PROJECT REPORT

ON
MOTIVATION
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE BBA (BE) 2009-2012 COURSE

SUBMITTED TO: MDU ROHTAK

SUBMITTED BY: DIGVIJAY SINGH BBA (BE)

DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION K.L.P COLLEGE REWARI-123401 (HARYANA)

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify DIGVIJAY SINGH; a bonafide student of KISHAN LAL PUBLIC COLLEGE; REWARI has prepared and completed this thesis MOTIVATION entitled under my Guidance during the academic year 2009-20012 for the partial fulfillment of the BBA (BE) degree course of M.D.U. ROHTAK.

Co-ordinator/ Director (SFC) BBA (BE) KLP COLLEGE REWARI

Miss VIJETA GADURA (LECTURER) BBA (BE) DEPTT.

DECLARATION

This is to certify that I, DIGVIJAY SINGH a student of KISHAN LAL PUBLIC COLLEGE, REWARI, presently studying in BBA (BE) Final Year (6TH Semester) under Roll No. 9308 is submitting a project report on MOTIVATION as assigned the guide for partial fulfillment of the degree of Bachelor of Business Administration (Business Economics) to M.D.U. Rohtak. I solemnly declare that the work done by me is original and no copy of it has been submitted to any other university for award of any other degree/diploma/fellowship on similar title.

DIGVIJAY SINGH BBA (BE) 6TH SEMESTER

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Acknowledgement is not only a ritual but also an expression of indebtedness to all those who have helped in the preparation process of the project. One of the most pleasant aspects in collecting information and compiling it is the opportunity to thank those who have actively contributed to it. The conclusions represented in this project spring from many sources My sincere thanks to Miss VIJETA GADURA under whose guidance, I had the opportunity to work. He has been a constant source of encouragement and guidance. This present work bears at every stage, the impressions of his wise & concrete suggestions, careful reasoning and meticulous attention. I must express my sincere thanks to the authors whose works I have the privilege to consult and quote in my research project.

DIGVIJAY SINGH BBA (BE) 6th SEMESTER

PREFACE

Project work is a part of our curriculum that gives up the knowledge about the practical work in any organization and makes are stand in an organization. This also helps to understand & correlate the theoretical concepts better which remains uncovered in the classrooms. I have prepared this report is the process of my graduate degree in business economics. The topic that has been taken for the project is:MOTIVATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS CERTIFICATE ................(3) DECLARATION ... (4) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT (5) PREFACE .. (6)

WHAT IS MOTIVATION?
People consider it to be a personal trait that is some have it some dont. In practice inexperienced managers often label people who lack motivation as lazy. But it isnt true. What we know is that motivation is the result of the interaction of the individual and the situation. Individuals differ in their motivational drive. For example: a student may find reading a 2o pages note book very tiring, but the same student may be able to read 150 pages of Harry Potter just in one day. For the student the change in motivation is driven by the situation. Thus we can say, that the level of motivation varies both between individuals and within individuals at different times.

DEFINITION:
Motivation is defined as the processes that account for an individuals intensity, direction, & persistence of effort towards attaining a goal. General motivation is considered with efforts towards any goal, but we narrow our focus on organizational goals. Key elements are: Intensity which is considered with how hard a person tries. This is the element most of us focus on when we talk about motivation. However, high-intensity is unlikely to lead to favorable job performance outcomes unless the effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the organization. Therefore, we have to consider the quality of efforts as well as its intensity. Effort that is directed towards, and consistent with the organizations goals is the kind of effort that we should be seeking. Finally, motivation has a persistence dimension. This is a measure of how long a person can maintain their effort. Motivated individuals stay with a task long enough to achieve their goal.

A MYTH OR A SCIENCE?

People are inherently lazy. This isnt true. All people are not inherently lazy; and laziness is more a function of the situation than an inherent individual character. If this statement is meant to imply that all people are inherently lazy, the evidence strongly indicates the contrary, many people to day suffer from the opposite affliction-they are overly busy, overworked, and suffer from over exertion. Whether externally motivated or internally driven, a good portion of the labour force is anything but lazy. Managers frequently draw the conclusion that people are lazy from watching some of their employees, who may be lazy at work. But these same employees are often quite industrious in one or more activities off the job. Peoples need structures differ. Unfortunately, for employers, works often ranks low in its ability to satisfy individual needs. So the same employee who shirks responsibility on the job may work obsessively on the conditioning and antique car, maintaining an award-winning garden, perfecting bowling skills. Overworked, and suffer from over exertion. Whether externally motivated or internally driven, a good portion of the labour force is anything but lazy. Managers frequently draw the conclusion that people are lazy from watching some of their employees, who may be lazy at work. But these same employees are often quite industrious in one or more activities off the job. Peoples need structures differ. Unfortunately, for employers, works often ranks low in its ability to satisfy individual needs. So the same employee who shirks responsibility on the job may work obsessively on the conditioning and antique car, maintaining an award-winning garden, perfecting bowling skills.

EARLY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

The 1950s were a fruitful period in the development of motivation concepts. Three specific theories were formulated during this period, which although heavily attacked and now questionable in terms of validity, are probably still the best-known explanations for employee motivation. These are the hierarchy of needs theory, Theories X and Y, and the two-factor theory. These theories represent a foundation from which contemporary theories

have grown, and practicing managers still regularly use these theories and their terminology in explaining employee motivation.

HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY

Its probably safe to say that the most well-known theory of motivation is Abraham Maslows hierarchy of needs. He hypo the sized that within every human being there exists a hierarchy of five needs. These needs are: 1. Physiological: - Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs 2. Safety: - Includes security and protection from physical and emotional harm 3. Social : - Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance and friendship. 4. Esteem: - Includes internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy and achievement; and external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention 5. Self-actualization: - The drive to become what one is capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving ones potential, and self-fulfillment

As each of these needs becomes substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. In terms of the figure, the individual moves up the steps of the hierarchy. From the standpoint of motivation, the theory would say that although no need is fully gratified, a substantially satisfied need no longer motivates. Maslow separated the five needs into higher and lower orders. Physiological and safety needs were described as lower-order and social, esteem, and self-actualization as higherorder needs. The differentiation between the two orders was made on the premise that

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higher-order needs are satisfied internally (within the person), whereas lower-order needs are predominantly satisfied externally (by things such as pay, union contracts, and tenure).Maslows need theory has received wide recognition, particularly among practicing managers. This can be attributed to the theorys intuitive logic and ease of understanding. Unfortunately, however, research does not generally validate the theory. Maslow provided no empirical substantiation, and several studies that sought to validate the theory found no support for it.

THEORY X AND THEORY Y

Douglas McGregor proposed two distinct views of human beings: one basically negative, labeled Theory X, and the other basically positive, labeled Theory Y. After viewing the way the managers dealt with employees, McGregor concluded that a managers view of the nature of human beings is based on a certain grouping of assumptions and that he/she tends to mold his/her behavior toward employees according to these assumptions. Under Theory X, the four assumptions held by managers are: 1.Employees inherently dislike work and, whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it. 2.Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled or threatened with punishment to achieve goals. 3.Employees will avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction whenever possible.

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4.Most workers place security above all other factors associated with work and will display little ambition.

In contrast to these negative views about the nature of human beings, McGregor listed the four positive assumptions that he called Theory Y: 1.Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play. 2.People will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the objectives. 3.The average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility. 4.The ability to make innovative decisions is widely dispersed throughout the population and is not necessarily the sole province of those in management positions. What are the motivational implications if you accept McGregors analysis? The answer is best expressed in the framework presented by Maslow. Theory X assumes the lower-order needs dominate individuals. Theory Y assumes that higher-order needs assume dominate individuals. McGregor himself held to the belief that Theory Y assumptions were more valid than Theory X. Therefore, he proposed ideas such as participative decision-making, responsible and challenging jobs, and good group relations as approaches that would maximize an employees job motivation. Two-Factor Theory The two-factor theory (sometimes also called as motivation-hygiene theory)was proposed by psychologist Frederick Hertzberg. In the belief that an individuals relation to work is basic and that ones attitude toward work can very well determine success or failure, Hertzberg investigated the question, What do people from their jobs?

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He asked people to describe, in detail, situations in which they felt extremely good or bad about their jobs. These responses were then tabulated and categorized. According to Hertzberg, the factors leading to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction. Therefore, managers who seek to eliminate factors that can create job dissatisfaction may bring about peace but not necessarily motivation. They will be placating their workforce rather than motivating them. As a result, conditions surrounding the job such as quality of supervision, pay, company policies, physical working conditions, relations with others, and job security were characterized by Hertzberg as hygiene factors.

MODERN THEORIES OF MOTIVATIONERG

Theory Clayton Alderfer has reworked Maslows need hierarchy to align it more closely with the empirical research. His revised need hierarchy is labeled ERG theory. Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs-Existence, Relatedness, and growth hence, the label ERG theory. The existence group is concerned with providing our basic material existence requirements. They include the items that Maslow considered to be physiological and safety needs. The second group of needs are those of relatednessthe desire we have for maintaining important interpersonal relationships. These social and status desires require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied, and they align with Maslows social need and the external component of Maslows esteem classification. Finally, Alderfer isolates growth needsan intrinsic component from Maslows esteem category and the characteristics included under self-actualization. In contrast to hierarchy of needs theory, the ERG theory demonstrates that (1) more than one need may be operative at same time, and (2) if the gratification of a higher-level need is stifled, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases. ERG theory also contains a frustrationregression dimension. ERG theory counters by noting that when a higher- order need level is frustrated; the individuals desire to increase a lower-level need takes place.

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MCCLELLANDS THEORY OF NEEDS

McClellands theory of needs was developed by David McClelland and his associates. The theory focuses on three needs: Achievements, power, and affiliation. They are defined as follows: Need for achievement : The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed. Need for power : The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. Need for affiliation: The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. Some people drive to succeed. They are striving for personal achievements rather than rewards of success as per work done. They have a desire to do something better or more efficiently than it has been done before. This drive is the achievement need. From research into the achievement need, McClelland found that high achievers differentiate them selves from others by their desire to do things better. Goal-Setting theory Gene Broadwater coach of the Hamilton high school cross-country team gave his squad these last words before they approached the line for the league championship race: each one of you is physically ready. Now, get out there and do your best. No one can ever ask more of you than that. The research on goal setting theory addresses these issues, and the findings, as you will see, are impressive in terms of the effect that goal specificity, challenge, and feedback have no performance. In late 1960s,

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Edwin Locke proposed that intentions to work toward a goal are a major source of work motivation. That is, goal tells an employee what needs to be done and how much effort need to be expended. The evidence strongly supports the value of goals. More to the point, we can say thats pacific goals increase performance; that difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals; and that feedback leads to higher performance than does no feedback. Goal-setting theory presupposes that an individual is committed to the goal; that is, is determined not to lower or abandon the goal. This is most likely to occur when goals are made public, when the individual has an internal locus of control, and when the goals are self-set rather than assigned.

