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Effects of MGNREGS (Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme) on the lives of beneficiaries in Malappuram District of Kerala, India

A case study Rosemary Varkey M., MSW

MGNREGS: A case study from Malappuram District of Kerala, India

Rosemary Varkey M.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to extend my gratitude to the faculty members of Rajagiri College of Social Sciences, who trained me to be a Professional Social Worker. I worked as an assistant in the project Monitoring and Streamlining Convergence between MGNREGS and Ongoing Schemes of Other Ministries in Malappuram District of Kerala undertaken by CSD (Council for Social Development), Hyderabad. I am immensely grateful to the Project Director for his guidance. The help extended by the officials in DRDA (District Rural Development Authority), Malappuram was inevitable for this study. I am grateful to the Block Development Officers and MGNREGS staff of Tirur, Nilambur and Ponnani Block Panchayaths, and panchayath officials and staff of Thalakad, Thriprancode, Chungathara, Edappal and Thavanur panchayaths for assisting me in collecting the data. Very special thanks to all the MGNREGS beneficiaries who gave their consent to be a part of this study. The support given by my family members, teachers and friends are always the strength behind every success of mine. Along with them I gratefully remember the guidance and help bestowed on me by my co-workers.

MGNREGS: A case study from Malappuram District of Kerala, India

Rosemary Varkey M.

CONTENTS Abstract Preface List of Tables and Illustrations

PAGE NO. 4 5 7

Introduction MGNREGS and Malappuram Research Methodology Data Analysis & Interpretation Major Findings Conclusion

8 12 19 20 31 38

Appendices References Tool of Data Collection - Interview schedule 39 40

MGNREGS: A case study from Malappuram District of Kerala, India

Rosemary Varkey M.

ABSTRACT

This study tries to understand the implication of a revolutionary scheme like MGNREGS in the context of Kerala. It aims at understanding the factors that influenced the beneficiaries to go for works under MGNREGS, though its wage rate is comparatively low. The immediate results brought about by the implementation of the scheme on the lives of beneficiaries are especially observed, since those are most likely the results for which the beneficiaries went for work. It is analyzed whether the notion of employment of the common people, especially women, is altered as a result of the scheme. Hitherto achievement of the schemes two-fold objectives, its implementation mechanism, and beneficiaries utilization of the entitlements given by the scheme are also included. The case studies from sample district helps in understanding the role played by the scheme on the lives of beneficiaries. This study is throws some light on the curious phenomenon of beneficiary enrollment in massive scale, though the wage rate is low in comparison with the market wage rate.

MGNREGS: A case study from Malappuram District of Kerala, India

Rosemary Varkey M.

PREFACE

Kerala is a state that achieved significant socio-economic progress in India. The states achievement in education and health, awakened political and public consciousness of the people, increased female literacy, strong decentralized governance etc. are considered as the contributing factors behind this accomplishment. The state is thickly populated and remittances of emigrants from abroad (especially Gulf countries), supports nearly 25% of its economy. Earlier, two-third of the population depended on agriculture and its allied sectors for their survival. Now the economy of the state has increasingly been dependent on service sector.

Unemployment and underemployment are major problems in the state. Many educated youth are finding it difficult to obtain a job according to their educational qualification. The high registration in employment exchanges indicate the jobseekers preference to white collar jobs that is considered as more dignified than manual labour. The number of practically landless poor is very high in Kerala. Since land reform was implemented more than a generation ago, the homesteads given to nearly three lakh families have now been partitioned or sold out and a large number of the poor have nothing more than their house plots, diminishing the prospect of self-employment. The falling agriculture labour opportunities and the shrinkage of government job prospects have complicated the poverty situation. Collapse of traditional industries (coir, handloom, handicraft etc.) which employ around 5.5 lakh people from the poorer sections of the society, due to mechanization, introduction of synthetic alternatives and unfair trades aggravates the situation further. Other contributing factors affecting the wage employment scenario in Kerala are the presence of migrant labourers who are ready to do any labour with comparatively low wage and the ever-increasing menace of alcoholism in the state and the resultant burden of womenfolk to earn for the family along with performing the role of nurturer.

Before Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS), which guaranteed 100 days of wage employment in a financial year as a right to every household whose adult member volunteer to do unskilled manual labour, implementation of wage employment
MGNREGS: A case study from Malappuram District of Kerala, India Rosemary Varkey M.

schemes in Kerala was concentrated mainly on road construction as in other states. Since the wage for labour is more than any other states in India, a wage employment scheme in Kerala always shows peculiarity in the nature of its implementation. This study tries to understand the implication of a revolutionary scheme like MGNREGS in the context of Kerala.

The research aims at understanding the factors that influenced the beneficiaries to go for works under MGNREGS, though its wage rate is comparatively low. The immediate results brought about by the implementation of the scheme on the lives of beneficiaries are especially observed, since those are most likely the results for which the beneficiaries went for work. It is analyzed whether the notion of employment of the common people, especially women, is altered as a result of the scheme. Hitherto achievement of the schemes two-fold objectives, its implementation mechanism, and beneficiaries utilization of the entitlements given by the scheme are also included. The case studies from sample district helps in understanding the role played by the scheme on the lives of beneficiaries.

Though the wage rate is comparatively low, it is seen that beneficiary enrollment for the scheme is in massive scale. This study is mainly intended to understand this curious phenomenon. This is an apt time to study the qualitative changes brought about by the scheme, since the results of the works carried out related to rural assets creation has just begun to show up. Also, new initiatives like convergence of the scheme with other departments are being discussed increasingly nowadays. Studying the effects of the scheme helps in understanding whether it, with its rights-based approach, really addresses the menace of rural poverty.

MGNREGS: A case study from Malappuram District of Kerala, India

Rosemary Varkey M.

