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What is a Computer A computer is an electronic machine that accepts information, stores it until the information is needed, processes the information according to the instructions provided by the user, and finally returns the results to the user. The computer can store and manipulate large quantities of data at very high speed, but a computer cannot think. A computer makes decisions based on simple comparisons such as one number being larger than another. Although the computer can help solve a tremendous variety of problems, it is simply a machine. It cannot solve problems on its own. History of Computers Since civilizations began, many of the advances made by science and technology have depended upon the ability to process large amounts of data and perform complex mathematical calculations. For thousands of years, mathematicians, scientists and businessmen have searched for computing machines that could perform calculations and analyze data quickly and efficiently. One such device was the abacus. The abacus was an important counting machine in ancient Babylon, China, and throughout Europe where it was used until the late middle ages. It was followed by a series of improvements in mechanical counting machines that led up to the development of accurate mechanical adding machines in the 1930s. These machines used a complicated assortment of gears and levers to perform the calculations but they were far to slow to be of much use to scientists. Also, a machine capable of making simple decisions such as which number is larger was needed. A machine capable of making decisions is called a computer. The first computer like machine was the Mark I developed by a team from IBM and Harvard University. It used mechanical telephone relays to store information and it processed data entered on punch cards. This machine was not a true computer since it could not make decisions. In June 1943, work began on the world's first electronic computer. It was built at the University of Pennsylvania as a secret military project during World War II and was to be used to calculate the trajectory of artillery shells. It covered 1500 square feet and weighed 30 tons. The project was not completed until 1946 but the effort was not wasted. In one of its first demonstrations, the computer solved a problem in 20 seconds that took a team of mathematicians three days. This machine was a vast improvement over the mechanical calculating machines of the past because it used vacuum tubes instead of relay switches. It contained over 17,000 of these tubes, which were the same type tubes used in radios at that time. The invention of the transistor made smaller and less expensive computers possible. Although computers shrank in size, they were still huge by todays standards. Another innovation to computers in the 60s was storing data on tape instead of punch cards. This gave computers the ability to store and retrieve data quickly and reliably. BASIC COMPUTER OPERATIONS A computer as shown in Fig. 2.1 performs basically five major operations or functions irrespective of their size and make. These are 1) it accepts data or instructions by way of input, 2) it stores data, 3) it can process data as required by the user, 4) it gives results in the form of output, and

5) it controls all operations inside a computer. We discuss below each of these operations.

Figure 2.1 1. Input: This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system. You should know that computer is an electronic machine like any other machine which takes as inputs raw data and performs some processing giving out processed data. Therefore, the input unit takes data from us to the computer in an organized manner for processing. 2. Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage. Data has to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is because the processing speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is so fast that the data has to be provided to CPU with the same speed. Therefore the data is first stored in the storage unit for faster access and processing. This storage unit or the primary storage of the computer system is designed to do the above functionality. It provides space for storing data and instructions. The storage unit performs the following major functions: All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing. Intermediate results of processing are also stored here. 1. Random Access Memory (RAM): The primary storage is referred to as random access memory (RAM) because it is possible to randomly select and use any location of the memory directly store and retrieve data. It takes same time to any address of the memory as the first address. It is also called read/write memory. The storage of data and instructions inside the primary storage is temporary. It disappears from RAM as soon as the power to the computer is switched off. The memories, which loose their content on failure of power supply, are known as volatile memories .So now we can say that RAM is volatile memory. 2. Read Only Memory (ROM): There is another memory in computer, which is called Read Only Memory (ROM). Again it is the ICs inside the PC that form the ROM. The storage of program and data in the ROM is permanent. The ROM stores some standard processing programs supplied by the manufacturers to operate the personal computer. The ROM can only be read by the CPU but it cannot be changed. The basic input/output program is stored in the ROM that examines and initializes various equipment attached to the PC when the switch is made ON. The memories, which do not loose their content on failure of power supply, are known as non-volatile memories. ROM is non-volatile memory. 3. PROM There is another type of primary memory in computer, which is called Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM). You know that it is not possible to modify or erase programs stored in ROM, but it is possible for you to store your program in PROM chip. Once the programmes are written it cannot be changed and remain intact

