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CONTINUITY AND CONSISTENCY OF THE TRADITIONAL COURTYARD HOUSE PLAN IN MODERN I{OREAN DWELLINGS
s A N G H A E L E E

The courtyard plan provides the basis for a traditional house type that is deeply associated with the Korean way of life. The first part of this paper discusses concepts and characteristics intrinsic to traditional Korean house plans and introduces various examples of courtyard house layouts. Thereafter, it selects several examples of modern Korean dwellings and

compares them from the point of view of plan and layout. The investigation discovers that the idea of the courtyard is still relevant to modern Korean dwellings. Transformed and/or retained, the courtyard idea still provides one of the prototypes of the modern Korean dwelling. The various forms it has taken serve to promote the continuity and consistency of traditional Korean architecture. They also lend credence to arguments that architectural

tradition involves more than style and technology.

TRADITIONAL KOREAN H OUSES ARE MOSTLY OF THE COURTYARD type. The courtyard house traditionally provided for many needs of the Korean people, be they functional, practical, spatial, visual, climatic, social and/or culturaL This made the courtyard house a traditional Korean type. The aim of this paper is to investigate modern Korean dwellings to answer a number of questions. Are the roles once played by the traditional courtyard still relevant? Does the pattern of the courtyard still persist despite social changes and new ways of living' If social and formal concepts behind the courtyard house have changed, what new forms and concepts have taken their place? Finally, if these concepts
SANG HAE LEE is an Associate Professor of Architecture at Sung Kyun Kwan University, Seoul, Korea.

have not changed, what aspects of the traditional courtyard house have been retained?

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In attempting to answer these questions, the paper investi gates four types of modern Korean dwelling: " ready-built" houses for sale by private house builders, apartments in multi unit buildings constructed by developers, "designed" houses by architects for individual clients, and "public" housing built by public housing authorities .

TRADITIONAL HOUSE TYPES IN KOREA

Historically, one of the enduring patterns in the Korean house was the courtyard plan. It resulted from centuries of trial and experimentation and normally consisted of a court yard or group of courtyards around which rooms and other spaces were grouped to make the dwelling complex. Such a house became deeply associated with the Korean way of life. Such a courtyard model provided various options for lateral expansion (FIG. I). A simple house was normally an "open courtyard" dwelling, whereas a nobleman's mansion often consisted of several courtyards whose functions varied ac cording to their location within the complex.' Each building around the courtyard traditionally consisted of compartments of rooms that rook their character from one of two major floor types,

ondo! and maru.

The

ondo! floor was

finished with thick yellowish oil paper and was usually found in closed rooms used for sleeping.
FIG. I . (TOP)

Ondo! floors were heated by maru floor,

on the

Aerial view ofcourtyard houses with thatched rooft common in the central regions o Korean peninsula until the I96os. Source: Hwang, f Huen-man, The Ch'oga, Straw-Roofed Korean Cottages (Seoul: Youl Hwa Dang Pub., I99I), p.208. FIG. 2. (ABOVE) View o an upper-class courtyard seen.from the maru f wooden floo r. FIG. 3. (BELOW) Sketch ofa humble cottage o three kans with a wooden f verandah in .front o the rooms. Thefire hole with the cooking stove are f shown to the right, and the chimney is shown in .front o the verandah. f

flues that ran beneath them ftom a fire hole in the cooking stove to an exterior chimney vent. The hall. One side of the outside, with no walls between its roof-support pillars (FIG. 2). other hand, was of wood and was normally used in the main

maru room

was usually open ro the

The

maru floor also often extended in front of the ondo! room

ro form a verandah (FIG. 3). In the traditional Korean house, compartments of rooms both ondo! and maru - were measured using the tradi tional kan. Kan was a term used to count the number of spaces between columns, and so provided the basis for a kind ofmod ular system. The

kan was

not a fixed unit of length, bur varied

according to the actual distance between a building's columns - usually between six and nine feet.