LIST OF TABLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS Illustration Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Table 1 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Table 2 Figure 12 Table 3 Figure 13 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6 Figure 14 Page No. 16 16 17 19 19 24 24 25 25 26 26 27 28 29 29 31 31 32 33 38

Title No. of job cards issued during 2008-10 (Dec, 2009) Distribution of Expenditure from May 08 to Dec 09 Expenditure growth during 2008-10(Dec, 09) Assets created during 2008-10(Jan) Proportional Expenditure on Assets Creation 2008-10 Participation of Different Castes Religion wise Participation Gender in NREGS Participants Age Groups of Participants Educational level of NREGS Participants Landholding of NREGS Participants Market Wage Rate in Malappuram District Indebtedness of NREGS Workers Sources of Awareness Awareness Level Delay in Wage Payment Participants Satisfaction Level Reasons for Participating in NREGS Works Purpose on which the NREGS Wages were spent Personal level reasons to take up MNREGS work

MGNREGS: A case study from Malappuram District of Kerala, India

Rosemary Varkey M.

INTRODUCTION Kerala is a state that achieved significant socio-economic progress in India. There is a Kerala model of development in the Development Economics. In spite of the decreased growth in production and industrial sector and decreased per capita GDP, the high standard of living (HDI) of the people is considered as a paradox in the theory of Economics. The states achievement in education and health, awakened political and public consciousness of the people, increased female literacy, strong decentralized governance etc. are considered as the contributing factors behind this accomplishment. The state is thickly populated and remittances of emigrants from abroad (especially Gulf countries), supports nearly 25% of its economy. Earlier, two-third of the population depended on agriculture and its allied sectors for their survival. Now the economy of the state has increasingly been dependent on service sector. 28.4% of the population is categorized as below poverty line (BPL survey, 1997) while it is 36.3% in the country. The number of practically landless poor is very high in Kerala. Since land reforms was implemented more than a generation ago, the homesteads given to nearly three lakh families have now been partitioned or sold out and a large number of the poor have nothing more than their house plots. Unemployment and underemployment is a major problem in the state. Many educated youth are finding it difficult to obtain a job according to their educational qualification. The high registration in employment exchanges indicate the jobseekers preference to white collar jobs that is considered as more dignified than manual labour. The falling agriculture labour opportunities and the shrinkage of government job prospects have further complicated the poverty situation. Extortionate wages demanded by educated and awakened labourers caused farmers to keep their agricultural fields fallow unless they are convinced about the return. From 90s onwards, area under paddy has been on the decline up to 50%. Uncertainty in prices of the cash crops that is highly dependent on the external factors like export- import decisions of the governments worldwide also contributed to the decline. Collapse of traditional industries (coir, handloom, handicraft etc.) which employ around 5.5 lakh people from the poorer sections of the society, due to mechanization, introduction of synthetic alternatives and unfair trades aggravates the situation further.

MGNREGS: A case study from Malappuram District of Kerala, India

Rosemary Varkey M.

Before NREGS, implementation of wage employment schemes in Kerala was concentrated mainly on road construction as in other states. Since the wage for labour is more than any other states in India, a wage employment scheme in Kerala always shows peculiarity in the nature of its implementation. This study tries to understand the implication of a scheme like NREGS in the context of Kerala. NREGS Implementation in Kerala The NREGS was initiated in two districts of the state on February 2006 in the backdrop of serious agrarian crisis- Wayanad and Palakkad. The following are the key findings of an impact assessment of the scheme for the year 2005-07 in these two districts, done by Centre for Rural Management (CRM), Kottayam. Excessive registration of households was noted. 94.78 % of the households demanded received employment. Analysing the socio-economic profile of beneficiaries clearly indicate that they belong to the target group of the scheme. Flood control and protection, renovation of traditional water bodies, micro irrigation and water conservation and harvesting are the thrust areas of work. Rural connectivity was given the least priority. No unemployment allowance was provided to the eligible non-beneficiaries. Majority of the non-beneficiaries are eligible for either work or unemployment allowance. Several regulatory measures were taken to control the demand for job and avoid payment of unemployment allowance. Presence of vibrant Panchayati Raj Institutions, particularly, the Gram Panchayats, during the scheme execution has been noted. Active involvement of Kudumbasree volunteers during the scheme. Average number of work received by a NREGS worker in the State is 39.15 days.

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Considering the improvement of annual family income, 14 percent beneficiary households in Palakkad and 13 percent in Wayanad could cross the limit of Rs.22,000, owing to the intervention of NREGS.

The results of NREGS on the rural poor in NREGS districts in elevating the income of beneficiary household was easily visible unlike previous wage employment programmes. No involvement of contractors during the scheme execution. Less use of machinery during the works. Quality of work carried out under NREGS is Good. Several positive impacts have been noted. The scheme resulted in checking migration, reducing household indebtedness, improving soil/water conservation and enhancing agricultural productivity.

Less transparency is noted during sanction of works. A slight improvement in transparency during the implementation of works. Several systems/institutions/procedures were developed to smoothen the scheme execution. However, adequate attempts are not made to sustain them. Lack of co-ordination with line departments/agencies during the plan formulation and implementation. No synergy with other rural development programmes. Preparation and use of District Perspective Plan and Work-Time-Motion study was not undertaken. Absence of a scientific and realistic labour budgeting. No social audit was undertaken so far. Efforts are being initiated to implement SGRY in the non-NREGS districts in the State from the year 2007-08, which could be viewed as contagious effect of NREGS.

CRM observes that major defects identified during previous Wage Employment Programmes were almost absent in the MNREGS governance in the State. They highlight that provision of equal wages to men and women, non-involvement of contractors, very limited use of machinery, adherence to wage-material ratio, absence of muster roll manipulations, etc. were almost alien during the scheme execution in both the districts. Increased women participation and supervisory
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role performed by Kudumbashree and active involvement of Gram Panchayats as implementing agencies, are other salient features of NREGS governance in Kerala. They underline the shifting of priority from rural connectivity to long-term sustainability projects on land, water and bio-mass after the introduction of the scheme. Based on statistical analysis, CRM concludes that the scheme has been turned to be a relatively better strategy to address poverty than its predecessor schemes. In April 2008, NREGS was expanded to all other districts of the state. From the official website launched by the Ministry of Rural development, the rapid changes brought about by the scheme in rural areas can be understood. Until March 2010, about 2.5 households have been provided employment and the person-days of employment generated touched 3 crore mark. Following is a description of MNREGS implementation in Malappuram, the most populated district of India and considered as the most backward district in Kerala.