EQUITY THEORY
It means individuals compare their job inputs and outcome with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities. This theory is based on the example of Ms Jane Pearson who graduated from the state university with a degree in accounting and working with 'G5' a public accounting firm with a monthly salary of $4,550.However Janes motivational level has dropped dramatically due to the hiring of the fresh college graduate out of the state university who lacks the one year experience which Jane has gained and was paid $4,800 which was more than Janes salary. In this case Janes situation illustrates the role that equity plays in motivation. Employees make comparisons of their job inputs and outcomes relative to those of others. In other words if we perceive our ratio to be equal to that of the relevant others with whom we compare ourselves, a state of equity is said to be exist. When we see the ratio as unequal we experience equity tension and when over rewarded, the tension creates guilt. There ferent that an employee selects adds to the complexity of equity theory. There are 4 referent comparisons that an employee can use:

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1. Self-inside. 2. Self-outside. 3. Other-inside. 4. Other-outside. Which referent an employee chooses will be influenced by the information the employee holds about referents as well as by the attractiveness of the referent. Employees with short tenure in their current organization tend to have little information about others and on the long tenure rely more heavily on coworkers for comparison. Equity theory is also related with the pay of the employees. Thus on these grounds, the theory establishes the following 4 propositions related to inequitable pay: 1. Given payment on time, over rewarded employees will produce more than will equitably paid employees. 2. Given payment by quantity of production, over rewarded employees will produce fewer, but higher-quality, units than equitably paid employees.

3. Given payment on time, under rewarded employees will produce poorer quality of output. 4. Given payment by quality of production, under rewarded employees will produce a large no of low-quality units in comparison with equitably paid employees. These propositions have generally been supported with few minor qualifications.

CONCLUSION OF EQUITY THEORY:-

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The equity theory demonstrates that, for most employees, motivation is influenced significantly by relative rewards as well by absolute rewards. But some key issues related to this theory are still unclear.

EXPECTANCY THEORY:Currently, one of the most widely accepted explanations of motivation is victor vroom's Expectancy Theory. Although it has its critics, most evidence is supportive of the theory. Meaning:"The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual". In more practical terms, expectancy theory says that an employee will be motivated to accept a high level of pressure when he or she believes that effort will lead to a good performance appraisal; which will lead to good org rewards such as bonus, a salary increase, or a promotion; and that the rewards will satisfy the employee's personal goals. The theory, therefore focuses on three relationship:1. Effort performance relationship. 2. Performance-reward relationship. 3. Rewards-personal goals relationship. Thus expectancy theory helps to explain why lot of workers aren't motivated on their job and do only the minimum necessary to get by. In summary, the key to expectancy theory is the under standing of an individual's goals and the linkage b/w effort and performance, between performance and rewards and, finally, between the rewards and individual goal satisfaction. As a contingency model, expectancy theory recognizes that there is no universal principle for explaining everyone's motivation. In addition, just because we

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understand what needs a person seeks to satisfy does not ensure that the individual perceives high performance as necessarily leading to the satisfaction to these needs. Because of complications like methodological, criterion, and measurement problems, this theory is viewed with caution.

Myth or Science?
Everyone wants a challenging job? This statement is false. In spite of all the attention focused by the media, academics and social scientists on human potential and the needs of individuals, there is no evidence to support the vast majority of workers want challenging jobs. Some individuals prefer highly complex and challenging jobs; other prospers in simple, reutilized work. The individual-difference variable that seems to gain the greatest support for explaining who prefers a challenging job and who doesnt is the strength of an individuals higherorder needs. Individuals with high growth needs are more responsive to challenging work. But what percentage of rank-and-file workers actually desire higher-order need satisfaction and will respond positively to challenging jobs? No current data are available, but a study from the 1970s estimated the figure at about 15%. Even after adjusting for changing work attitudes and the growth in white-collar jobs, it seems unlikely that the number today exceeds 40%The strongest voice advocating challenging jobs has not been workers-its been professors, social-science researchers, and journalists. Professors researchers and journalists undoubtedly made their career choices, to some degree, because they wanted jobs that gave them their autonomy, identity, and challenge. That, of course, is their choice. But for them to project their needs onto the workforce in general is presumptuous. Not every employee is looking for a challenging job. Many workers meet their higher-order needs off the job. There are 168hours in every individuals week. Work rarely consumes more than 30% of this time. That leaves considerable opportunity, even for individuals with strong growth needs, to find higher-order need satisfaction outside the workplace

