Participation in the consumption of alcohol is a regular, socially accepted habit in most cultures (Juntunen, 1984).

Many individuals view the dangers of controlled, low levels of alcohol consumption as being negligible (Juntunen, 1984). However, is this true? This essay will discuss the biological effect of alcohol consumption, the consequences of maternal alcohol consumption on the development of an unborn child and the prohibition of alcohol to people under the age of 18 in South Africa.

Biological Effects of Alcohol

Alcohol abuse is an extremely common phenomenon in many cultures (Juntunen, 1984). In fact, alcohol is perhaps the most common single toxic substance causing problems in industrial countries (Juntunen, 1984, p. 461). Alcohol consumption is commonly linked to social situations and many people consume alcohol as part of a perfectly normal, healthy social function due to its ability to aid in relaxation (Juntunen, 1984). However, alcohol abuse contributes to major illnesses such as cancer, cardiovascular disorders and mental illness (Juntunen, 1984). Alcohol has various effects on the body the most important target of which is the nervous system. The nervous system is a complex communication network transferring information in the form of nerve impulses from the brain to the rest of the body (Weiten, 2010, p. 90). Alcohol acts in such a way that it disrupts the normal functioning of the nervous system and in smaller amounts results in drunkenness and intoxication (Juntunen, 1984). This includes decreased inhibitions, lack of coordination, poor judgement, sexual promiscuity and over exaggerated emotions (Begleiter & Platz, 1972).

The levels of alcohol consumption dictate the degree to which the drinker is affected (Begleiter & Platz, 1972). The effects can range from mild tingling sensations to the subject lapsing into a stuporous condition (Begleiter & Platz, 1972). Extremely high levels of alcohol consumption can cause the subject to fall into a deep state of anesthesia, which may cause death (Begleiter & Platz, 1972).

Alcohol has a profound effect on the central nervous system. The central nervous system is the portion of the nervous system that lies within the skull and spinal column which includes the spinal cord and brain (Weiten, 2010, p. 90). Alcohol is absorbed through stomach and small intestine into the blood stream and is carried throughout the body (Begleiter & Platz, 1972). The overconsumption of alcohol results in changes in personality and behavior as a result of the alcohols effect on the cerebral cortex (Begleiter & Platz, 1972). Once the alcohol has reached the cerebral cortex it makes the consumer more talkative and less inhibited (Begleiter & Platz, 1972). When the alcohol reaches the hippocampus in the brain it results in memory loss and exaggerated emotions (Begleiter & Platz, 1972). Once the alcohol starts affecting the cerebellum, of which the primary function is to maintain balance, coordination decreases (Begleiter & Platz, 1972). Serious complications as a result of alcohol consumption result from the effects of alcohol on the medulla oblongata which is responsible for regulating heart rate and breathing (Weiten, 2010).

The peripheral nervous system is also acutely affected by alcohol (Juntunen, 1984). The peripheral nervous system is the section of the nervous system that extends outside the central nervous system (Weiten, 2010). The peripheral nervous system is responsible for voluntary skeletal movements and involuntary bodily responses such as breathing and blinking (Weiten, 2010). The effects of alcohol on the peripheral nervous system are mainly concerned with changes in the neural membrane (Juntunen, 1984). Alcohol dependence, resistance and withdrawal can best be explained by alcohols effect on the neural membrane (Juntunen, 1984). Neurons are individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate and transmit information (Weiten, 2010, p. 80). The neuronal membrane, or myelin sheath, encases the axon of the neuron and is involved in the transmission of signals moving along the axon (Weiten, 2010). Defects or problems with the myelin sheath result in signals not being transmitted effectively (Weiten, 2010). The acute effects of ethanol are as a result of increased neuronal membrane fluidity (Juntunen, 1984). The changes in the neural membrane are at first reversible but chronic exposure over long periods of time results in the membrane being able to maintain its normal fluidity levels in the presence of ethanol (Juntunen, 1984). This means that alcohol has less effect and the drinker develops a

tolerance which usually results in increased consumption of alcohol (Juntunen, 1984). The membranes ability to maintain fluidity also results in the physical dependence associated with addiction (Juntunen, 1984). Sudden withdrawal of ethanol consistent with an alcoholics attempt to stop drinking causes the membrane to change becoming more rigid than normal (Juntunen, 1984). This neural change results in the symptoms associated with alcohol withdrawal (Juntunen, 1984).

Excessive, long term consumption of alcohol can have severe, detrimental effects on health. There is a strong connection between chronic alcohol consumption and an increased risk of developing alcoholism, cardiovascular disease, malabsorption, chronic pancreatitis, alcoholic liver disease and cancer (Begleiter & Platz, 1972). Chronic alcohol abuse can also result in damage to the central and peripheral nervous systems (Juntunen, 1984). The extent of alcohol damage is far reaching and nearly every organ in the human body is vulnerable to excessive exposure to alcohol (Juntunen, 1984).