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NREGS AND MALAPPURAM Malappuram- Profile Malappuram, as its name literally means, is the land of hills. Located in the northern part of the state, it has a geographical area of 3350 sq. kms of which 28.5 percent is covered by forests. The district has more or less the same climatic conditions prevalent elsewhere the state, viz. dry season from December to February, hot season from March to May, the Southwest Monsoon from June to September and the North East Monsoon from October to November. Three great rivers flowing through it - the Chaliyar, the Kadalundi and the Bharathappuzha, enrich it. Like most of the other districts of the state, Malappuram too consists of three natural divisions; lowland, midland and highland. The low land stretches along the coast of Arabian Sea (70 Kms) the midland, where luxuriant growth of coconut trees can be seen, in the centre and the highland region towards the east and north eastern parts mainly consisting of forest regions and teak plantations.

Malappuram district is projected to be the most backward district in Kerala. This district also has a place in the list of backward districts in India as classified by the Union Ministry of Health and Family Welfare in India. Based on the composite index developed on the basis of socio-economic and demographic indicators by Ram and Shekhar (2006), this district is still placed at a very low position compared to the other districts of Kerala. The rank of this district with regard to the composite index is 180 out of a total of 591 districts when most of the other districts of the state are well placed (PRC, Trivandrum). As in other districts of Kerala, pockets of poverty can be observed here too- Tribal colonies and fisherfolk community continue to be in poverty despite the progress achieved by other sections of the society. High fertility rate and educational backwardness especially among minority community is also observed. Fertility rate in Malappuram has been declining but it still has the highest birth rate in the state. The density of population is 1022 persons per sq. kms., which is much higher than the state average (819 persons per sq. kms). Literacy rate as per 2001 census is put at 89.61 percent, males: 94.8 percent and females: 88.7 percent. The percentage of urban population is 9.82 (2001 census). 54% of the land is used for cultivation. 2.7% of the population is agricultural labourers, of which
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17% are females. According to a study done by Population Research Centre (PRC), Trivandrum, 40-45 percent of males are economically active, while it is only less than 10% for females. Considerable numbers of people work in Gulf countries. Muslims constitute the majority of the population, and next comes the Hindu and the Christian communities respectively. The Muslims of Malappuram district are known as Mappilas. A great majority of them are traditional Sunnis following the Shafi School of thought and the second majority is the followers of "Salafi" thoughts. They are known as Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen, who caused an accelerated growth in social development and education among Muslims. SCs constitute 2.62% and STs 0.12% of the population.

Information on Work Participation rate (WPR) assessed by PRC reveals that male and female WPR varies between a low of 32.5 percent and 1.7 percent respectively in Thennala panchayat and a high of 51.3 percent and 16 percent respectively in Chaliyar panchayat. Among those employed in some kind of work (both Main workers and Marginal Workers), the proportion of male Agricultural labourers varies between a low value of 2.5 percent in Vettom panchayat and high of 41.3 percent in Thrikalangode panchayat. The corresponding variation with regard to females is between 3.5 percent in Kalpakancherri and 65.9 percent in Edapatta panchayat. The proportion of Males and Females employed in Cultivation is highest in Vettathur panchayat (17.1 and 14.8 percent respectively) whereas, the least proportion of male and female cultivators are seen in Vettom (1.5 percent) and Tenhippalam (0.7 percent) panchayat respectively. MNREGS PROGRESS IN THE DISTRICT MNREGS was introduced to the district in the year 2008, in the third phase of its implementation. More than 2 lak households have been registered under MNREGS till February2010. Like in other districts of the state, the scheme became a major poverty alleviation programme of the rural LSG institutions. Swift increase could be observed in the no. of people registered under the scheme, job card issued, workdays generated, expenditure incurred, wages distributed, etc. The following graphs explain this:

MGNREGS: A case study from Malappuram District of Kerala, India

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Figure 1: No. of job cards issued during 2008-10(Dec, 2009)

Figure 2: Distribution of Expenditure (in crores) from May 2008 to Dec 2009

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Figure 3: Expenditure growth during 2008-10(Dec, 09), in crores

From the above illustrations, it is evident that the expansion of MNREGS has been rapid ever since its inception in the district. 5.4% of the total households of the district have so far been registered. 86% of the job card holders are women. The SC populations contribution to the person days generated till December 2009 (7.66 lakh) is 34.35% albeit they constitute only 7.86% of the populace. The same trend can be observed with regard to Scheduled Tribes also- 1.13% of the workdays were contributed by 0.34% of this section. More than 80 per cent of the expenditure was incurred to meet the wage component. The administrative cost has comedown from 16.45 per cent in 2008-09 to 9.51 per cent in 2009-10.

Organizational set up and implementation mechanism At least two full time staff in every intermediary & Gramapanchayats and an IT Professional and an Accountant-cum-Computer assistant have been appointed at the district level on contract basis. The PRI representatives, CDS/ADS/NHG leaders, BPOs and JBDOs of block panchayats, Extension Officers of panchayati raj institutions, AEE/overseers from line departments, Village Monitoring Committee members, VSS/SC/ST promoters and Gramasabha facilitators are involved in the implementation of the scheme under the District Programme Coordinator/District Collector and Joint Programme Coordinator/ Project Director from PAU. 5132 officials from PRI system &
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other line departments and 1132 Kudumbashree volunteers were given training on various segments of MNREGS implementation. The full time staff is responsible for record maintenance, accounts management, day-to-day administration, field level measurements/verification etc.

Gramasabhas identify works and the panchayat committee prepares an annual Action Plan based on this which is submitted to block level and integrated to Block plan. A labour budget is also prepared alongside. The AAP of the block is submitted to District panchayat and if the administrative and technical sanctions are obtained from each level, the work is carried out in villages. The ADS chairperson functions as mate in each ward.

The Management Information System (MIS) has been started in all the blocks of the district. Online data entry is done from each Gramapanchayats. National Information Commission and DPCs office monitors the entire system. Common citizen can avail basic information on the scheme from the official website. A grievance redressal mechanism is also put in place at every level. Complaint boxes are available in all the block and gramapanchayats. A toll free telephone number is also publicized for the commoners to state their complaints at the district level.