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Professional Employees are more difficult to motivate.. Professional employees are different than your average employees. And theyre more difficult to motivate. Why? Because professionals dont respond to the same stimuli that non-professionals do. Professional like engineers, accountants, lawyers, nurses, and software designers are different from nonprofessionals. They have strong and a long term commitment to their field of expertise. Their loyalty is more towards their profession than to their employer. And typical rewards, like money and promotions, are rarely effective in encouraging professionals to exert high levels of effort. Usually they tend to be well paid already and they enjoy what they do. For instance, professionals are not typically anxious to give up their work to take on managerial responsibilities. Theyve have invested a great deal of time and effort in developing their professional skills. Theyve have typically gone to professional schools for years and under gone specialized training to build their proficiencies. They also invest regularly - in terms of reading, taking courses, attending conferences, and the like - to keep their skills current. Moving into management often means cutting off their ties to their profession, losing touch with the latest advances in their field and having to let the skills that theyve spent years developing become obsolete. This loyalty to the profession and less interest in typical organizational rewards makes motivating professionals more challenging and complex. So how do you motivate professionals? Provide them with ongoing challenges projects. Give them autonomy to follow their interests and allow them to structure their work in ways they find productive. Provide them with lateral moves that allow them to broaden their experiences. Reward them with educational opportunities training, workshops, and attending conferences that allow them to keep current in their field. In addition reward them with recognition. And consider creating alternative career paths that allow them to earn more money and status, without assuming managerial responsibilities

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Summary & implications for managers: Summary

The theories which we have discussed so far address different outcomes variables. The theories also differ in predictive strengths.

1)Need Theory : Four theories focused on needs. These were Maslows hierarchy, two factor, ERG, and McClellands needs theories. The strongest is the McClellands needs theory, which is regarding the relationship between achievement and productivity.

2)Goal-setting theory : The evidence leads to conclude that goal-setting theory provides one of the more powerful explanations of this dependent variable.

3)Reinforcement theory : This theory has an impressive record for predicting factors like quality and quantity of work, persistence of effort, absenteeism, tardiness, and accident rates. It does not offer much insight into employee satisfaction or the decision to quit.

4)Job design theory : This theory addresses productivity, satisfaction, absenteeism, and turnover variables. But it may be limited to employees who place a high importance on finding meaningfulness in their jobs and who seek control over the key elements in their work.

5)Equity theory : -

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This theory also deals with productivity, satisfaction, absence, and turnover variables. However, it is the strongest when predicting absence and turnover behaviors and weak when predicting differences in employee productivity.

6)Expectancy theory : This theory focused on performance variables. It has proved to offer a relatively powerful explanation of employee productivity, absenteeism and turnover. But expectancy theory assumes that employees have few constraints on their decision discretion. It makes many of the same assumptions that the rational model makes about individual decision-making.

IMPLICATIONS 1)Recognize Individual Differences: Employees have different needs. Managers should not treat them all alike. Moreover, spend the time necessary to understand whats important to each employee. Also, design jobs to align with individual needs and, therefore, maximize the motivation potential in jobs.

2)Use goals and feedback: Employees should have hard, specific goals, as well as feedback on how well they are faring on pursuit of those goals.

3)Allow employees to participate in decisions:Employees can contribute to a number of decisions that affect them: setting work, choosing their own benefits packages, solving productivity and quality problems, and the like. This can increase employee productivity, commitment to work goals, motivation, and job satisfaction.

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4)Link rewards to punishment: Regardless of how closely rewards are actually correlated to performance criteria, if individuals perceive this relationship to be low, the results will be low performance, a decrease in job satisfaction, and an increase in turnover and absenteeism.

5)Check the system for Equity: Rewards should also be perceived by employees as equating with the inputs they bring to the job. At a simplest level, this should mean that experience, skills, abilities, effort, and other obvious inputs should explain differences in performance and, hence, pay, job assignments, and other obvious rewards.

THE ROLE OF MOTIVATION: Why do we need motivated employees?

The answer is survival (Smith, 1994).Motivated employees are needed in our rapidly changing workplaces. Motivated employees help organizations survive. Motivated employees are more productive. To be effective, managers need to understand what motivates employees within the context of the roles they perform. Of all the functions a manager performs, motivating employees is arguably the most complex. This is due, in part, to the fact that what motivates employees changes constantly (Bowen & Radhakrishna, 1991).For example, research suggests that as employees' income increases, money becomes less of a motivator (Kovach, 1987). Also, as employees get older, interesting work becomes more of a motivator.

IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION:
Probably, no concept of HRM receives as much attention of academicians, researchers and practicing managers motivation. The increased attention toward motivation is justified by

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several reasons1. Motivated employees are always looking for better ways to do a job. This statement can apply to corporate strategists and to production workers. It is the responsibility of managers to make employees look for better ways of doing their jobs.2. A motivated employee generally is more quality oriented. This is true whether we are talking about a top manager spending extra time on data gathering and analysis for a report or a clerk taking extra care when filing important document.3. Highly motivated worker are more productive than apathetic worker .The high productivity of Japanese worker and the fever worker are needed to produce an automobile in Japan than elsewhere is well known. An appreciation of the nature of motivation is highly useful manager.4. Every organization requires human resources in addition to financial and physical resources for it to function .Three behavioral dimensions of HR are significant to organizations (i) people must be attracted not only to join the organizations but also to remain it

(ii) people must perform he tasks for which they are hired and must do so in a
dependable manner and

(iii) people must go beyond this dependable role per performance and engage in
some form of creative, spontantaneous, and innovative behavior at work.5. Motivation as a concept represents a highly complex phenomenon that affects. And is affected by .a multitude of factors in the organizational milieu .an understanding of the topic of motivation is thus essential in order to comprehend more fully the effects of variations in other reaction as they relate to the performance, satisfaction, and so forth . 6. Why increasing attention is paid towards motivation can be found in the present and future technology required for production, as technology increases in complexity, machines tend to become necessary, yet insufficient, vehicles of effective and efficient operation .Consider the example of the highly technology-based space programmed in our country.

