CE 2155 Structural Analysis I

Introduction to Structural Analysis

(Part 1)

by Assoc Professor T. H. Wee Department of Civil Engineering National University of Singapore Email: cveweeth@nus.edu.sg

Introduction to Structural Analysis (Part 1)

This topic introduces the phases of activity necessary to design and analyse a structure. A brief approach to design and analyse a structure will first be introduced. The following preliminary aspects of structural analysis will next be discussed:

classification of structural elements types of structures types of loadings acting on a structure idealization of structures and supports

CE 2155 Structural Analysis I

What is a Structure?
A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support a load.

Examples of structures includes buildings, bridges, towers, ship, aircraft frames, tanks and pressure vessels.

Introduction To Common Structural Elements and/or Terminology Used In A Typical Building Structure

Note: The connections of these elements and their positions in a building are shown above. The slabs at each floor are designed to take certain loads (e.g. 4.5 kN/m2 ) and loads are distributed to the supporting beams. These loads from the beams are then transferred to the columns. Finally, loads from the columns (i.e. from the upper storey) are all carried by footing and the soil.

The connection of structural members such as beams, columns and slabs in a structural system allows for tall buildings to be constructed. This picture shows the 421m tall 88-storey Jin Mao Building in Shanghai.

A structure need not always be a permanent structure. It can also be a temporary structure, such as the retaining wall system for the construction of an enormous underground cavern using the open-cut method. This is another example of a structural system with connected parts, namely the retaining walls, struts and bracings.

Design Objectives
In designing a structure, the designers should aim to: 1. achieve overall economy in the design. (i.e. the structure shall not be unduly expensive to construct.) 2. ensure safety of occupants by minimizing the possibility of a collapse and if such a collapse were to occur, there is adequate robustness of the structure and ample warning signs of the event. 3. make sure that the structure is functionable (serviceable). (i.e. under the common operating condition, the people inside the structure is not disturbed by the condition of the structure e.g. excessive cracks, deflection, leakage, severe concrete deterioration etc) 4. make the structure reparable (i.e. structure still standing for repair work to be done) in the case of a minor/moderate damage. This is especially the case with structural damage due to moderate earthquake, for which the demolition of the structure may be uneconomical and therefore unnecessary. 5. ensure that the structure is asethetically pleasant.

Design consists of functional and structural aspects

It involves the choice of many different features (e.g. a big space for activity).

Each features requirement can be met from a wide array of possibilities (e.g. a columnless design for a big space activity feature requires a deep beam instead of a shallower beam but with more intermediate columns)

Structural Design
Structural design is the selection of the arrangement and sizes of structural elements so that the service loads may be carried without much discomfort to the users of the structure and has adequate strength against collapse. It is the reverse of structural analysis (i.e. in structural analysis, the geometry of element is known and the load that can be taken by the element is to be determined. However, in design, the load to be taken by the element is known, but its geometry is not known). Structural design involves the following steps: 1.Planning (e.g. discussion with owner and architect on type of building which includes aspects of geometry and function) 2.Preliminary structural configuration (e.g. supporting system of a building which includes locations of beams, columns, walls etc.) 3.Preliminary member selection (e.g. geometry of each member - based on experience) 4.Establishment of load to be carried 5.Structural analysis (e.g. using computer to find the resulting actions; i.e flexure, shear, axial and torsion forces and displacements) 6.Evaluation (e.g. identifying critical elements, cost and site constraints) 7.Design and redesign (e.g. to find the amount and arrangement of reinforcement, to check for any need to revise the size) 8.Final decision

Step 1 (Planning) and Step 2 (Preliminary Structural Configuration) involve:

Overall Preliminary Design of Structure Select Suitable Type Of Structure Determine Types of Loading Classify Structural Elements Idealize Structure and Support
e.g., the building height, floor area, footprint, layout, facade, etc. e.g., frames, trusses or surface structure for roof and other parts of building, etc. e.g., wind load if the building is tall, snow load if in cold country, earthquake load if prone to earthquake etc. e.g., beams, columns, struts, etc.

idealization on how the members are supported and connected together. e.g. pin or fix connection, overall framing of the structure

Step 3 (Preliminary member selection) involves:

Idealize structure and support

The size of the respective members are then chosen largely based on experience and some quick calculations. In choosing the size of the members, functional requirements and constraints (such as headroom e.g. ceiling height, building entrances and height of flyover soffit) would have to be considered.

Choose member size Determine loading Determine member forces and displacements Need revision of member size? NO OK YES

Step 4 (Establishment of load to be carried) involves:

Idealize structure and support

Once the dimensional requirements for a structure have been chosen, the dead load that would act on the structure can be determined.