Kan also referred ro the kan

was usually

number of spaces or rooms in a building that were enclosed in at least two directions. One such "square" equal to between 36 and 8I square feet. Following the modular system, the construction of a house normally. consisted of an ongoing process of adding or three

kan

or

rooms. A building of simple structure was usually only two

kans, while a large building could be more than ten

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QJ L'

rQrlQ]
(A) SINGLE-LINE ARRANGEMENT

[J:I J
I II
1

J\

1'\

P
J\ J\
7

/"1

(8) DOUBLE-LINE ARRANGEMENT

0J3J
0 4 4

3
LJ\.J

l -p::

(C)

TWO-FOLD ARRANGEMENT

(0) L-SHAPE ARRANGEMENT

FIG. + T pical examples o four types o room y f f arrangements (I. kitchen, 2. main room, 3. main hall, 4. bedroom, 5 storage, 6. stable, 7. courtyard ). (A) Single-line arrangement; (B) Double-line ar rangement; (C) Twofold arrangement; (0) I-shape arrangement and variants. FIG. 5. (BELOW) Examples oflayouts ofcourtyards and surrounding building(s}. Dotted lines indi cate courtyard space.

kans in size.
the humblest

Thus, a dwelling for an upper-class family that

consisted of several buildings could be as large as 99

kans, while dwelling was usually only two or three kans.

Traditional Korean houses were characterized by one of four plan types, according to the method of

kan arrangement and

accompanying structural organization.' The first was the ordinary "single-line" arrangement of rooms under a single peasants or servants or was used for storage since its indoor spaces were somewhat limited. The second type was the "double-line" arrangement under one ridge beam (FIG. 4 B) . A ridge beam (FIG. 4Al. This type was usually inhabited by

combination of single-line and double-line structures, or a house of single-line structure enlarged to the back and ftont, constituted the third type, the "two-fold" arrangement (FIG. peninsula (FIG. 40). 3 These four types of room arrangement 4C). The last type was "L-shaped, " or a variant of an L-shape, and was more common in the central regions of the Korean

made possible various patterns for the layout of the entire dwelling (FIG. 5). A dwelling usually consisted of a building, or buildings, with surrounding walls that created one or more courtyard enclosures (FIG. 6).

; q 1
I \ \,,_1

'f'

IIIII

QJ}J

,-'1-, I 1 ' ...,,

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FIG. 6 . (LEFT) General view ofthe layout o f buildings in a rural area. Source: Hwang, Huen man, The Ch'oga, Straw-Roofed Korean COt tages (Seoul: Youl Hwa Dang Pub., I99I), p.II. FIG. 7. (RIGHT) An example ofa courtyard being usedfor a threshing ground. This method o har f vest is not practiced today. FIG. 8 . (BOTTOM RIGHT) General view ofcourt yard houses with gray rooftiles in an urban fobric.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TRADITIONAL COU RTYARD HOUSE PLAN

Many scholars in Korea have pointed out that the courtyard pattern was generated as an appropriate solution to func tional, practical, climatic, social and cultural needs of the Korean people 4 For example, the courtyard could serve as a threshing ground during harvest season, a meeting place for ceremonial occasions, an outdoor resting place during warm weather, or a playground for children (FIG. 7). In general, the courtyard served as an extension of the interior dwelling space, there being no clear-cut division between the interior and exterior of the house. Living within such a house did not mean residing only within a sheltered enclosure; the outdoor space was also used as living space according ro a complex pattern of residence. Simply put, the courtyard was a room without a roof, a domain set aside for the gainful activity of the entire household that was well adapted to complicated environmen tal, practical, and socio-cultural situations.S Architecturally, the courtyard functioned as the main route from the public domain to the inside of the dwelling. Access from outside the house to any room within it was only possible by entering the main gate of the house and passing through the courtyard . But the courtyard also connected all indoor and outdoor spaces within the house, and almost all rooms and spaces in the house oriented their openings toward it. In this way the courtyard helped eliminate the need for corridors or an entrance porch or halL In urban situations the courtyard also served to shelter the house from the street by reducing noise and maintaining privacy. As a buffer between street and house, it was an important facilitator of the devel opment of a compact urban fabric (FIG. 8). It also afforded the urban dwelling good access to sunshine and ventilation, even within relatively narrow sites (FIG. 9).