(iv) The polar Satellite Launch Vehicles (PSLV) lift-off has been the result of 12
years of developmental work, transfer of technology to the private industry, smoothening the manufacture of components and subsystem .complex project

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management, and dedicated work by literally thousands in ISRO. Industry other national laboratories and research institutes. With this feat, India has joined the exclusive club of half a dozen nations that can build and, more importantly, launch its own satellites. The secret behind the success of ISRO has been its employees who are both capable of using and are willing to use the advanced technology to reach the goals. Purpose The purpose of this study was to describe the importance of certain factors in motivating employees at the Piketon Research and Extension Center and Enterprise Center. Specifically, the study sought to describe the ranked importance of the following ten motivating factors: (a) job security, (b) sympathetic help with personal problems, (c) personal loyalty to employees, (d) interesting work, (e) good working conditions, (f) tactful discipline, (g) good wages, (h) promotions and growth in the organization, (i) feeling of being in on things, and (j) full appreciation of work done. A secondary purpose of the study was to compare the results of this study with the study results from other populations.

MOTIVATIONAL CHALLENGES
The framework of motivation indicates that motivation is a simple process. But in reality, the task is more daunting One reason why motivation is a difficult task is that the workforce is changing. Employees join organizations with different needs and

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expectations. Their values, beliefs, background, lifestyles, perceptions and attitudes are different. Not many organizations have understood these and not many HR experts are clear about the ways of motivating such diverse workforce. Motivating employees is also more challenging at a time when firms have dramatically changed the jobs that employees perform, reduced layers of hierarchy, and jettisoned large numbers of employees in the name of right-sizing or down-sizing .These actions have considerably damaged the level of trust and commitment necessary for employee to put in efforts above minimum requirements some organization have resorted to hire and fire and pay for- performance strategies almost giving up motivational efforts. Such strategies may have some effects (both positive and negative) but fail to make and individual overreach him or her Third, motives can only be inferred, but not seen. The dynamic nature of needs offend poses challenge to any manager in motivating his or her subordinate. An employee, at any given time, has a various needs, desire, and expectations. Employees who put in extra hours at work to fulfill their needs or accomplishment may find that these extra hours conflict directly with needs for affiliation and their desire to be with their families However, there is no shortage of models, strategies, and tactics for motivating employees. As a result, firms constantly experiment with next motivational programmed and practice.

WORK MOTIVATION
Craig Pindar echoing the basic definition of motivation, define it as follows:Work motivation is a set of energetic force that originate both within as well as beyond and individuals being, to initiate work related behavior, and to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration.While general motivation is concerned with effort towards any goal, Stephen Robbins narrow the focus to organizational goals in order to reflect singular interest in work related behavior the effort element is a measure of intensity. The need means some internal state that makes certain outcomes appear attractive. And unsatisfied need creates tension that stimulates drives within the

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individual. This drives general a search behavior to find particular goals, if attend, will satisfied the needs and lead to the reduction of tension. Mechanism of motivation Motivation is the process that starts with physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activate behavior or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive. The following diagram depicts the motivation process. Mechanism of Motivation Needs Drives Goal Deprivation Reduction With of Drives Direction Thus, the key to understanding motivation lies in the meaning of, and relationship between needs, drives and goals, Needs: Needs are created whenever there is a physiological or psychological imbalance For example: A need exists when cells in the body are deprived of food and water or when the personality is deprived of other people who serve friends or companions. Although psychological may be based on a deficiency, sometimes they are not. For instant, and individuals with a strong need to get ahead may have a history of consistent success

Drives:
Drives (Or motives) are set up to alleviate needs. Psychological needs can be simply defined as a deficiency with direction. Physiological or psychological drives are action oriented and provide energizing thrust towards reaching an incentive or goals. They are at the very heart of the motivational process. The needs for food and water are translated into hunger and thrust drives, and the need for friend becomes a drives affiliation. Thus, a drive is a psychological state which moves an individuals satisfying a needs

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Goals:
At the end of the motivational cycle is the goal or incentive. It is anything that wills that will alleviate a need and reduce a drive. Thus, attaining a goal will tend to restore physiological or psychological balance and will reduce or cut off the drive. Eating food, drinking water and obtaining friends will tend to restore the balance and reduce the corresponding drives food, water and friends are the incentive are the goals in this example

Conceptual clarification:
(motives, motivation and motivating) The terms motives, motivation and motivating which are derived from the Latin word Mover (to move) are important concept which have distinct connotation. In order to steer the energies of the employees towards organizational goals accomplishment, it is essential to grasp the meaning and significance of this concept and also to learn how to apply them intelligently

Motives:
Motive is defined as a inner state that energizes, activates (Or moves) and directs (or channels) the behavior of individuals towards certain goals the strong motives or needs are fulfill. In order to minimize the restlessness, and keep it under control, the individual is propelled into action. Thus motive induce individual to channel their behavior towards such type of actions as would reduce their state of restlessness are inner disequilibrium. Thus motives can be thought of as drives that energize people to action.