Consequences of maternal alcohol consumption on the development of an unborn child

A pregnant womans consumption of alcohol is especially dangerous to the development of her unborn child (Haggerty Davis & Autumn Frost, 1984). Even lower levels of alcohol consumption have been linked to reduction in fetal growth and a reduced birth weight (Ou Shu, Hatch, Mills, Clemens, & Susser, 1995). Higher levels of alcohol consumption during pregnancy can result in a myriad of congenital symptoms collectively referred to as fetal alcohol syndrome (Haggerty Davis & Autumn Frost, 1984). Fetal alcohol syndrome has long term effects on a childs physical and developmental functioning (Haggerty Davis & Autumn Frost, 1984).

Fetal alcohol syndrome results in a fairly distinctive set of physical abnormalities (Weiten, 2010). Facial structure is compromised in the following ways microcephaly (small heads), short palprebal fissures (shorter than average separation between the upper and lower eyelids), maxillary hypoplasia (underdeveloped cheek bones) and epicanthal folds (folds in the skin of the upper eyelid) (Haggerty Davis & Autumn Frost, 1984). The syndrome also results in short birth length which translates to a lower than average height in adulthood (Haggerty Davis & Autumn Frost, 1984). Joint and limb defects are also common amongst babies affected by fetal alcohol syndrome (Haggerty Davis & Autumn Frost, 1984). Cardiac defects are also a common symptom (Weiten, 2010). There have also been scientific studies that link fetal alcohol syndrome to an increased risk of developing Hodgkins disease, neuroblastoma, adrenal cortical cancer and hepatoblastoma (Haggerty Davis & Autumn Frost, 1984). There are also various mental anomalies that arise as a result of the mothers alcohol consumption. Fetal alcohol syndrome is the most common known cause of mental retardation (Niccols, 2007 cited in Weiten, 2010 p.444). Children with fetal alcohol syndrome tend to test poorly when screened using standardized IQ tests (Haggerty Davis & Autumn Frost, 1984). They usually score between the range of 60 70, which indicates mental retardation (Haggerty Davis & Autumn Frost, 1984). Their ability to learn is also compromised by their tendency toward hyperactivity and the

short attention span common amongst children affected by fetal alcohol syndrome (Haggerty Davis & Autumn Frost, 1984). These mental deficiencies are realized in poor reaction times, decreased motor skills and poor math skills (Weiten, 2010).

Fetal alcohol syndrome has also been linked to an increase in hyperactivity, delayed mental and motor development, depression, suicide, drug problems and deviant behavior in adulthood (Weiten, 2010). There is also a strong link between high prenatal alcohol consumption and increased impulsive, antisocial and delinquent behavior in adulthood (Weiten, 2010).

Fetal alcohol syndrome babies are particularly difficult to care for. Besides the mental and behavioral problems, the physical abnormalities and increased risk of disease accompanying the syndrome, the babies suffer from a continuing failure to thrive (Haggerty Davis & Autumn Frost, 1984, p. 100). The babies display inadequate sucking reflexes and are difficult to feed (Haggerty Davis & Autumn Frost, 1984). They have poor appetites and remain small and malnourished despite adequate nutrition (Haggerty Davis & Autumn Frost, 1984). They have a weak grasp and poor hand-eye coordination (Haggerty Davis & Autumn Frost, 1984).

Even relatively low levels of alcohol consumption can have substantial negative effects (Weiten, 2010). An exact, safe level of alcohol consumption for pregnant woman has yet to be determined (Haggerty Davis & Autumn Frost, 1984). Presently, the safest option is to avoid all alcoholic beverages (Haggerty Davis & Autumn Frost, 1984). Alcohol can be transferred from the mother to the baby through the placenta and thus can have extremely harmful effects on the fetus throughout the stages of prenatal development (Haggerty Davis & Autumn Frost, 1984).

Prohibition of alcohol consumption for people under the age of 18

Adolescence is a period of time during which many people begin to experiment with alcohol (White & Scott Swartwelder, 2005). In South Africa it is illegal for persons under the age of 18 to consume alcohol. Alcohol has various biological and developmental effects that are especially dangerous for a developing adolescent (White & Scott Swartwelder, 2005).

Teenagers have excess amounts of neuronal tissue; consistent with brain development (White & Scott Swartwelder, 2005). During adolescence, the brain has high levels of plasticity and is shaped by experience (Weiten, 2010). A large number of neurons are eliminated during adolescence to streamline the brain for optimal functioning (White & Scott Swartwelder, 2005). The pruning process, which takes place in the cortex, is influenced by interactions with the external environment (White & Scott Swartwelder, 2005). The prefrontal cortex of the brain only becomes fully mature in the mid-20s (Weiten, 2010). The prefrontal cortex is responsible for high level cognitive functioning such as planning, organizing, emotional regulation and response inhibition (Weiten, 2010). This means that teenagers, with immature prefrontal cortexes, have a reduced ability to make rational decisions and control their emotions (Weiten, 2010). The effect of alcohol on the developing teenage brain is twofold.