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Climatically, most courtyards acted as effic ient micro-climate controllers. Since habitable rooms looked inward with a defensive, introverted posture, inhabitants were protected from both hot and cold weather. Cool breezes blowing into the courtyard in the summer were especially appreciated. And if a region was too cold during the winter, or if the range of daily temperature changes was too great, the courtyard could be totally surrounded by interior dwelling space. Such a house pattern was shown in FIG. 4D. But the courtyard acted as more than just a climate-control device; it was also a domain for social interaction. Confucian ism pervaded all aspects of domestic life in Korea, including the arrangement of dwelling space.6 Responding to Confucian ethics, the inner-most part of a house was set aside for women, while the outer part was reserved for the male householder. Additionally, according to sumptuary customs, the size and number of buildings in a dwelling complex was determined by the social status and wealth of the householder (FIG. 10). All aspects ofthe dwelling - buildings, courtyards and walls - served to r,einforce the Confucian social order. For example, within the overall organization of family apartments in a large dwelling, courtyards could be located in three functionally separate areas: that for women and children in the inner-most part of the house, that for the male householder in front, and that for servants near the entry gate. Thus, the pattern of courtyard layout was crucial to determining the identity of the house. In a sense, the disposition of the courtyard(s) allowed a direct correspondence between the physical arrangement of the living space and its social and practical uses. Since the courtyard was defined by the structures and spaces that surrounded it, it was forced to mediate diverse sets of aesthetic and spatial relationships. The experience of the house was often dominated by the spatial and aesthetic nature of its courtyard(s). The wrapped spatial interval - experienced either by passage from the main gate to interior courtyard(s) or by views from an adjacent indoor or outdoor space - is a distinctive characteristic of Korean architecture. The effects created often involved layering open-courtyards, bringing distant views of nature into the house domain. In a sense, the courtyard was a spatial symbol for the introversion that formed a part of a larger tradition of Korean society.

II
FIG. 9. Examples ofa traditional area ofurban fobric in Seoul with basic houseplans (I. entrance gate, 2. main room, 3. kitchen, 4. bedroom, 5. main hall, 6. storage, 7- courtyard, 9. toilet. (A) Urban fobric; (B) House plam. Source:

Kahoedong Hanok chosa bogoseo (Report of Kahoedong Area Field Survey),

Muae +

OB

Seminar Stud Re y port I, I986.

MODERN KOREAN DWELLINGS AND THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE COU RTYARD PLAN

Thus far general features of the courtyard layout of traditional Korean dwellings have been discussed in a broad context. The paper now turns to an investigation of several types of modern

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Korean dwellings in light of the questions summarized at the outset. Four types of dwellings are examined : "ready-built" houses by private builders, apartment houses by developers, "designed" houses by architects for individual clients, and "public" houses by public housing authorities. The majority of contemporary houses in Korea today are built by private house builders. Such "ready-built" houses reflect the values and tastes of ordinary people about living space and house form. Since such houses are built for a market, they are conditioned by the demands of that market - that is, by aspects of both a modern urban life-style and traditional ways of living. On the surface, the main features and layout of ready-built houses reflect stylistic influence from the West. This may result from a desire by modern-day Koreans for houses that symbolize a modern style. In particular, the form and use of materials in ready-built houses resemble similar qualities in modern Western houses, even though the imitation is super ficial and the builders are not well versed in design controL In terms of plan, the ready-built house shows notable d iver gences from the traditional courtyard pattern. For example, most house plans are nearly rectangular in shape, and most houses are situated ro one side of their building lot with a garden, not a courtyard , in front. One can assume the court yard has been eliminated so that the house can more closely

An example o an upper-class house (Io entrance gate, f 2. main room, 3. kitchen, 4 . bedroom, 5. main hall, 6. storage, 7a. courtyard for women, 7b. courtyardfor male householder, 7C. courtyardfor servants, 8. stable, 9. stud y). FIG. II. (MIDDLE) A typical example ofa read y-built house by a private builder (Io entrance hall, 2. main hall or living room, 3. kitchen, 4. main room, 5. bedroom, 6. bathroom). FIG. 12. (BELOW) An example o an apartment unit plan by a private devel f oper (Io entrance hall, 2. main hall or living room, 3. kitchen, 4. main room, 5. bedroom, 6. bathroom, 7. dining room, II. terrace).
FIG. 1 0 . (TOP)

imitate modern Western models. Despite such exterior alterations, however, the arrangement of indoor space in ready-built houses is not much changed from the traditional layout. On the contrary, it seems that the arrangement of indoor space actually reflects the inherited cultural context fairly closely. A typical ready-built house plan from an urban area of Korea shows how all rooms in the "modern" house are arranged around a main hall, a kind of Korean living room which acts in a remarkably similar fashion to the courtyard of a traditional house (FIG. II). Like the courtyard, the main hall serves as a transitional space through which all other spaces in the house are reached. One might say the courtyard concept has been internalized. As society has changed, the exterior image of the traditional house has changed to reflect life in a modern environment, but the inhabitants nonetheless cling to inherited dwelling patterns on the inside. Private builders seem to have understood the needs of Koreans caught between two modes of living, and they have responded by internalizing traditional living pat terns within a house that otherwise appears derived from a modern Western modeL Like ready-built houses, apartment houses by developers show a translation of the traditional courtyard idea. There are

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FIG. 13.