Motivation:
While motives are energizers of action, motivation is the actual action that is work behavior itself. For instance, when a employee work hard, his level of motivation may be consider as low. Thus, the level of motivation of employee is judged by his actual

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work behavior Motivating: Motivating it is the term that implies that one person induces another to engage in action or work. Behavior by ensuring that a channel to direct the motive of the individuals become available and accessible to the individual. Managers play a significant role in channeling the strong motive in a direction that he satisfying to both the organization and the employees. Additionally, managers are also responsible for awakening or activating latent motives in individuals- that is the needs that are less strong and somewhat dormant and harness them in a manner that would be functional for the organization.

Classification of Motives:
Primary motives are unlearned and physiologically based. Common primary motives include hunger, thirst, sleep, avoidance of pain, sex and maternal concern .The general motives are also unlearned but are not physiologically based. Competence, curiosity, manipulation, activity, and affection are examples of general motives. Secondary motives are products of learning. The needs for power, achievement, affiliation, security and status are major motivating forces in human behavior at work. Behavioral science especially industrial. Psychology motives is concerned with understanding an individuals through his motives .It studies the individuals socio-psychological motives at great length in order to be successful in understanding why man behaves the way he does. Socio-psychological motives are neither inborn to him nor are they related directly to his survival .These motives originate from the training which he acquires from different social organizations to which he belongs. Socio-psychological motives, unlike physiological motives, are largely vary from culture to culture .They may be divided into affiliative and egoistic motives. Affiliative motives deal with belongingness, friendship or affection with people. Egoistic motives relate to a position over people

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rather than with people. Power, status, prestige or esteem fall under egoistic motives. Socio-psychological motives include acquisitiveness, security, status, autonomy, affiliation, achievement, dependence, aggression, power and nurturance.

The complexity of motivation:

Human motivation is highly complex. Human behavior is multi-motivational. Several motives are simultaneously at work when the individual behaves; and several times the individual himself is unaware of his motives. Therefore, motivational analysis if behavior is difficult. Another fact is that the same motive may give rise to various motives may lead to the same type of behavior in different individuals. Thus, there can be several other ways of behaving to achieve these one and all these different forms of behavior may lead to the same amount of success by achieving the same end. The converse is also true. Different motives may sometimes result in one form of behavior. To complicate matters further, people often do things without being aware of the basic motive or motives involved. Giving good reasons rather than real reasons for behavior is known as rationalization Ex. Sublimation, projection, identification, and compensation are a few forms of behavior in which the real motive is unknown to the individual. Whether motives are consciously present or are unconscious, many of them act upon the individual simultaneously .As a result, the individual may face conflict some of the time .An employee who wants to tell the boss off but also wants to keep his job is in conflict. An employer who must decide whether to sell an oversupply of a commodity at a loss or hold it a little long, is likewise in conflict. There are various difficulties in inferring motives from behavior as we have seen thus far: Similar motives may be manifested through different behaviors Different motives may be expressed through similar behavior Motives may appear in disguised form Any single act of behavior may express several motives

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 Expression of motives differ from culture to culture and from person to person within a culture Motives vary in strength not only from one individual to another but within the same individual at different times. Since it is difficult to know all there is to be known about the various motives that operate both within the individual and from outside, it is difficult to predict behavior

Motivation and Behavior:

Systematic understanding of human behavior essentially involves the ability to determine the why of past behavior but also to predict, to change, and even to control as far as possible future behavior. Behavior is basically goal-oriented .that means the behavior of an individual is generally motivated by a desire to attain some goal. The specific goal is not always consciously known by the individual .Sometimes an individual may wonder, Why did I do that? or Why did I fail to do that? the reason for behavior is not always apparent to the conscious mind .individuals are not always aware of everything they want . The basic unit of behavior is an activity. In fact, all behavior is a series of activities .individual have preference for certain activities, they change activities, and they change activities accordingly. It is important for a manager to understand, predict, and even control the activities that an individual may perform at a given moment. To predict the behavior, manager must know which motives or needs of people evoke a certain action at a particular time.

Motives:
Every individual carries a set of inner motivations and drives that influence the way he behaves much more radically than he realizes .Individuals differ not only in their ability to do but also in their will to do, or motivation. Motives are sometimes defined as needs, wants, drives, or impulses within the individual. Motives are the whys of behavior .they

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arouse and maintain activity and determine a general direction of the behavior of an individual. In essence, motives or needs are the mainsprings of action. When we use these two terms interchangeably- motives and needs-we refer something within an individual that prompts that person to action.

Goals:
Goals are outside an individual .Goals are something referred to as hoped for rewards towards which motives are directed Psychologists use the term incentives for these goals. Incentives include tangible financial rewards such as increased pay and also the managers who are successful in motivating employees are often providing an environment in which appropriate goals are available for needs satisfaction.

MOTIVES GOALS
Motive Strength: We have seen that motives or needs are the reason underlying behavior. Every individual has several needs. All these needs compete for their behavior. These needs have different strengths. The need with the greatest strength at a particular moment leads to activities. A B C D E N Motive strength Motive B is the highest strength need and therefore .it is this need that determines behavior. Satisfied needs decrease in strength and normally do not motivated individuals to seek goals to satisfy them.