even if power is switched off. Therefore programs or instructions written in PROM or ROM cannot be erased or changed. 4. EPROM: This stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, which over come the problem of PROM & ROM. EPROM chip can be programmed time and again by erasing the information stored earlier in it. Information stored in EPROM exposing the chip for some time ultraviolet light and it erases chip is reprogrammed using a special programming facility. When the EPROM is in use information can only be read. 5. Registers: The CPU processes data and instructions with high speed, there is also movement of data between various units of computer. It is necessary to transfer the processed data with high speed. So the computer uses a number of special memory units called registers. They are not part of the main memory but they store data or information temporarily and pass it on as directed by the control unit. Cache Memory: The speed of CPU is extremely high compared to the access time of main memory. Therefore the performance of CPU decreases due to the slow speed of main memory. To decrease the mismatch in operating speed, a small memory chip is attached between CPU and Main memory whose access time is very close to the processing speed of CPU. It is called CACHE memory. CACHE memories are accessed much faster than conventional RAM. It is used to store programs or data currently being executed or temporary data frequently used by the CPU. So each memory makes main memory to be faster and larger than it really is. It is also very expensive to have bigger size of cache memory and its size is normally kept small. 3. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit. 4. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information. Similarly the output produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside the computer before being given to you in human readable form. Again the output is also stored inside the computer for further processing. 5. Control: The manner how instructions are executed and the above operations are performed. Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations in side the computer. 2.4 FUNCTIONAL UNITS In order to carry out the operations mentioned in the previous section the computer allocates the task between its various functional units. The computer system is divided into three separate units for its operation. They are 1) arithmetic logical unit, 2) control unit, and 3) central processing unit. 2.4.1 Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU) After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the primary storage unit. The actual processing of the data and instruction are performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit. The major operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and comparison. Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required. After processing the output is returned back to storage unit for further processing or getting stored. 2.4.2 Control Unit (CU) The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor seeing that things are done in proper fashion. The control unit determines the sequence in which computer programs and instructions are executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the main

memory, interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the computer to execute them. It also acts as a switch board operator when several users access the computer simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates the activities of computers peripheral equipment as they perform the input and output. Therefore it is the manager of all operations mentioned in the previous section. Computer Tasks Input Storage Processing Output When a computer is asked to do a job, it handles the task in a very special way. 1. It accepts the information from the user. This is called input. 2. It stored the information until it is ready for use. The computer has memory chips, which are designed to hold information until it is needed. 3. It processes the information. The computer has an electronic brain called the Central Processing Unit, which is responsible for processing all data and instructions given to the computer. 4. It then returns the processed information to the user. This is called output. Every computer has special parts to do each of the jobs listed above. Whether it is a multimillion dollar mainframe or a thousand dollar personal computer, it has the following four components, Input, Memory, Central Processing, and Output. The central processing unit (CPU) is the electronic brain of the computer. The CPU in a personal computer is usually a single chip. It organizes and carries out instructions that come from either the user or from the software. The processor is made up of many components, but two of them are worth mentioning at this point. These are the arithmetic and logic unit and the control unit. The control unit controls the electronic flow of information around the computer. The arithmetic and logic unit, ALU, is responsible for mathematical calculations and logical comparisons. The processor is plugged into the computers motherboard. The motherboard is a rigid rectangular card containing the circuitry that connects the processor and all the other components that make up your personal computer. In most personal computers, some of the components are attached directly to the motherboard and some are housed on their own small circuit boards that plug into the expansion slots built into the motherboard. Input Devices A computer would be useless without some way for you to interact with it because the machine must be able to receive your instructions and deliver the results of these instructions to you. Input devices accept instructions and data from you the user. Some popular input devices are listed below. Keyboard , Mouse ,Scanner(, Microphone , CD-ROM, Joystick, Magnetic Tape ,Optical Disk etc Scanner: The keyboard can input only text through keys provided in it. If we want to input a picture the keyboard cannot do that. Scanner is an optical device that can input any graphical matter and display it back. The common optical scanner devices are Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR), Optical Mark Reader (OMR) and Optical Character Reader (OCR). Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): - This is widely used by banks to process large volumes of cheques and drafts. Cheques are put inside the MICR. As they enter the reading unit