Choose member size Determine loading Determine member forces and displacements Need revision of member size? NO OK YES

Step 5 (Structural analysis) involves:

Idealize structure and support Choose member size

From the dead load and the prescribed live load, the forces in the members and their displacements are then estimated using the theory of structural analysis to satisfy equilibrium and compatibility conditions.

Determine loading Determine member forces and displacements Need revision of member size? NO OK YES

Step 6 (Evaluation) and Step 7 (Redesign) involve:

Idealize structure and support

The results of this analysis can then be used to revise the members size according to the stresses induced taking into consideration the cost, functional requirements, constraints and buildability. The design of a structure, therefore, follows a series of successive approximations in every cycle

Choose member size Determine loading Determine member forces and displacements Need revision of members size? NO OK YES

Approach to Design and Analyse a Structure

When designing a structure to serve a specified function for public or other uses, its safety, aesthetics and serviceability must be accounted for, while taking into consideration economic and environmental constraints. This design process is both creative and technical and requires a fundamental knowledge of material properties (e.g. strength and modulus) and the laws of mechanics (e.g. Hookes Law) which govern material response. Once a preliminary design (e.g. architectural design) of a structure is proposed, the structure must be analysed and designed to ensure that it has the required strength and rigidity.

Classification of Structural Elements

A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support a load. The load may consist of dead and live loads, which would induce four main types of loadings in structural elements, namely: 1. Axial (Tension/Compression) 2. Bending 3. Torsion 4. Shear

It is, therefore, important to recognize (according to loadings) the various types of elements composing a structure. These structural elements can be classified into three components, mainly:
[axial members] [shear and bending members] [combined axial and bending members] Beams and columns may also be subjected to torsion. Note that slabs are modelled as short-depth beams. 1. 2. 3. Tie rods/bracing struts Beams Columns

1. Tie Rods / Bracing Struts

Structural members subjected to only axial force are often referred to as tie rods or bracing struts. Due to the nature of this load, these members are slender and are often chosen from rods, bars, angles or channels

2. Beams
Beams are usually straight horizontal members mainly subjected to bending and used primarily to carry vertical loads. They are classified according to the way they are supported.

When the cross section varies the beam is referred to as tapered or haunched as shown

*large beam is also known as girder.

Haunched Beam.
(Note: 1 in = 0.0254 m)

Beams are primarily designed to resist bending moment; however, if they are short, the internal shear force may become quite large and this force may govern their design. When a member is subjected to bending, the cross section is most efficient when it is shaped as the I-beam shown below. It could be noted that the moment, M could be effectively resisted by the axial forces in the flanges while the web resist the applied shear force, V.

This is ideal when material used for a beam is a metal such as steel or aluminium as the material can be easily shaped into Ibeam and saving in material cost is substantial.

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When the beam is required to have a very large span and the loads applied are rather large, the beam may take the form of a plate girder*. The plate girder is fabricated by using a large plate for the web and welding or bolting plates to its ends for flanges.

*large beam is also known as girder.

Concrete beams generally have rectangular or T cross sections since it is easy to construct this shape directly in the field.

Beams made from timber may be sawn from a solid piece of wood or laminated. Laminated beams are constructed from solid sections of wood, which are fastened together using highstrength glues.

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3. Columns.
Members that are generally vertical and resist axial compressive loads are referred to as columns Tubes and wide-flange I cross sections are often used for metal columns, and columns with circular, rectangular or square cross sections with reinforcing rods are usually made of concrete. Mostly, columns are subjected to both an axial load and a bending moment. These members are referred to as beam columns (in structural steel design) and columns (in structural concrete design)

Types of Structures
The combination of structural elements and the materials e.g. steel or reinforced concrete or both, from which they are composed is referred to as a structural system. Each system is constructed of one or more of the following five basic types of structures: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Trusses Cables Arches Frames Surface Structures

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1. Trusses
When the span of a structure is required to be large and its depth is not an important criterion for design, a truss may be selected.

Trusses consist of pin-jointed slender elements, usually arranged in triangular fashion. The members of the trusses are primarily subjected to only tension or compression forces and external loads are applied at joints. There are two types of trusses: 1. Planar truss [2D] 2. Space truss [3D]

Planar (2D) trusses are composed of members that lie in the same plane and are frequently used for bridge and roof support, whereas space (3D) trusses have members extending in three dimensions and are suitable for skylight roofs (e.g. Esplanade) and towers (e.g. Eiffel Tower).