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 Changes in motive strength: A motive tends to decrease in strength if it is either satisfied or blocked from satisfaction. Blocking need Satisfaction: The satisfaction of a need may be blocked .While a reduction in need strength sometimes follows; it does not always occur initially, there may be tendency for the person to engage in coping behavior. This is an attempt to overcome the obstacle by trial-and-error problem solving .The person may try a variety of behavior to find out one that will accomplish the goal or will reduce tension created by blockage, as shown in the following figure. High Strength Motive Attempted Behavior2 Attempted Behavior Success Blockage Behaviour Continued Coping behavior when blockage occurs in attempting to accomplish a particular goal Initially, this coping behavior may be quite rational .Perhaps the individual may make some attempts in direction 1 before going to 2. and same in the direction 2before moving in direction 3, where some degree of success and goal attainment is finally perceived.

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BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION:
Organizational behavior modification (OB Mod) is yet another technique of influencing behavior of people in organizations. OB Mod is uses the reinforcement principle of B.F .Skinner to provide managers with powerful and proven means for changing employee behavior. The steps in OB Mod are given below: Identification of Critical Behavior: The first step is to identify the critical behaviors that make a significant impact on the employees job performance these are those5 to10 percent of the behaviors that may account for up 70 to 80 percent of each employees performance. Measurement of the behaviors: After the behaviors have been identified, they are measured. A baseline frequency is obtained by determining the number of determining the number of times that the identified behavior occurs under present conditions .The purpose of the baseline measurement is to provide objective frequency data on critical behavior. Identify Performance Related Behavior Events Measure Baseline the Frequency of Response Identify Existing Behavioral Contingencies Through Functional Analysis Develop Intervention Strategy Apply Appropriate Strategy Measure: Chart the Frequency of Responses after Intervention Problem Solved? Maintain Desirable Behavior Evaluate for Performance Improvement

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1 2 3 4B 4A 4C 4D 5 Yes No Steps in OB Mod

Functional analysis of behavior: The goal of a mod programmed is to increase the likelihood that people will, in fact, engage in behavior which are critical to the successful performance of their jobs. These involves analyzing (1) The antecedent cues the factors which seem to instigate the behavior; and (2) the consequences- the results which accrue to the person as a result of engaging in the behavior .This process of analyzing the antecedent cues and the consequences if behavior is referred to as functional analysis in OB Mod. A typical functional analysis of absenteeism behavior is given in Table. Functional analysis of absenteeism behavior ABC Antecedent Cues Behaviors Consequences illness\accident Getting up late Discipline programmed Hangover Sleeping in Verbal reprimands Lack of transportation staying home written reprimands -Traffic Drinking Pay docks No day- care facilities Fishing\hunting Lay-offs

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Family problems working at home Dismissals Company policies Visiting Social consequences from coworkers Group\person norms caring for sick child Escape from and avoidance Of working nothing Seniority / age Awareness\observation Self any consequence

Development of intervention Strategy:

The term intervention refers to actions will be taken by the manager or organization in order to increase the frequency of desirable critical behaviors and to decrease the frequency of undesirable behaviors this is the critical step, in the process, since it is here that the manager uses the results of the three step to design and implement techniques, in order to change the behavior of his\her subordinates. The emphasis here is on the identifying rewards that can serve as positive reinforcements and establishing methods of providing these reinforces, contingent upon subordinates engaging in the desirable critical behaviors. Positive reinforcement is employed to increase the likelihood of a desirable behavior. Negative reinforcement is used as possible. Evaluation to Ensure Performance Improvement: In order to determine whether an OB Mod programmed has achieved its desire results, it is necessary to evaluate the effects of the programmed in a systematic and objective fashion. The results of such evaluation can be used both to determine whether the programmed should be continued or not, and to fine tune the interventions to increase their value and their ability to increase effective performances.

OB MOD IN PRACTICE

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OB Mod has been used by a number of organizations to reduce costs, increase attendance, improve productivity, improve safety, increase satisfaction, reduce labor costs, and increase profit. The organizations which benefited include General Electric, Standard Oil, B.f.Goodrich Chemicals, Emery Air freight, Michigan Bell, and so on all in the US.

Societies and behavior modification

In his novel Walden tow B. F. Skinner described an idea human community also known as Walden tow he envisioned a return to a simple culture of towns and villages that conducted their affairs face toface Skinners society rejected punishment and coercion as ways to motivate good behavior and relied on positive reinforcement instead according Skinner the proper behavioral technology would make it easy to raise citizens who were brave creative happy candid affectionate humane and conscientious. Several to communes have taken their inspiration from Walden Two. One each such is Twin Oaks founded in share a common belief in co-operation, equality, and nonviolence, as well as a common desire to construct behaviorist theories are no longer central to the operation of Twin Oaks, the advantages of creating a positive environment and reinforcing desirable behavior are recognized. China appears to be using behavior modification principles on a grand scale for population control. Chinese leaders are conceived that a rapid population growth will obstruct economic development. Initially, couples having a third baby except as the result of a multiple birth at the second confinement paid fines, Bearing two babies was strengthened because by doing so, couples avoided fines- a negative reinforcement strategy. Families that used contraction after their first child received positive reinforcement-annual bonuses as well as housing, schooling and employment priorities .Between the mid-1960 and the mid-1970, china halved its birth rate. There is evidence, however, of grave abuses among them, forced abortions and infanticides of the female offspring. Male are valued, in party, because, in keeping with long established customs, men remain with their immediate families after marriage, continuing to contribute financial support and care for elderly parents.