the cheques pass through the magnetic field which causes the read head to recognise the character of the cheques. Optical Mark Reader (OMR): This technique is used when students have appeared in objective type tests and they had to mark their answer by darkening a square or circular space by pencil. These answer sheets are directly fed to a computer for grading where OMR is used. Optical Character Recognition (OCR): - This technique unites the direct reading of any printed character. Suppose you have a set of hand written characters on a piece of paper. You put it inside the scanner of the computer. This pattern is compared with a site of patterns stored inside the computer. Whichever pattern is matched is called a character read. Patterns that cannot be identified are rejected. OCRs are expensive though better the MICR. Memory A personal computer must have a means of storing information (data) and instructions so that it can perform processing tasks on the data. Personal computers have two types of memory. These are discussed below. Read Only Memory (ROM) ROM is a small area of permanent memory that provides startup instructions when the computer is turned on. You can not store any data in ROM. The instructions in ROM are set by the manufacturer and cannot be changed by the user. The last instruction in ROM directs the computer to load the operating system. Every computer needs an operating system. This is a special computer program that must be loaded into memory as soon as the computer is turned on. Its purpose is to translate your instructions in English into Binary so that the computer can understand your instructions. The operating system also translates the results generated by your computer into English when it is finished so that we can understand and use the results. The operating system comes with a computer. Read Only Memories (ROM) Permanent data storage ROMs Data is wired in during fabrication at a chip manufacturers plant Purchased in lots of 10k or more PROMs Programmable ROM Data can be written once by the user employing a PROM programmer Useful for small production runs EPROM Erasable PROM Programming is similar to a PROM Can be erased by exposing to UV light EEPROMS Electrically erasable PROMs Can be written to many times while remaining in a system Does not have to be erased first Program individual bytes Writes require several hundred usec per byte

Used in systems for development, personalization, and other tasks requiring unique information to be stored Flash Memory Similar to EEPROM in using electrical erase Fast erasures, block erasures Higher density than EEPROM

Random Access Memory (RAM) This is the area of memory where data and program instructions are stored while the computer is in operation. This is temporary memory. NOTE: The data stored in RAM is lost forever when the power is turned off. For this reason it is very important that you save your work before turning off your computer. This is why we have peripheral storage devices like your computers hard disk and floppy diskettes. Permanent Memory (Auxiliary Storage) Your files are stored in permanent memory only when saved to your disk in a: drive or saved to your computer's hard disk, Drive c: In the Floyd College labs, you can also save your work to a network drive. We will discuss this in class. To better understand how a computer handles information and to also understand why information is lost if the power goes off, lets take a closer look at how a computer handles information. Your computer is made of millions of tiny electric circuits. For every circuit in a computer chip, there are two possibilities: 1. an electric circuit flows through the circuit or 2. An electric circuit does not flow through the circuit. When an electric current flows through a circuit, the circuit is on. When no electricity flows, the circuit is off. An on circuit is represented by the number one (1) and an off circuit is represented by the number zero (0). The two numbers 1 and 0 are called bits. The word bit comes from binary digit. Each time a computer reads an instruction, it translates that instruction into a series of bits, 1s and 0s. On most computers every character from the keyboard is translated into eight bits, a combination of eight 1s and 0s. Each group of eight bits is called a byte. Byte The amount of space in memory or on a disk needed to store one character. 8 bits = 1 Byte Since computers can handle such large numbers of characters at one time, metric prefixes are combined with the word byte to give some common multiples you will encounter in computer literature.

Kilo means 1000

Kilobyte (KB) =

1000 Bytes

Mega means 1,000,000 Giga Means 1,000,000,000

Megabyte (MB) = 1,000,000 Bytes Gigabyte (GB) = 1,000,000,000 Bytes

At this point it would be good to point out why information stored in RAM is lost if the power goes off. Consider the way the following characters are translated into binary code for use by the computer. A X 1 01000001 , B 01000010 , C 01000011 01011000 , Z 01011010 , 00110001 2 00110010

Consider the column at the right, which represents how the computer stores information. Each of the 1s in the second column represents a circuit that is on. If the power goes off, these circuits can NOT be on any more because the electricity has been turned off and any data represented by these circuits is lost. This is why we can not overemphasize the importance of saving your work often. Central Processing Unit (CPU) The central processing unit is one of the two most important components of your microcomputer. It is the electronic brain of your computer. In addition to processing data, it controls the function of all the other components. The most popular microprocessors in IBM compatible computers are made by Intel. The generations of microprocessors are listed below. 1981 8088 1984 80286 1987 80386 1990 80486 1993 Pentium 1996 P-6 1998 Pentium III 2000 Pentium IV Your computer has a Pentium IV processor. Output Devices Monitor Speakers Printer Impact Dot Matrix Non-Impact Ink Jet Laser Storage Devices Hard disk Floppy disk Tape drive CD-ROM