MGNREGS: A case study from Malappuram District of Kerala, India

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Results of MNREGS- Rural assets creation Asset/Work Water Conservation/harvesting Drought proofing Micro irrigation works Irrigation facility in STs, SCs and IAY beneficiaries' Lands Renovation of traditional water bodies Land development Flood control and protection Rural connectivity Other Activities (elephant trenches, fire line in forests) 2008-09 51 3 175 42 71 127 2061 14 4 2009-10 176 130 309 128 427 235 1898 97 0

Table 1: Assets created during 2008-10(Jan)

Figure 4: Proportional Expenditure on Assets Creation 2008-10 (%)

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The reason for the increased no. of works undertaken comes under flood control and protection is the presence of three major rivers (Bharatapuzha, Chaliyar and Kadalundi) and its numerous distributaries. A coastal area of 103417 hectares (28.47% of total area) also necessitates the protection of agricultural fields from intrusion of saline water by means of sand bunds across rivers. In convergence with forest department, Harithakeralam, a social forestry programme is being implemented in the district under MNREGS. 3.2 lakh saplings have so far been planted in government and quasi-government land. Besides, protection of riversides from erosion is carried out by planting vetiver, neermaruthu and bamboo. These works along with water conservation and irrigation programmes increased the ground water holding of the land and consequently boosted agriculture, especially paddy cultivation. More than one metre increase of water table is reported from a sample panchayat (Thalackal). The far-reaching effects of the works done so far are yet to be assessed.

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Title of the study A study on the effects of NREGS on the lives of beneficiaries in Malappuram District

General Objective To study the effects of NREGS on the lives of beneficiaries in Malappuram District

Specific Objectives 1. To understand the factors that influenced NREGS beneficiaries to go for works under the scheme 2. To understand the results brought about by the scheme on the lives of beneficiaries.

Sampling Technique Simple random sampling- 5 panchayats (Thalakad, Thriprancode, Chungathara, Edappal and Thavanur) were selected by lottery method for the study. The respondents were selected from the worksites on random basis

Sample size 120 beneficiaries of the scheme from

Methodology The study utilizes both primary and secondary data related to the scheme. Non participant observation is another method used for collecting primary data. Interview schedules are employed for collection of quantitative and qualitative data from the beneficiaries.
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DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

As part of the study, the responses of NREGS participants are being solicited on five broad areas: a) Social status of the respondents (caste, religion, education, family type, etc.); b) Economic status of the NREGS participants (main occupation, number of earners in the family, market wage rate, ownership of land, etc.); c) Awareness level of NREGS norms (work within 15 days of demand, unemployment allowance, gramasabhas role, worksite facilities, social audit, etc); d) Wage Payment (work measurement, number of days taken to receive the payment, etc.); and e) Impact of NREGS, mainly the improvements NREGS brought in the participants life. Social Background of participants Substantial population of Malappuram district has migrated to the Gulf Countries and remittances from these migrants is one of the major income sources for the people of this district. As a result, the people who are registered under NREGS is restricted only to a few sections of the society particularly, to the Scheduled Castes and backward communities. In Malappuram, people belonging to weaker sections are found to be quite high in the NREGS workforce, particularly those from Scheduled Castes. As data in Figure 5 shows, 37.5 per cent of NREGS participants belong to Scheduled Castes. This percentage is quite high comparing with their proportion in the district, which is 7.86 per cent. Similarly, a 37 per cent of the NREGS workers are the people belonging to the backward communities. As the Scheduled Tribes population in the district is very less (0.34%), people belonging to these communities are only three per cent in the sample sites where monitoring intervention has been carried out. Figure 5: Participation of Different Castes Figure 6: Religion wise Participation

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The composition of religious groups in NREGS worksites is very interesting. The participation of Muslims is very less though they constitute more than 50 per cent of the population in the district. Only 22.5 per cent of Muslims took part in NREGS activities (Figure 6). The traditional values and historical practices still come in the way of taking up these works However, according to the participants, even the present day participation level of Muslim is much higher than in the past. Many Muslim women, who were quite hesitant to take up work outside their homes, now participate in NREGS works. Around 96 per cent of the NREGS participants, like elsewhere in Kerala are women. The participation of women increased from 78.72 per cent in 2008-09 to 95.8 per cent in 2009-10 (Figure 7). The high wage rate for men together with the increased construction activity makes very few men to take part in NREGS works. In fact, women participation in the construction activity is no less. It is mainly those who do not want to go out of their village are the ones that found taking part in NREGS works. Figure 7: Gender in NREGS Participants Figure 8: Age Groups of Participants

The age group pattern among NREGS workers is also points to a similar phenomenon. The younger people who can work in the construction activity or other harsh works found participating very less in NREGS works. Only 6.7 per cent of NREGS workers belong to the age group of 18-30 (Figure 8). More than 75 per cent of NREGS workers are in the age group of 31-50.

Figure 9: Educational level of NREGS Participants

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With regard to the education, a majority of NREGS participants (58.3%) are educated up to the primary level of education (Figure 9). A quarter of NREGS workers are educated up to secondary level. It is only 1.70 per cent that had entered into higher secondary or college.

Figure 10: Landholding of NREGS Participants

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One of the important parameters to indicate economic status of the rural population is holding of agricultural land. As Figure 10 indicates, most of the NREGS workers are holding just a small piece of land, mostly using this for residential purpose. This indicates that they have no income from land. Economic status of respondents The economic status of the rural poor is dependent on many factors such as occupation, nature of the family in which the individual is living, the number of dependents in a household, the standard of living in and around their living place, etc. 60.83 per cent in Malappuram district have stated that they are living in nuclear families. More than 60 per cent of the households of NREGS participants are having 4-6 members. A majority of the NREGS participants are casual workers, mostly involved in agricultural works. Only 5 per cent of the workers stated that they are occupied with their own works and not going as labourers in private works. Similarly, 65.83 per cent of the NREGS participants in the sample worksites belong to BPL category.