View ofnewly developed apartment houses.

numerous types of plans for apartments for middle-class families in Korea. Among them, the medium-sized apartment shown here is typical and popular (FIG. 12). Since an apart ment house is not functionally equivalent to a group of detached single-family houses, apartment layouts reflect the influence ofmodern cubic forms (FIG. 13). Within this new idiom developers also seem to have tried to accommodate the popular demand for traditional design features. As in the ready-built house, each room of the apartment unit shown in
FIG. I 2

house, and the main room o f the apartment is located in its inner-most zone in a similar arrangement to the women's quarters in a traditional house. Overall , one can say that both the apartment layour and the layour of the traditional house are characterized by rooms that are closed to the outside and open onto a protected inner space. As in the ready-built house, one can say that the idea of the courtyard has been internalized in the apartment layout. Bur the translation here has taken place in a much different social context, and so the example offers further evidence of the continuity and consistency of the courtyard idea in modern Korean dwellings.

is accessible only by passing through the

main hall, or living room. The apartment entrance hall would seem to correspond to the entrance gate of the traditional

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The third type of house, the individually designed house, is hard to reduce to a general system of formal or stylistic classifications. Designs by architects exhibit numerous con cepts and patterns, and architects' attitudes seem to be domi nated by competing issues such as tradition, modernity, experiment and challenge. Some architects have tested new styles without feeling restricted by any notion of a specific Korean cultural heritage. Others have deliberately tried to introduce modern Western styles to Korea. But both these groups seem to lack a deep understanding of the essence of Korean tradition, and they prefer to be interested in contem porary architectural expression. A third group of architects, however, has tried to retain char acteristics of traditional Korean houses using personal modern
SECOND FLOOR

vocabularies of form transformed from tradition. The plan here house with a traditional courtyard layout (FIG. 14), but if one shows a house that at first glance would seem to be a modern

looks with full and particular attention, one can see how the layout and internal organization differ totally from traditional patterns. While the courtyard form remains from the tradi tional house, its purpose is no longer to regulate the distribu tion offamily quarters. The courtyard here is employed solely for the purpose of providing an intriguing view into and out of the various areas of the house. In one sense this house does incorporate traditional notions of outdoor space. The original function of the courtyard has been neglected, and the courtyard has become an empty object that
5 (8)

merely allows certain aesthetic effects to be created within the house. In other words, the house has adopted the symbolic and
=

phenomenal aspects of the courtyard only; the "sense" but not the "substance" of the traditional house. By way of contrast, the last dwelling type to be investigated, "public" houses by public housing authorities, demonstrate a different set of design intentions. In the early stages ofpublic housing construction during the 19605, the design of public dwellings depended significantly on the authorities' stated intention to "improve" the life-style and living environment of Koreans. The elite architect/bureaucrats who ran the public housing agencies placed great value on house designs that emphasized efficiency of space and economy of construc tion. This necessitated the standardization and program atization of the dwelling, and it often resulted in the wholesale adoption of Western plans, which were regarded as improve ments over Korean models. Following one of the principal functional tenents of Modern Architecture, for example, sleeping, living and utility zones were often separated in public housing to increase the inde-

10

GROUND FLOOR

An example ofan architect-designed house (I. entrance hall, 2. main hall or living room, 3. kitchen, 4. main room, 5. bedroom, 6. bathroom, 7dining room, 8. fomily room, 9. stud IO. car port, y, II. terrace, I2. courtyard ).
FIG. 14.

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pendence of each zone (FIG. 15) . In addition, most important rooms were arranged on the southern side of the building to take maximum advantage of sunlight, a concern which re sulted in the entrance hall being located either to the west or the north, an uncommon pattern in traditional Korean domes tic life. In the early stages of public housing programs, the authorities generally abandoned the form and function of the courtyard. The attitude they displayed lends credence to arguments that public housing authorities generally neglect local traditions and prefer the introduction of "new" styles. Nonetheless, from late 19705 on, public housing authorities in Korea began to realize that occupants of their houses were not satisfied with the layout of interior spaces, and they began to change their designs to reflect concepts similar to those evident in the ready-built houses of private builders (FIG. 1 6) . Although the concept of a Western-style living room re mained, it came to function not only as a place for social gathering but also as the main access and transition space in the dwelling. The courtyard idea also came to be translated within the context of public housing.