GENERATION OF COMPUTERS The first electronic computer was designed and built at the University of Pennsylvania based on vacuum tube technology. Vacuum tubes were used to perform logic operations and to store data. Generations of computers has been divided into five according to the development of technologies used to fabricate the processors, memories and I/O units. I Generation : 1945 55 II Generation : 1955 65 III Generation : 1965 75 IV Generation : 1975 89 V Generation : 1989 to present First Generation (ENIAC - Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator EDSAC Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator EDVAC Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer UNIVAC Universal Automatic Computer IBM 701) Vacuum tubes were used basic arithmetic operations took few milliseconds Bulky Consume more power with limited performance High cost Uses assembly language to prepare programs. These were translated into machine level language for execution. Mercury delay line memories and Electrostatic memories were used Fixed point arithmetic was used 100 to 1000 fold increase in speed relative to the earlier mechanical and relay based electromechanical technology Punched cards and paper tape were invented to feed programs and data and to get results. Magnetic tape / magnetic drum were used as secondary memory Mainly used for scientific computations. Second Generation (Manufacturers IBM 7030, Digital Data Corporations PDP 1/5/8 Honeywell 400) Transistors were used in place of vacuum tubes. (invented at AT&T Bell lab in 1947) Small in size Lesser power consumption and better performance Lower cost Magnetic ferrite core memories were used as main memory which is a random-access nonvolatile memory Magnetic tapes and magnetic disks were used as secondary memory Hardware for floating point arithmetic operations was developed. Index registers were introduced which increased flexibility of programming. High level languages such as FORTRAN, COBOL etc were used - Compilers were developed to translate the high-level program into corresponding assembly language program which was then translated into machine language. Separate input-output processors were developed that could operate in parallel with CPU. Punched cards continued during this period also. 1000 fold increase in speed.

Increasingly used in business, industry and commercial organizations for preparation of payroll, inventory control, marketing, production planning, research, scientific & engineering analysis and design etc. Third Generation (System 360 Mainframe from IBM, PDP-8 Mini Computer from Digital Equipment Corporation) ICs were used Small Scale Integration and Medium Scale Integration technology were implemented in CPU, I/O processors etc. Smaller & better performance Comparatively lesser cost Faster processors In the beginning magnetic core memories were used. Later they were replaced by semiconductor memories (RAM & ROM) Introduced microprogramming Microprogramming, parallel processing (pipelining, multiprocessor system etc), multiprogramming, multi-user system (time shared system) etc were introduced. Operating system software were introduced (efficient sharing of a computer system by several user programs) Cache and virtual memories were introduced (Cache memory makes the main memory appear faster than it really is. Virtual memory makes it appear larger) High level languages were standardized by ANSI eg. ANSI FORTRAN, ANSI COBOL etc Database management, multi-user application, online systems like closed loop process control, airline reservation, interactive query systems, automatic industrial control etc emerged during this period. Fourth Generation (Intels 8088,80286,80386,80486 .., Motorolas 68000, 68030, 68040, Apple II, CRAY I/2/X/MP etc) Microprocessors were introduced as CPU Complete processors and large section of main memory could be implemented in a single chip Tens of thousands of transistors can be placed in a single chip (VLSI design implemented) CRT screen, laser & ink jet printers, scanners etc were developed. Semiconductor memory chips were used as the main memory. Secondary memory was composed of hard disks Floppy disks & magnetic tapes were used for backup memory Parallelism, pipelining cache memory and virtual memory were applied in a better way LAN and WANS were developed (where desktop work stations interconnected) Introduced C language and Unix OS Introduced Graphical User Interface Less power consumption High performance, lower cost and very compact Much increase in the speed of operation Fifth Generation (IBM notebooks, Pentium PCs-Pentium 1/2/3/4/Dual core/Quad core.. SUN work stations, Origin 2000, PARAM 10000, IBM SP/2) Generation number beyond IV, have been used occasionally to describe some current computer system that have a dominant organizational or application driven feature. Computers based on artificial intelligence are available