Figure 11: Market Wage Rate in Malappuram District

Since the living standard of the rural workers is determined by the wage rate they earn, an attempt has been made to find out market wage rate for both agricultural and non-agricultural works. As
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the data in the above Figure 11 indicates, a substantial number of NREGS workers (37.5%) stated that the agricultural wage rate is Rs. 200 in the district. Around 38 per cent of the participants stated that it is between 225-250 rupees. The wage rate for non-agricultural works is much higher. Almost half of the NREGS workers whom interviewed stated that the wage rate for nonagricultural works is Rs. 275/-. Overall, the range they mentioned for non-agricultural wage rate varies between Rs 175-350. However, the rates stated by NREGS workers are not static they change from period to period depending on the seasonality. The household debt is another criterion which indicates the economic status of the people. Though, having debt is considered to be bad generally (because it reveals the economic vulnerability of the person), however, in case of the poor, it also indicates their credit worthiness. Usually the people with repaying capacity only get loans from the public or private bankers. One of the important contributions of the NREGS, according to many participants, is that it increased the chances for getting loans from banks and cooperatives. In few cases, they could secure loans from the private lenders as well.
Table 2: Indebtedness of NREGS Workers Indebtedness Nil 1-25000 25001-50000 75001-100000 100001+ Total Persons 70 26 9 6 9 120 % 58.3 21.7 7.5 5 7.5 100

With regard to the NREGS participants in the sample work sites, 42.5 per cent have stated that they took loans for various purposes. However, in most of the cases the amount borrowed was less than 25,000 rupees (Table 2). Only 18 among the interviewed stated that they have taken a loan exceeding that. In this nine people informed that they have borrowed more than a lakh rupees for their requirements. Of the 50 persons (out of 120) who stated that they have taken loans, 19 taken from banks, 24 from cooperatives and the remaining seven people from private lenders. The

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participation of women in Kudumbashree and the little amount they save in it increased their chances of getting loans from the cooperatives and banks. Awareness level The awareness to people is very important for the successful implementation of NREGS. The inbuilt transparency and accountability norms can be made effectively operational only when people are aware. Many institutions and civil society organisations do play a critical role in generating awareness among the stakeholders. The processes through which these institutions interact with people also extensively enhance the awareness level among the people. As stated earlier, due to the overall socio-economic and political context - political activism, presence of agricultural workers unions, strong civil society organisations, etc. the awareness level of Kerala NREGS workers is relatively high in comparison with their counterparts elsewhere. The prevailing political competition, due to the two party system, also contributes in informing people about various development programmes and provisions incorporated in each of these programmes. The local governance system in Kerala, with its institutionalised structures, is instrumental in informing people about various government schemes and development initiatives. Most importantly, the strong Kudumbshree network in Kerala contributes immensely in awareness generation as well as in implementing NREGS by involving its members in the activities. Figure 12: Sources of Awareness Table 3: Awareness Level

Hence, it is not surprising that more than 65 per cent of the NREGS participants stated that they came to know about NREGS through Kudumbashree ADS (Figure 12). Similarly, a quarter of the
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participants cited Panchayats as their sources of information. The remaining workers stated that they came to know about NREGS through other sources like media, neighbours and relatives. The awareness level of the NREGS participants on various provisions incorporated in NREGS is shown in Table 3. Most of the NREGS workers in the sites are aware of the provisions related to 100 days of work (90%), providing work within 15 days of demand (74.2%), and Gram Sabha approval for work (81.7%), facilities at worksites (92.5%), etc. Nearly half of the participants know about the norms related to unemployment allowance and the responsibility of GP in providing the work. However, the awareness level of the participants is rather weak on issues related to social audit (6.7%) and Toll free number available for them to register their complaints or to express their grievances. NREGS Implementation The NREGS participants are highly appreciative of the scheme, as it has relieved them from some of the problems they encounter in every day life. However, they have also expressed some of the problems they encounter while participating in NREGS. One such issue that frequently cropped up during the field visits and interactions with the NREGS participants is the delay in wage payment. While being sympathetic towards the Panchayats and NREGS administration, for their efforts in the implementation of NREGS, the participants were also critical of delays in wage payment. A combination of factors, such as wider jurisdiction of Panchayats, understaffing, delays in submitting muster rolls by Kudumbashree mate, delays in data entry due to slowness of online server, etc. in fact resulting in the delays of wage payment. According to a majority of workers, usual time taken for receiving their payment is around one month. As shown in the Figure 13, a 51.69 per cent of the workers stated this. Slightly more than a quarter of the participants stated that they get their payments in 15 days time. However, 21.34 per cent of the NREGS participants stated that they have to wait more than a month for receiving their wage payment. As a result, 37.5 per cent of the workers expressed their dissatisfaction with the delay in wage payment. Figure 13: Delay in Wage Payment
Issues

Table 4: Participants Satisfaction Level

Satisfaction Level Persons Wages 82 108 108 45 93 108 % 68.3 90.0 Rosemary Varkey M. 90.0 37.5 77.5 90.0

MGNREGS: A case study from Malappuram District of Kerala, India

Worksite Facilities Nature of Work Wage Payment Work Tools Work Environment

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However, the participants have expressed their overall satisfaction with many other aspects relating to the implementation of the NREGS. An overwhelming majority (90%) of the participants stated that they are happy with the facilities provided at the worksites, nature of the work they undertake as well as the overall work environment (Table 4). Some of them have expressed that the wages need to be increased considering the escalating cost of living. They have also suggested that there should be an improvement in the supply of working tools.

Impact of NREGS The impact of the NREGS on rural poor is immense and same has been documented by many studies. As stated earlier, the introduction of NREGS saved many people who were otherwise living in chronic poverty with hunger and malnutrition. It reduced rural to urban migration, increased the market wage rates, and secured food even in those periods when other works are not available. In relatively developed parts, the additional income gained from NREGS is facilitating people to improve the health and the educational standard of their family members, particularly the children and in some cases a few of the rural workers saving a small amount of their wages for productive purposes.