One of the primary advantages of a truss, compared to a beam, is that it uses less material to support a given load, therefore reducing the material cost & dead load.

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Trusses are suitable for structures such as stadium where column free large span are essential to prevent obstruction of spectators view.

2. Cables
Cables are usually flexible and carry their loads in tension. They are commonly used to support bridges and building roofs. Compared to a cable, truss will require added costs for construction and increased depth as the span increases. The use of cables is limited only by their sag, weight, and methods of anchorage.

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Cables are commonly used to support bridges. When used for this purpose, the cable has an advantage over the beam and truss. Due to long span in bridge, the beams and truss used have to be very deep and is uneconomical.

3. Arches
Arches are usually rigid and carry their loads in axial compression, since it has a reverse curvature to that of the cable. It must be rigid, in order to maintain its shape, and this results in secondary loadings involving shear and moment, which must be considered in its design. Unlike beam, moment and shear in arches are much smaller compared to the axial compression. On the other hand, in beam, the axial compression is practically negligible.
UDL M0 V0 A RAY RAX RBX B RBY UDL

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Arches are frequently used in bridges, building structures, dome roofs and for openings in masonry walls.

4. Frames
Frames are often used in buildings and are composed of beams and columns that are either pin or fixed connected. Unlike for trusses, the loading on a frame can be applied on the members, therefore causing bending of its members. Frame system are also more rigid than truss system as the joints are able to resist moments. The strength of such a frame is derived from the moment interactions between the beams and the columns at the rigid joints.

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P B
Bending Moment

P C B
Bending Moment

Frame 1

Frame 2

In the case of the frame 1 where joints B and C are pinned, the maximum bending moment along beam BC is larger as when compared with the frame 2 where joints B and C are fixed. Therefore, for the same load, a smaller beam would be required for frame 2. On the contrary, a larger column would be required for frame 2 since it is subject to additional moments at B and C. The benefit of using a frame, therefore, depend on the efficiency gained in using smaller beam sizes versus increasing the size of the columns due to the beam-column action caused by bending at the joints.

Figure shows a typical frame structure. The frame structures of many concrete and steel buildings are similar to this.

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5. Surface Structures
A surface structure is made from a material having a very small thickness compared to its other dimensions. Sometimes this material is very flexible and can take the form of a tent or airinflated structure. Surface structures may also be made of rigid material such as reinforced concrete or flexible material such as fabric or metal sheets.

Surface structures may be shaped as folded plates, cylinders, or hyberbolic paraboloids, and are referred to as thin plates or shells. These structures act like cables or arches since they support loads primarily by tension or compression, with very little bending.

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Types of Loads acting on Structures

Once the dimensional requirements for a structure have been defined, the load that the structure must support can be determined. A structure is generally subjected to several types of loads which may be broadly classified into two categories, namely: 1. Dead Loads 2. Live Loads

Dead Loads
Dead loads consist of the weights of the various structural members and the weights of any objects that are permanently attached to the structure. For a building, the dead loads include the weights of the columns, beams, girders, the floor slab, roofing, walls, windows, plumbing, electrical fixtures and other miscellaneous attachments. The dead loads of the structure can be determined from the sizes and unit weights of the structural elements and other permanent attachment. Ordinarily, these unit weights are published in standards such as BS and ASCE. For unit weights that are not published, the dead loads may have to be estimated or obtained from the material suppliers.

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Live Loads
Live loads can vary both in their magnitude and location. They may be caused by objects temporarily placed on a structure, moving vehicles or natural forces. The live loads can be categorised as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Building Loads Bridge Loads Wind Loads Snow Loads Earthquake Loads Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure Other Natural Loads

Building Loads
The floors of buildings are assumed to be subjected to uniform live loads which depend on the purpose for which the building is designed. These loadings are generally tabulated in the codes such as ASCE and BS. For buildings having very large floor areas, the code may allow for a reduction in loading since it is unlikely that the prescribed live load will occur simultaneously throughout the entire structure at any time.

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Bridge Loads
The design live loadings for highway and railroad bridges are given in standards such as American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and American Railway Engineering Association (AREA). The codes provides the wheel loadings and spacing for different types of trucks and trains. Unlike building loads where the loads are uniformly distributed, bridge loads are placed within critical regions of the bridge to calculate the maximum liveload induced in the members. Also since vehicles are in constant motion, any bouncing that occurs would result in an impact of the weights on the bridge. To account for this, an impact factor is also specified in the above codes.

Wind Loads
When structures block the flow of wind, the winds kinetic energy is converted into potential energy of pressure, which causes a wind loading. The effect of wind on a structure depends upon the density and velocity of the air, the angle of incidence of the wind, the shape and stiffness of the structure and the roughness of its surface.