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Computers use extensive parallel processing, multiple pipelines, multiple processors etc Massive parallel machines and extensively distributed system connected by communication networks fall in this category. Introduced ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology Intels Pentium 4 microprocessor contains 55 million transistors millions of components on a single IC chip. Superscalar processors, Vector processors, SIMD processors, 32 bit micro controllers and embedded processors, Digital Signal Processors (DSP) etc have been developed. Memory chips up to 1 GB, hard disk drives up to 180 GB and optical disks up to 27 GB are available (still the capacity is increasing) Object oriented language like JAVA suitable for internet programming has been developed. Portable note book computers introduced Storage technology advanced large main memory and disk storage available Introduced World Wide Web. (and other existing applications like e-mail, e Commerce, Virtual libraries/Classrooms, multimedia applications etc.) New operating systems developed Windows 95/98/XP/, LINUX, etc. Got hot pluggable features which enable a failed component to be replaced with a new one without the need to shutdown the system, allowing the uptime of the system to be very high. The recent development in the application of internet is the Grid technology which is still in its upcoming stage. Quantum mechanism and nanotechnology will radically change the phase of computers. TYPES OF COMPUTERS 1. Super Computers 2. Main Frame Computers 3. Mini Computers 4. Micro Computers 1. Super Computers E.g.:- CRAY Research :- CRAY-1 & CRAY-2, Fujitsu (VP2000), Hitachi (S820), NEC (SX20), PARAM 10000 by C-DAC, Anupam by BARC, PACE Series by DRDO Most powerful Computer system - needs a large room Minimum world length is 64 bits CPU speed: 100 MIPS Equivalent to 4000 computers High cost: 4 5 millions Able to handle large amount of data High power consumption High precision Large and fast memory (Primary and Secondary) Uses multiprocessing and parallel processing Supports multiprogramming

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Applications In petroleum industry - to analyze volumes of seismic data which are gathered during oil seeking explorations to identify areas where there is possibility of getting petroleum products inside the earth In Aerospace industry - to simulate airflow around an aircraft at different speeds and altitude. This helps in producing an effective aerodynamic design for superior performance In Automobile industry to do crash simulation of the design of an automobile before it is released for manufacturing for better automobile design In structural mechanics to solve complex structural engineering problems to ensure safety, reliability and cost effectiveness. Eg. Designer of a large bridge has to ensure that the bridge must be proper in various atmospheric conditions and pressures from wind, velocity etc and under load conditions. Meteorological centers use super computers for weather forecasting In Biomedical research atomic nuclear and plasma analysis to study the structure of viruses such as that causing AIDS For weapons research and development, sending rockets to space etc 2. Main Frame Computers E.g.:- IBM 3000 series, Burroughs B7900, Univac 1180, DEC Able to process large amount of data at very high speed Supports multi-user facility Number of processors varies from one to six. Cost: 3500 to many million dollars Kept in air conditioned room to keep them cool Supports many I/O and auxiliary storage devices Supports network of terminals process large amount of data at very high speed such as in the case of Banks/ Insurance Companies/ Hospitals/ Railwayswhich need online processing of large number of transactions and requires massive data storage and processing capabilities Used as controlling nodes in WANs (Wide Area Networks) Used to mange large centralized databases 3. Mini Computers E.g.:- Digital Equipments PDP 11/45 and VAX 11) Perform better than micros Large in size and costlier than micros Designed to support more than one user at a time Posses large storage capacities and operates at higher speed Support faster peripheral devices like high speed printers Can also communicate with main frames Applications These computers are used when the volume of processing is large for e.g. Data processing for a medium sized organization Used to control and monitor production processes To analyze results of experiments in laboratories Used as servers in LANs (Local Area Networks)

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4. Micro Computers E.g.:- IBM PC, PS/2 and Apple Macintosh A microcomputer uses a microprocessor as its central Processing Unit. Microcomputers are tiny computers that can vary in size from a single chip to the size of a desktop model They are designed to be used by only one person at a time Small to medium data storage capacities 500MB 2GB The common examples of microcomputers are chips used in washing machines, TVs, Cars and Note book/Personal computers. Applications Used in the field of desktop publishing, accounting, statistical analysis, graphic designing, investment analysis, project management, teaching, entertainment etc The different models of microcomputers are given below:a) Personal computers:- The name PC was given by the IBM for its microcomputers. PCs are used for word processing, spreadsheet calculations, database management etc. b) Note book or Lap Top:- Very small in terms of size can be folded and carried around Monitor is made up of LCD and the keyboard and system units are contained in a single box. Got all the facilities of a personal computer (HDD, CDD, Sound card, N/W card, Modem etc) and a special connection to connect to the desktop PC which can be used to transfer data. c) Palm Top:- Smaller model of the microcomputer- size is similar to that of a calculator pocket size- It has a processor and memory and a special connection to connect to the desktop PC which can be used to transfer data. d) Wrist PC:- Smallest type of microcomputer can be worn on our wrist like a watch- It has a processor and memory and a wireless modem Operating System : An operating system (OS) is a set of software that manages computer hardware resources and provides common services for computer programs. The operating system is a vital component of the system software in a computer system. Application programs require an operating system to function. Types Of OS: Real-time A real-time operating system is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing real-time applications. Real-time operating systems often use specialized scheduling algorithms so that they can achieve a deterministic nature of behavior. The main objective of real-time operating systems is their quick and predictable response to events. They have an event-driven or time-sharing design and often aspects of both. An eventdriven system switches between tasks based on their priorities or external events while time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock interrupts. Multi-user A multi-user operating system allows multiple users to access a computer system concurrently. Time-sharing systems can be classified as multi-user systems as they enable multiple-user access to a computer through the sharing of time. Single-user operating systems, as opposed to multi-user operating systems, are usable by a single user at a time. Being able to use multiple accounts on a Windows operating system does not make it a multi-user system. Rather, only the network administrator is the real user. But for a UNIX-like operating system, it is possible for two users to log in at a time and this capability of the OS makes it a multi-user operating system.