INTERPRETATION O F THE COU RTYARD IDEA IN MODERN KOREAN DWELLINGS

The discussions above have made it apparent that individu ally designed houses by architects and ready-built houses by private builders diverged significantly in their adaptation of traditional courtyard patterns to modern conditions. One can say that the architects were much more involved in interpret ing the form of the courtyard, while developers and buyers of ready-built houses and apartments allowed the market to control the way the dwelling evolved. Private builders have generally adapted the idea of the courtyard to the interior layout of their houses, while treating exterior features - style, structure, and use of materials - in ways superficially related to modern styles. Architects, on the other hand, have seized on the prototypical character of the courtyard pattern and tried to retain its geometrical symbolism while altering its social and practical function. In between, public housing authorities at first tried to abandon the function and form of the traditional courtyard and replace it with Western models, but then discovered residents preferred the pattern of interior organization developed through private markets. From this investigation, one can see the importance of the relationship between form and layout of the house and associ ated cultural attitudes and values. Even though the courtyard idea has come to be reflected in modern Korean houses in a variety of ways through a variety of processes, the different modern manifestations are linked ro a collective tradition. It

FIG. 15. (ABOVE) Examples of public houses built during the early I960s (Io entrance hal!, 2. main hal! or living room, 3. kitchen, 4- main room, 5 bedroom, 6. bathroom). (A) Perspective view; (B) Pian. FIG. 16. (BELOW) An example ofa standard ur ban house designed by the Korean Ministry of Construction during the I970S (Io entrance hall, 2. main hall or living room, 3. kitchen, 4 . dining room, 5. main room, 6. bedroom, 7. bathroom).

II

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the framework of the traditional courtyard idea as follows. Traditional House: Entrance Gate - Courtyard - Rooms (Destination). Modern House: Entrance Hall - Living Room - Rooms (Destination). Within this overall framework, however, one may note dis tinct differences between the ways private builders and practicing architects have chosen to recognize the idea. Archi tects have employed tradition as an historical reference which can be interpreted by means of sensitivity to surface qualities that arouse cultural memory. Builders have sought to respond to market demand for interior spaces that provide contextual continuity between traditional social structures and contem porary ways of living. Additionally, one can note that archi tects' perceptions of the traditional house are based princi pally on the traditional houses of rich and distinguished

Possible relations between courtyard and house lot. (a) Courtyard within; (b) House within; (c) Courtyard-like space within a house within a lot.
FIG. 1 7 .

can therefore be argued that the courtyard house type still offers a vital cultural heritage to modern Korea. These notions can be more easily understood by carefully examining the spatial domains established by the traditional courtyard pattern. As previously discussed, the courtyard con stituted the outdoor domain of the traditional house. How ever, the boundary between the courtyard domain and the rest of the house was not well defined. Since some of the support pillars of the house, i . e . , those to one side of the
maru wooden

Building House in Rural Area

i I d.

Courtyard

Gate ....

floor, stood independently with no walls explicitly dividing indoor from outdoor space, there came to be no clear limit between indoor and outdoor living. In fact, the functions of indoor and outdoor spaces were sometimes interconnected and interchangeable according to circumstance, climate, and the desired degree of interpersonal formality. This is one reason why the courtyard could be either internalized or exter nalized in recognition of its function and application. The courtyard house idea has diffused remarkably well into modern Korean dwellings at a number oflevels. This may be because it embodies the very idea of tradi tion in the dwelling. In particular, the contrasts in translation and interpretation of the courtyard into modern housing contexts can be sum marized as follows. Private builders and developers conceptu alized and internalized the functional aspects of the traditional form and design. Meanwhile, architects interested in the tradition of Korean domestic space perceptualized and exter nalized the traditional form. Public authorities arrived at a position somewhere in-between. The spatial organization of the traditional Korean house can be compared to the organization of the modern house within

House in Mountainous Area

u i +- Courtyard I I Gate d. ....

... Building (Rooas)

...

-+

i I d.

Building i i I +- Courtyard -+ I d. "- d . Gate ... J. Building

House in Urban Fabric

Building

Courtyard (woman) " House for Upper Class

Courtyard / (man) Building Courtyard (servant) Building Gate ....