In Malappuram district, most of the NREGS workers have stated that they take part in NREGS activities only when other works in and around their village are not available. Because of the high
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market wage rate, most of them prefer private works instead of NREGS works. They take part in NREGS works when other works are not available (Table 5). A significant number of workers (47.5%) stated that they participate in NREGS works when private works are not available. On the other hand, 37 per cent of workers stated that they participate in NREGS activities because they consider it as government job. The other benefits associated with participating in NREGS getting rice, pension, loans from Kudumbashree and other cooperatives also the reasons they cited for taking part in NREGS. The other factors the NREGS participants mentioned are relaxing and flexible working environment, poor health and old age, social interaction at NREGS worksites, participation of neighbours, etc. for participating in NREGS.
Table 5: Reasons for Participating in NREGS Works

Reasons Non-Availability of Private Work Other Reasons Social Interaction Government Job Relaxed Working Environment Not Going for Private work Age and Health Total

Perso ns 57 6 7 37 8 2 3 120

% 47.50 5 5.83 30.83 6.67 1.67 2.5 100

An understanding of how the NREGS participants spend their wages reveals the kind of poverty they are living in. Those who are relatively better off spend their wages on improving their living status in terms of acquiring new assets, sending children for higher education, repaying the loans, etc. On the other hand, those who are struggling to get means of their daily survival spend their income on meeting their daily expenses.

Table 6:

Purpose on which the NREGS Wages were spent

Perso ns % 76.66 9.17 6.67 5 2.5 100

Spending On

92 To meet Daily Expenses Children's Education MGNREGS: A case study from Malappuram District of Kerala, India 11 8 Repaying the Loans 6 Savings 3 Medical Expenses Total 120

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As figures in Table 6 indicate, a vast majority of NREGS participants are poor and 92 out of 120 workers (76.66%) are spending their wages to meet daily requirements. Since what they get from NREGS is adding to their overall income level, their life struggles have become less harsh. Only a small proportion of the participants stated that they are using NREGS wages for childrens education (9.17%), repaying the loans (6.67%), savings (5%) and on medical expenses (2.5%). Overall, among those who were interviewed, 85 per cent of the participants stated that NREGS implementation improved their living standards by adding an additional income to what they are already earning. To that extent, the NREGS improved their lives and some part of wages can be spent on productive purposes like getting treatment for long term diseases, sending children to the school, repaying the loans taken earlier, acquiring household goods like TV, mobile phones, etc. and saving small amounts in cooperatives and banks. However, the remaining 15 per cent stated that no drastic changes happened in their lives. The later category of people live in joint families with more than five members and 100 days of additional work do not have much impact on their daily living. Apart from this, most of the NREGS workers (90%) stated that they regularly attend Gram Sabha meetings. However, their involvement in the selection of the works is very less (78%). Similarly, the overwhelming majority of participants (93%) in NREGS works is not aware of social auditing and stated that they havent participated in it so far. With regard to 100 days of work, 98 participants out of 120 stated that the number of days should be increased. Another 19 participants stated that either it should be applicable to individual not to household or it should vary depending on the size of the household. Only 3 persons stated that the present 100 days of work is enough.

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Overall, the participants in NREGS worksites stated that there is a positive impact all around with the introduction of NREGS. At individual level it increased the annual income of household, which helped them in meeting day-to-day requirements with less hardship. It also increased the confidence level of the people, increased financial independence and freedom to women, improved social standing and facilitated social interactions. Most importantly, it facilitated communal harmony among the people. Many traditional women, particularly the Muslim women who usually do not go for private works, are participating in NREGS activities. Apart from this, according to the NREGS participants, the NREGS implementation also increased faith on government due to transparency and accountability norms incorporated in it. Many of the participants opened accounts in the banks after they registered for NREGS. Lastly, as it happened every where, the NREGS strengthened the village infrastructure by adding new assets or strengthening the existing ones. This will definitely enhance the productivity of land and boost the rural economy.

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MAJOR FINDINGS

Majority (74%) of them have only primary level education/ illiterate Market wage rate is in the range of 150-175 for agricultural labour and 200-275 for other labour (for women)

Landholding of the beneficiaries is minimal. Almost all of them have just a house and 2-3 cents of land around it. For some, even this is under debt.

More than half of them are in the workforce for the first time They decide to go for NREGS under severe poverty situations only (unmarried and singly living women, diseased/ alcoholic/physically challenged husband, low income of earning member, liabilities like loan, etc)

Most of them (93%) are from BPL category. Many hold AAY card. Those workers who hold APL card complain about it.

The monthly income of the respondents family is in the range of 1500- 7000 The workers came to know about NREGS via meetings conducted in neighbourhood groups (Kudumbashree) under the direction of Panchayati Raj representatives

Most of the workers have attended awareness classes about the scheme. They have an idea (rather vague) about 100 days of work, work within 15 days of time if demanded, gramasabha approval for works, facilities like tent, medical kit and drinking water at worksite. Majority attend gramsabha.

About 1 month is taken for wage distribution (due to procedures). But this is getting better and wage is disbursed within 2 weeks now.

Labourers had to wait upto 2 months for wage. (Informal conversation gave the information that the delay was up to 3-4 months!)

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However, compensation has not given for this delay since no one complains. The relationship with mate and other implementing bodies prevent them from complaining.

Why the beneficiaries come for NREGS work though the wage rate is lesser than that of the market rate? Working for a private land owner is considered as less dignifying than that of a government job. (This has connection with the history of Zamindari system and untouchability, in which the mighty land owners had a self given right for exploiting/abusing the labourers economically, sexually, physically, psychologically etc.) In private lands, they have to work harder, while NREGS work is less stressful and its environment is friendly The wages received, usually once in a month- usually around 1400 rupees, is like a salary. They can use it for buying household utensils or meeting educational expenses of children. This is not practically possible with daily receipt of wages. The wage received is automatically saved in the bank account. Most women opened a bank account because of the scheme Other labours are not available, especially in off season. (Farmers keep their land fallow) Many women are not used to work for daily wages. So they will not be called by land owners usually. These women also have the fear that they may not be able to do the work demanded. Old, physically challenged, diseased and weak come for NREGS work since no one will scold them if they lag behind. The workers find the worksite as a platform to share their sorrows and happiness of life. They also organize functions/treats in between, to honour those who completed 100 days. Also, those who completed 100 days, comes back to the worksite after receiving the wage,

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to treat the workers with a lunch. In their own words, we are like a family. This kind of intimacy is not possible in private lands.