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Multi-tasking vs. single-tasking When only a single program is allowed to run at a time, the system is grouped as a singletasking system. However, when the operating system allows the execution of multiple tasks at one time, it is classified as a multi-tasking operating system. Multi-tasking can be of two types: pre-emptive or co-operative. In pre-emptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates one slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems such as Solaris and Linux support pre-emptive multitasking, as does AmigaOS. Cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to give time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking. 32-bit versions, both Windows NT and Win9x, used preemptive multi-tasking. Mac OS prior to OS X used to support cooperative multitasking. Distributed Further information: Distributed system A distributed operating system manages a group of independent computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing. Distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a group work in cooperation, they make a distributed system. Embedded Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy. They are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design. Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems. Application Software: Application software, also known as an application or an app, is computer software designed to help the user to perform specific tasks. Examples include enterprise software, accounting software, office suites, graphics software and media players. Many application programs deal principally with documents. Apps may be bundled with the computer and its system software, or may be published separately. Some users are satisfied with the bundled apps and need never install one. Application software is contrasted with system software and middleware, which manage and integrate a computer's capabilities, but typically do not directly apply in the performance of tasks that benefit the user. The system software serves the application, which in turn serves the user. DBMS: A database management system (DBMS) is a software package with computer programs that controls the creation, maintenance, and use of a database. It allows organizations to conveniently develop databases for various applications. A database is an integrated collection of data records, files, and other objects. A DBMS allows different user application programs to concurrently access the same database. DBMSs may use a variety of database models, such as the relational model or object model, to conveniently describe and support applications. It typically supports query languages, which are in fact high-level programming languages, dedicated database languages that considerably simplify writing database application programs. ACID properties of DBMS: Atomicity Atomicity requires that each transaction is "all or nothing": if one part of the transaction fails, the entire transaction fails, and the database state is left unchanged. An atomic system must guarantee atomicity in each and every situation, including power failures, errors, and crashes.

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Consistency The consistency property ensures that any transaction will bring the database from one valid state to another. Any data written to the database must be valid according to all defined rules, including but not limited to constraints, cascades, triggers, and any combination thereof. Isolation The isolation property ensures that the concurrent execution of transactions results in a system state that could have been obtained if transactions are executed serially, i.e. one after the other. Durability Durability means that once a transaction has been committed, it will remain so, even in the event of power loss, crashes, or errors. In a relational database, for instance, once a group of SQL statements execute, the results need to be stored permanently (even if the database crashes immediately thereafter). NETWORK: A network or communication network is a system of interconnected communication devices that can communicate with one another and share information. Therefore computer network can be defined as: computers or large number of computers are interconnected together, communicate freely with one another and share information is called computer network. A network can be internal to an organization or span the world by connecting itself to the internet. In computer network, network operating system is used that controls and co-ordinates the activities of computers that are connected to the network. The example of these operating systems are: windows NT, UNIX, and Novell etc. Types of Network Networks are of three types. These are: * Local Area Network (LAN) * Wide Area Network (WAN) * Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) Local Area Network A local area network is a network system in which computers are interconnected in a limited geographical area, such as network of computers in college computer laboratory or network of computers in office building etc. Wide Area Network A wide area network is a network system that covers a large geographical area such as different cities of country or different countries of the world. In WAN telephone lines, satellites, microwave, fiber optic etc. are used as transmission media. Metropolitan Area Network A Metropolitan area Network is a network system that covers area of a single city. Usually, MAN connects more than one LANS in a city or town and covers a smaller geographical area than a WAN. The cable television, telephone companies or local corporations use MAN.