Firstly, the deficit in the ability to reason may explain the high levels of risky behavior, such as reckless driving, experimentation with drugs and binge drinking, present in adolescence (Weiten, 2010). Consumption of alcohol has been linked to deviant behavior such as experimentation with drugs, sexual promiscuity and criminal tendencies (Mott & Haurin, 1988). Therefore, teenagers with their reduced capacity to make rational decisions are at a higher risk of participating in such behavior and as such should not be allowed access to alcohol, which exacerbates the tendency toward risky behavior (Mott & Haurin, 1988). Adolescence is a time of uncertainty and transition, the inclusion of alcohol into this period of development could result in a transition to adult activities such as sexual activity too early in relation to social norms (Mott & Haurin, 1988).

The second effect alcohol has on teenaged development is cognitive. Normal brain development in humans can be impaired by the consumption of large amounts of alcohol over an extended period of time (Donato, Pasquale, Monarca, Bonetti, Chiesa, & Nardi, 1993). Deficits in the retrieval of information and visuospatial functioning occur in youths who had consumed large amounts of alcohol during early and middle adolescence (Donato, Pasquale, Monarca, Bonetti, Chiesa, & Nardi, 1993). Adolescence is a period of time during which critical stages of neurodevelopment occur (White & Scott Swartwelder, 2005). A large amount of structural and functional brain development takes place during adolescence (White & Scott Swartwelder, 2005). Alcohol impacts cognitive development and brain function differently during adolescence than in adulthood (White & Scott Swartwelder, 2005). Evidence also suggests that adolescents are more vulnerable to impairments resulting from alcohol abuse than adults (White & Scott Swartwelder, 2005).

During adolescence, most teenagers attend school and lay the foundations on which they base the rest of their working careers. Academic success increases the chance of success in employment (Thorlindsson, Bjarnason, & Sigfusdottir, 2007). Teenagers who consume alcohol regularly are less likely to succeed academically (Thorlindsson, Bjarnason, & Sigfusdottir, 2007). They are also less likely to participate in other extramural activities (Thorlindsson, Bjarnason, & Sigfusdottir, 2007). According to Erik Erikson (1963, cited in Weiten, 2010) academic success in school is a necessary part of the Industry vs Inferiority stage of psychosocial development (Weiten, 2010). Teenagers who abuse alcohol and who are therefore more likely to fail academically do not develop the sense of pride and self-confidence necessary for this stage (Weiten, 2010; Thorlindsson, Bjarnason, & Sigfusdottir, 2007). They are therefore likely to develop feelings of inferiority and a lack of self-esteem that will plague them throughout their lives (Weiten, 2010).

The adolescent period is where the teenaged individual has to deal with the development of their identities and the conflict this brings (Weiten, 2010). Failure to successfully define the identity can lead to depression and suicidal tendencies (Weiten, 2010). Alarming evidence has been discovered that links alcohol abuse to suicide in teenagers (Deykin, Levy, & Wells, 1987). Alcohol is a depressogen which means that repeated use of it results in feelings of depression (Deykin, Levy, & Wells,

1987). Substance abuse is strongly associated with major depressive disorder and suicide (Deykin, Levy, & Wells, 1987). As teenagers are already particularly susceptible to suicidal tendencies it would be dangerous to expose them to an external influence that increases the risk of suicide, such as alcohol (Weiten, 2010; Deykin, Levy, & Wells, 1987).

There are also various, serious health risks linked to alcohol consumption in the teen years (De Wit, Adlaf, Offord, & Ogborne, 2000). Individuals who begin to consume alcohol regularly at a young age are at an increased risk for the development of alcohol disorders (De Wit, Adlaf, Offord, & Ogborne, 2000). Evidence also suggests that the earlier the age at which first exposure to alcohol occurs, the greater the risk of abusive consumption (De Wit, Adlaf, Offord, & Ogborne, 2000). Over 40% of individuals who began consuming alcohol before the age of 14 become alcohol dependent (De Wit, Adlaf, Offord, & Ogborne, 2000). This figure is four times higher than the percentage of alcoholics who began drinking at ages 20 and older (De Wit, Adlaf, Offord, & Ogborne, 2000). From this it is clear that teenage drinking directly contributes to an increased risk of alcoholism and alcohol related diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, liver diseases and cancer (Begleiter & Platz, 1972). (Deykin, Levy, & Wells, 1987)

Alcohol, under the right circumstances, can serve as an aid to socialization. It can be a harmless part of an ordinary social situation. However, alcohol abuse can be extremely dangerous causing harm to almost every vital organ and creating serious psychological problems (Juntunen, 1984). Specific groups, such as teenagers and unborn infants, are especially vulnerable to the effects of alcohol consumption (De Wit, Adlaf, Offord, & Ogborne, 2000; Ou Shu, Hatch, Mills, Clemens, & Susser, 1995). It is these groups that should be informed and protected from the possible dangers that alcohol poses.

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