An individual level analysis of the reasons for taking up NREGS works reveals that the workers are depending on the scheme because of helplessness in the majority of cases. The following diagram reveals this:

Figure 14: Personal level reasons to take up MNREGS work

What did the worker do with the wage earnings? Wage is not enough to save. The workers use it for meeting daily expenses in running the family. Majority of them started a bank account because of the scheme. One old woman remarked that they had not even heard about bank account before.

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Satisfaction The workers are generally satisfied with the worksite, wage, nature of work and work tools. Even the always delayed wage payment also is satisfactory to many of them since they get the cash together and can use it for purchasing household appliances All the respondents opined that 100 days norm is not enough, since they cant depend fully on other manual labours

Overall impact of NREGS Many women, who were afraid and less confident about going out for physical labour came forward and joined the workforce. This increased their confidence and financial independence. Social relationship and bonding increased. Workers at a site is like a family in their own words Standard of living of many poor households increased. (the kind of food, purchase of clothes and household articles, ease in paying school fees, medical expenses etc) Works are generally perceived by the workers as useful for the community

The scheme has been implemented at a time when the farmers were withdrawing from cultivation due to unprofitability and the consequent distress faced by the agricultural labourers that constitute 2.7% of the population. Majority of them belonged to 40 years and above age group since youth are reluctant to do manual labour. The scheme got recognition as a blessing to this section that comprises 17% of women labourers. The aged, weak and physically challenged, whose employment opportunities are diminished also found solace in the scheme for meeting both the ends. Decrease in distress migration is also observed after its implementation.

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Many women, especially from orthodox Muslim community who have not gone for any kind of work outside the family got enthusiastically registered themselves with the proud that they are government employees and opened a bank account in their name for the first time. Women having no livelihood support from husbands due to death, alcoholism, diseases, disability etc also got enrolled. The income thus obtained surely goes to the family as the workers mainly constitute women. From the interaction with the workers, one can understand the significant change happened in their standard of living and how much they find the scheme as a blessing. From meeting day-to-day expenses to saving it for paying school fees and purchasing consumer durables, beneficiaries are excited when they receive money and spend it for various purposes. Though delay in wage payment could be observed in some isolated places of the district, it was within 14 days in majority of the cases. As part of this study, it is observed that wage is being distributed within 10 days in the sample panchayats now. In continuation to the revolution brought about by the Kudumbashree, it is observed that the targeted beneficiaries are actively participating in Gramsabha and considering it as the democratic platform to voice their grievances related to the scheme. It (Kudumbashree) was really a precondition by which the implementation of the scheme was smooth. Some women even opined that MNREGS is kept going by the foundation laid by Kudumbashree. However it is noticed that there is a general dissatisfaction on the amount of wage, though it is the highest in the country. Since prices for essential commodities are on the rise and the targeted beneficiaries of the scheme have no other source of income other than the daily wage, they find the wage raise reasonable. They also commented that 100 days is not enough and they need work all through the year. Interviewing the implementers was successful in bringing forth the satisfaction and silent grudges of exhausted full time workers of the scheme- especially the data entry operators and overseers.

Two challenges faced by the implementers Inadequate staff As in other districts, an Overseer and a Data Entry Operator are appointed as full time staff for MNREGS in intermediary and Gramapanchayat levels. At the district level, an IT professional and
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an Accountant cum Computer Assistant are full time staff. An MNREGS co-ordinator also works on deputation in some panchayats. Practically, these full time staffs are mainly responsible for the smooth implementation of the scheme. Since all these posts are on contract basis, shortage of regular staff is the major defect in the implementation. This causes delay and confusion in the whole process. Failure in identifying appropriate works Failure in identifying works that enhance livelihood base of the target group is noticed in some sample panchayats. An example for this is the works like cleaning the roadsides and courtyards of SC/ST households. These works seems to be carried out for works sake. During the site visit one can also observe that number of workers is more than required. The procedures happening before giving technical and administrative sanctions is rather obscure. At this circumstance, a natural doubt arises whether the granting of AS and TS became ritualistic. Scope of MGNREGS in Malappuram Tremendous possibility of productive works in 6029 ha cultivable waste land and 10030 ha fallow land of the district. This is especially relevant at a time when the entire state is facing acute shortage of agricultural crops and the prices for essential commodities are on the rise. Since 28.5% of the total area is forest land, NREGS works can be utilized for ecotourism projects and synchronized with VSSs (Vana Samrakshana Samithi) or Committee for Protection of Forests functioning under Dept. of Forest. The availability of labour can be taken for granted. No. of people getting registered is ever increasing and people are willing to work all through the year. Watershed master plan is being prepared in all the panchayats. Once it is ready, more productive works can be identified that ultimately address the issues related to livelihood security of the people. Converging NREGS with the expertise, resources and activities of other departments of the government can further expand the number and quality of works undertaken.

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The progress made during the last two years clearly indicates that the scheme is being implemented in such a manner that it justifies the administrative potential of the district. The tremendous growth in distribution of job cards and wage, within this time span rationalize isolated incidences of flaws like delay in wage payment, selection of inappropriate works, lack of interdepartmental coordination, murkiness in the procedures behind giving technical and administrative sanction, etc.

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CONCLUSION MGNREGS is definitely a boon to weaker sections of the society, The scheme has been implemented at a time when the farmers were withdrawing from cultivation due to unprofitability and the consequent distress faced by the agricultural labourers, that constitute 2.7% of the population. Majority of them belonged to 40 years and above age group since youth are reluctant to do manual labour. The scheme got recognition as a blessing to this section that comprises 17% of women labourers. The aged, weak and physically challenged, whose employment opportunities are diminished also found solace in the scheme for meeting both the ends. migration is also observed after its implementation. Decrease in distress

Many women, especially from orthodox Muslim community who have not gone for any kind of work outside the family got enthusiastically registered themselves with the proud that they are government employees and opened a bank account in their name for the first time. Women having no livelihood support from husbands due to death, alcoholism, diseases, disability etc also got enrolled. The income thus obtained surely goes to the family as the workers mainly constitute women. From the interaction with the workers, one can understand the significant change happened in their standard of living and how much they find the scheme as a blessing. From meeting day-to-day expenses to saving it for paying school fees and purchasing consumer durables, beneficiaries are excited when they receive money and spend it for various purposes. Though delay in wage payment could be observed in some isolated places of the district, it was within 14 days in majority of the cases.