Building

i I

FIG.

IS. Conceptual Diagram o /Traditional Courtyard Houses.

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families which no longer survive. In contrast, the conception of the courtyard idea created by builders has been inspired mainly by the self-protective nature of the traditional houses of common people. In the modern prototype, the traditional "courtyard" has been relocated within a dwelling within a house lot (FIG. 17). It can be maintained that this is the result of an interaction between dwelling form and the inhabitants' needs, values, and tastes. In other words, as with other aspects of culture, dwelling form can be understood as being realized, or fit, into a whole (that is, the present reconciliation of tradition and current need) (FIGS. 18,19).

CONCLUSION: CONTINU ITY AND CONSISTENCY OF THE COURTYARD IDEA

In sum, the tradition of the courtyard idea constitutes, either consciously or unconsciously a "constant" in the design of Korean dwellings and serves to promote the continuity and consistency inherent in traditional Korean architecture. Other contextual elements of tradition, i.e. the use of material, decoration, detail and so on, are employed as secondary variables. The built pattern of the courtyard has not become an ossified remnant of the past, but has been restated by new designs and means. It can be maintained that, as artifacts, contemporary Korean dwellings resonate with spatial features that link modern life either practically or symbolically to traditional aspects of Korean society and culture through the intermediary of the courtyard idea. The courtyard pattern as a cultural heritage has proven strongly resistant to change. It persists tenaciously, either conceptually or physically, at all levels of dwelling form. Even though the style and structure of modern Korean dwell ings are radically different from traditional Korean houses and in many ways have come to resemble modern Western houses, their spatial organization has remained traditional either perceptually or conceptually, externally or internally. This would seem to support the theory that architectural tradition involves more than just the notion of style and technology. The way in which the courtyard idea has been retained or discarded has been shown here to depend on the attitudes of builders, architects, housing authorities, and owners-to-be. But the courtyard idea originated as a preconception of the house as a specific pattern of space use that could be expressed in a spatial organization that could be passed ftom one generation to the next. This phenomenon demonstrates that the dwelling fulfills more than simply the need for shelter. Modern Korean dwellings, either designed by architects,
Designed House B i d. Public House
0 "

Rooms
+-

Ready-bui l t Bouse

o Main Hall ---. 0 ( Courtyard) " s Entrance Hall A

Apartment Houses

Rooms

Entrance Hall

Li ving Room (Courtyard)

"

/'

0 0

Rooms

Living Rool (Courtyard)

Entrance Hall A

.....

0 0

Building

r-t>

"

B i

Courtyard

L,

d.

Gate A

FIG. 19. Conceptual Diagram a/Contemporary Houses.

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executed by housing authorities, or built by builders, translate and transform this need into modern physical forms by creating new spatial patterns that have remained traditional, either conceptually or perceptually.

REFERENCE NOTES

I.

The term "open-courtyard" is used to

Korean traditional architeCture, see Shin, Yung-hoon,

indicate a courtyard space with structures on either one, two, or three sides, which results from the lateral extension of the form of the building. In this sense it is opposed to an "internal" courtyard, which is located completely inside the house. 2. Most traditional Korean houses for the upper class were of wooden post-and-beam construction with a gray tile roof. Lower class houses used sun-dried mud-brick walls that supported a thatched roof. 3. For a more detailed discussion of the evolurion of the four types of traditional houses

Han 'guk ui Salimjip (The Traditional House in Korea) (Seoul:

For a more detailed discussion of the

Yulhwadang, 1986). 5. complicated environmental, practical, and socio cultural si ruations related to the use of the courryard and its relation to archi tectural space organization, see Kim, Kwang-on,

Han 'guk ui Chugo Minsok (Traditional House Styles in ji Korea) (Seoul: Minumsa, 1988).
6. For a discussion of the dwelling space arrangement as it relates to Confucian ethics, see

Sang Hae Lee, "Siting and General Organization of Traditional Korean Settlements, " in

Han 'guk Chut'aek Konch 'uk (The Korean Residential Architecture) (Seoul: Jljisa, 1985).
in Korea, see Chu, Nam-ch'ul,
4.

Dwellings, Settlements, and Tradition: Cross-Cultural Perspectives, J.-P. Bourdier and N .

AISayyad, e d s . (Lanham: University Press of America, 1989), PP.295-316.

For a more detailed discussion of the various

functions and purposes of the courtyatd in