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Snow Loads
In some regions, roof loading due to snow can be quite severe, and therefore protection against possible failure due to snow load is of primary concern. Design loadings typically depend on the buildings general shape and roof geometry, wind exposure and location.

Earthquake Loads
Earthquake produce loadings on a structure through its interaction with the ground and the response characteristics of the structure. These loadings result from the structures distortion caused by the grounds motion and the lateral resistance of the structure.

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Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure

When structures are used to retain water, soil, or granular materials, the pressure developed by these loadings becomes an important criterion for their design. Examples of such types of structures include tanks, dams, ships and retaining walls. Here, the laws of hydrostatics and soil mechanics are applied to define the intensity of the loadings on the structure.

Other Natural Loads

Several other types of live loads may also have to be considered in the design of a structure, depending on its location or use. These include the effect of blast, temperature changes and differential settlement of the foundation.

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Idealization of structures and supports

Very often, due to complexity of structures, an exact analysis can never be carried out and estimates always have to be made of the loadings and the strength of the materials composing the structure. Furthermore, points of application of the loadings, onto the structures, must also be estimated. It is therefore, important to model and idealize a structure and its support connections to perform a structural analysis of the structure and determine the forces and displacements in the members.

**Idealization of structures and supports is a wide topic which will be covered in detail in RC and steel structure design modules. This topic is only briefly introduced to you in this module (CE2155) as some understandings of this topic is necessary for structural analysis .

Idealization of Support Connections

Structural members are joined together in various ways depending on the design. The three types of connections most often specified are the pin connection, roller support and the fixed joint. The connections are categorized according to the number of reaction components the support or joint can be subjected to. Accordingly, in planar structures (2D), 1. Roller 2. Pin 3. Fixed - (can only be subjected to) one reaction force two reaction forces two reaction forces and one moment

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The figures above show the actual connections which may be idealized as pin-connected support or joint which allows some freedom for slight rotation. There are two reaction forces acting at the supports or joints. Note that these pin supports or joints cannot resist moment, and in analysis the moment is assumed as zero.

The figure above shows the actual connection which may be idealized as roller support in which some freedom for slight rotation and horizontal displacement is also allowed. In roller support, only one reaction force which acts perpendicular to the surface at the point of contact is possible.

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The beam and column connection for steel or concrete structures shown above allows for beam-column action caused by bending at the joints. The connection can therefore be idealized as fixed joints which assumes that no relative rotation takes place between the connected members. The reactions acting at the joints consist of one moment and two forces.

Idealization of Structures
Having understood the ways in which the support connections may be idealized, the structure can then be idealized to facilitate the analysis and determination of forces and displacements in the structure.

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Example

To idealize the jib crane shown, the thickness of the two main members are first neglected and the joints at A and B are assumed to be rigid, that is fixed. The load on the hook is represented by a single concentrated force, F.

Example

The angle connection at A is able to withstand two component of reaction while at B, only one component of reaction, that is perpendicular to the support, is possible. Both connection would allow for slight rotation. Therefore, connections A and B are idealized as pin and roller respectively. The beams thickness can be neglected since it is small in comparison with the length. The structure is idealized as a simply-supported beam.

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Example of steel structure

Beams and girders are often used to support building floors. A girder (primary beam) is the main load-carrying element of the floor whereas the smaller elements having a shorter span and connected to the girders are called the beams (secondary beam). Often the loads that are applied to a beam or girder are transmitted to it by the slab that is supported by the beam or girder. In the above structures, the joints can be assumed to be pin and/or roller connected to the columns. The structure can then be idealized by neglecting the thickness of the beam. For pin/roller connections, the lines at connection do not meet whereas for fixed connections, the lines would be drawn to meet.

Example of RC structure

In reinforced concrete construction, the beams are represented by double lines. These systems are generally all fixed connected and therefore the members are drawn to the supports. The lines for the beams are dashed because they are below the slab.

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Example of timber structure

In the above structure which represent a beam-wall construction, the roof deck is supported by wood joists, which deliver the load to a masonry wall. In idealizing the timber structure, the joists can be assumed to be simply supported on the wall, that is the connection allows for slight rotation. Note that the lines representing the wood joists do not meet the masonry wall.

Example

The figure shows the typically idealized floor plan and side elevation of a building. The simplification due to the idealization allows the effort to analyze the structure to be greatly reduced. The structure can now be analyzed in sections with less complexity.

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END

CE 2155 Structural Analysis I

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