In continuation to the revolution brought about by the Kudumbashree, it is observed that the targeted beneficiaries are actively participating in Gramsabha and considering it as the democratic platform to voice their grievances related to the scheme. It (Kudumbashree) was really a precondition by which the implementation of the scheme was smooth. Some women even opined that NREGS is kept going by the foundation laid by Kudumbashree.

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However it is noticed that there is a general dissatisfaction on the amount of wage, though it is the highest in the country. Since prices for essential commodities are on the rise and the targeted beneficiaries of the scheme have no other source of income other than the daily wage, they find the wage raise reasonable. They also commented that 100 days is not enough and they need work all through the year.

References
1.

Chathukulam, Jos and Gireesan K., Impact assessment of NREGS in Kerala-Evaluation of systems and processes,submitted to ministry of rural development, Government of India, prepared by Centre for Rural Management (CRM) Kottayam, Kerala Cornell, Dejong, Monette, Duane and Sullivan, Thomas, 2007; Applied Social researchTool for the human service; Brooks Cole publishers

2.

3.

Ghosh, B.N, 1992; Scientific Method and Social Research; Sterling publishers Pvt Ltd http://www.thehindu.com/2008/01/22/stories/2008012254901000.htm Kannan, K.P, Dec 2009, Employment in lean seasons, Development and Cooperation, Vol: 36 Issue: 12 Nandini Nayak, Reetika Khera, Oct 2009, Women workers and perceptions of the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act,Economic and Political Weekly, Vol: 44 Issue: 43 pp: 49-57

4.

5.

6.

7.

Wilkinson and Bhandarkar, 2005; Methodology and techniques of social research; Himalayan publishers

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NREGS BENEFICIARIES- INTERVIEW SCHEDULE Date: Worksite details Description of work: 3) Starting date: 4) Amount sanctioned: 5) Labour component: 1) Block panchayat: 2) Panchayat:

6) Ownership of the assets created: a) Panchayat b) Private party c) Govt. institution 7) Benefits whom: a) Villagers b) Farmers c) Individuals d) Govt. institution

Respondent - Details 8) Name: 10) Age: a) 18-30 b) 31-40 b) ST c) OBC c) 40-50 d) others 9) Job card No: d) 50-60 e) Above 60

11) Caste: a) SC

12) Sex: a) M b) F

14) Religion: a) Muslim b) Christian c) Hindu d) Others (specify) . 15) Educational Status: a) Primary b) Secondary c) Higher Secondary d) Graduation and Above 16) Family Type: 17) Number of family Members: 20) Number of Family Members on Job Card: 21) Marital Status: a) Unmarried b) Married c) Married but Living Separately d) Widow/er Economic Status 18) Adults: 19) Children: a) Joint b) Nuclear

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22) Occupation: a) Self-employed (ag)

b) Self-employed (non-ag)

c) Casual labourer

d) other (specify) .. 23) Type of Ration Card: a) BPL b) APL c) No Ration Card

24) Total Number of Earners in the Family: 25) Market wage rate of the locality: Agriculture: Non- agriculture b) Non-

26) Total days of employment during the previous month: a) NREGS NREGS 27) Land Owned (acres): a) Dry 28) Income per Acre: a) Dry b) Wet b) Wet

29) Monthly Earnings of Family: 30) Household indebtedness: a) Yes b) No .................................... 32) To whom: a) Bank moneylender 33) Did anyone from the workers family migrated to elsewhere? a) Yes b) No 34) If yes, reason? b) Co-operative c) Relative/Friend d) Private 31) If yes, how much?

Awareness Level 35) How did the worker come to know about NREGS? a) PRI representative b) Kudumbashree c) Government officials d) Neighbourhood Person e) Media f) Other (specify) Indicate Awareness Level with regard to: 36) Work for 100 days: a) Yes b) No No
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37) Work within 15 days of Demand: a) Yes b)

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38) Unemployment allowance: a) Yes b) No 39) GP has to arrange for work: a) Yes b) No 40) Gramsabha approval for works: a) Yes b) No No 42) Facilities at worksite: a) Tent for Shade b) Medical Kit c) Drinking water d) Creche 43)Social audit: a) Yes b) No No 45) Does she attend gramasabha? a) Yes b) No 46) When did she attend last time?......................... Wage Payment 47) Who measures the work? 48) How frequently work is getting measured? 49) How many days have lapsed since work was measured? 50) How much time usually takes to receive the Payment? 51) Total Days of Work 52) Wages Paid . 53) Yet to be Paid ............. 44) Gram Sabha Conducting Social Audit: a) Yes b) 41) Toll free number: a) Yes b)

52) What is the longest time labourers had to wait for payment after completion of the work? 53) Did worker receive compensation if wages were not paid within 15 days? No 54) Have you received unemployment allowance if work was not given within 15 days? a) Yes b) No Impact of NREGS a) Yes b)

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55) Why the worker is coming for NREGS work though the wage rate is much lower to the market rate? 56) What did the worker do with wage earnings? (Did she have bank account before?) 57) What is the difference in the kind of labour you did before and after NREGS? Workers satisfaction with the: 58) Wage: a) Yes b) No 60) Nature of work: a) Yes b) No 62) Work tools a) Yes b) No 59) Work site: a) Yes b) No 61) Wage payment: a) Yes b) No 63) Work environment: a) Yes b) No

64) Has NREGS brought about any changes in the standard of living of the workers family? (Total income before and after getting work under NREGS) 65) What is the opinion regarding the inclusion of ADS machinery for the implementation? 66) What is the opinion about selection of works? Was she involved in selecting works? 67) What does she think about the entitlement of 100 days of work per household? a) Should be increased required 68) Have you been to any public hearing/social audit? If yes, explain your experience? 69) In your understanding what is the overall impact of NREGS? b) Should be decreased c) is enough d) should vary f) No upper limit according to household size e) should be applicable to each member

MGNREGS: A case study from Malappuram District of Kerala, India

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