energy from the large scales to the small scales, f , but is independent of the viscosity, . This assertion is just Kolmogorovs second hypothesis. Now, dimensional analysis yields, u(l) (l)1/3 , for the velocity scale of the eddies in the inertial range and, l/u l2 /
1/3

for the time scale. Note that the Kolmogorov scales, = lK , uK and tK also satisfy these relations. This is consistent with the fact that they determine the bottom end of the inertial subrange.

The physical dissipation and the pseudodissipation The true viscous dissipation can be rewritten in the form, = 2sil ui xl = ui ui xl xl + ui ul xl xi = + ui ul xl xi ,

where the pseudodissipation, or so called isotropic dissipation, is given by, = ui ui xl xl .

The true viscous dissipation, , and the so called isotropic dissipation, , can be shown to be identical in homogeneous turbulence. The arguments presented in this lecture can be used to show that and are equivalent even under inhomogeneous conditions provided that the Reynolds number is high, ReT 1. Using the continuity condition, = + ui ul xl xi = + 2 uu . xi xl i l

Typically in inhomogeneous turbulent ow, at least in simple shear ow, the lengthscale of the turbulence, lT , will be of the same order of magnitude as the lengthscale of the

inhomogeneity. In that case, using the denition of ReT and the equilibrium estimate for f , so, Re1 . T 1 u3 1 2 T u2 2 u2 = ui ul Re1 f T xi xl (linhom )2 T lT T u T l T lT Re1 , T

The rate of strain At high ReT , the viscous dissipation of the kinetic energy, the rate of strain, and the vorticity in the ow are all dominated by the Kolmogorov micro-scales. For example, For the rate of strain we nd, sil sil = Sil Sil + sil sil . Since sil is symmetric, the dissipation can be rewritten, at high ReT , = 2sil ui xl = 2 sil sil 1 2 t2 K i .e. where sil sil =
1/2

small =

u2 K 2 . lK

u2 K = 2 2 lK tK tK

sil sil =

The small, dissipating Kolmogorov scales dominate the uctuating rate-of-strain eld. Using the estimate, Sil Sil uT lT
2

Sil Sil Re1 sil sil . T

The small, dissipating Kolmogorov scales dominate the whole of the rate-of-strain eld on average. This is signicant, for example, in turbulent combustion where the stretch or strain in the small scales is much more likely to locally extinguish the combustion than the strain of the energy-bearing eddies or the mean ow. 1 The rate of viscous dissipation of the kinetic energy in the mean ow, 2 U 2 , can also be rewritten, 2Sil Ui = 2Sil Sil Re1 2 sil sil = Re1 , T T xl

and is thus found to be much smaller than the dissipation of K at high ReT .

Literature
Recommended course reading Sec. 6.1.1, The energy cascade, in Turbulent ows by S. B. Pope, C.U.P., 2000. Sec. 6.1.2, The Kolmogorov hypotheses, in Turbulent ows by S. B. Pope, C.U.P., 2000. Sec. 13.8, Turbulence production and cascade, in Fluid Mechanics by P.K. Kundu & I.M. Cohen.

Alternative recommended reading Sec. 1.6, Vortex Stretching, in An Introduction to Turbulence and its Measurement by P. Bradshaw Ch. 2 in Turbulence and Random Processes in Fluid Mechanics, M.T. Landahl & E. Mollo-Christensen, Cambridge University Press (1986). Section 33, Fully developed turbulence, in Fluid Mechanics by L.D. Landau and E.M. Lifschitz. Ch. 3, Space and time scales of turbulence, pp 5761, in An introduction to turbulent ow, J. Mathieu & J. Scott, C.U.P., (2000). Sec. 1.5, Lengthscales in turbulent ows, in A First Course in Turbulence, H. Tennekes & J.L. Lumley, MIT Press (1972).