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Despite the positive result that OB has demonstrated, it has no counter adverse criticism. Is it a technique for manipulating people? Does it because it decreases an employees freedom? If so, is such an action on the part of manager unethical? And do non-monetary reinforcement like feedback, praise, and recognition get old after while? Will employees begin to see these as ways for management to increase productivity without providing commensurate increase in their pay? There is no easy answer to questions such as these.

GOAL SETTING:
Goal setting is one of the most effective and widely practiced techniques of motivation. Goals are the immediate or ultimate objectives that employees are trying to accomplish from their work efforts in organizations. Goal setting is the process of motivating employees by establishing performance goals. That goal motivates any individual is an established fact. We tend to relax and sicken our efforts if we are not clear about what we want to achieve. A student does not do well in an examination if he or she does not keep a target in mind target may be a first class or securing distinction. An individual may not rise in personal life if he or she does not have clear career goals. It does not mean that performance of an individual is nil in the absence of a goal. The technique emphasizes that with clear goals, performance tends to increase. Why goals motivate employees? There are at least five reasons which explain the correlation between goals and motivation. First, they lead employees to compare their present performance with the goal. To the extent that individuals fall short of the goal, they feel dissatisfied and work harder to attain it as long as they believe that is possible for them to do so. Second, when individuals succeed in reaching a goal, they feel competent and successful; such feelings are desirable and can serve as a strong incentive to extra effort. Third, the existence of a goal clarifies what level of performance is required. Once this level is established, individual can focus on developing effective strategies for attaining it. Fourth,

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the theory calls attention to the important role of self-efficacy individuals beliefs about their ability to perform at given levels. If people do not have confidence in themselves, their effort and performance will decrease. In contrast, if they conclude that they can reach the goal, motivation and performance will be enhanced. Finally, goal setting theory indicates that goals will guide behavior only when they accepted by the self and by others. If others (concerned) do not accept the goals, performance of an employee will not increase similarly, if the goal is not acceptable to the self, its effect on the behavior of the person will be minimal. Goals need to fulfill certain requisites if they were to impact employees, performance. One requirement is that goals must be specific. Specific goals lead to higher output than do vague goals such as Do your best. Acceptance of the goal and commitment towards its achievement will have effect on employee behavior and satisfaction. Similarly, organizational support towards goal attainment supported by individual abilities and traits leads to goal realization. As result of performance, a person receives various intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, which in turn, influence satisfaction.

Goal Directly Goal Acceptance Organizational Support Rewards Goal-Directed Effort Goal Specificity Goal Commitment

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Individual Abilities & Traits Rewards Satisfaction Goal setting requisites

Goal setting is a very powerful technique of motivation when used correctly, carefully monitored and actively supported by managers. Goal setting can improve performance. However, neither goal setting not any other technique can be used to correct every problem.

QUALITY OF WORK LIFE

The term quality of work life (QWL) has different connotations to different person. For example, to a worker in an assembly line, it may just mean a fair days pay, safe working conditions, and a supervisor who treats him\her with dignity. To a young new entrant, it may mean opportunities for advancement, creative tasks and a successful career. To academics it means the degree to which members of work organization are able to satisfy important personal needs through their experiences in the organization. There are many factors which can contribute to QWL. They are: 1. Adequate and fair compensation, adequacy to the extent to which the income from a fulltime work meets the needs of the socially determined standard of living. 2. Safety and healthy working condition, including reasonable hours of work and rest pauses, physical working conditions that ensure safety, minimize risk of illness and occupational diseases and special measures for protection of women and children.

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3. Security and growth opportunity, including factors like security of employment, and opportunity for advancement and self-improvement. 4.Opportunity to use and develop creativity, such as work autonomy, nature of supervision, use of multiple skills, workers role in the total work process and his\her appreciation of the outcome of his\her own efforts and self-regulation. 5. Respect for the individuals personal rights, such as application of the principles of natural justice and equity, acceptance of the right to free speech, and right to personal privacy in respect of the workers off the job behavior. 6. Work and family life, including transfers, schedule of hours of work, travel requirement, overtime requirement, and so fourth. It is worth noting that often the conditions that contribute to motivation [equitable salaries financial incentives, effective employee selection, etc] will also contribute to QWL some of these activities [like job enrichment] might contribute indirectly to QWL by tapping the workers higher .order needs and motivating them. Still, other activities may contribute directly to QWL providing for a safer workplace, less discrimination on the job, and so forth.

THE FIVE-STEP PRIDE MODEL

Todays workplace is different, diverse, and constantly changing. The typical employer/employee relationship of old has been turned upside down. The combination of almost limitless job opportunities and less reward for employee loyalty has created an environment where the business needs its employees more than the employees need the business. Managements new challenge is to transform a high-turnover culture to a high-retention culture. Retaining and motivating workers requires special attention and the responsibility falls squarely on the shoulders of HR as well as managers and supervisors at all levels. They have to create a work environment where people enjoy what they do, feel like they have a purpose and have pride in the mission of the organization. It requires more time,

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more skill, and managers who care about people. It takes true leadership. Managers can improve their leadership position and motivate individuals within their organizations by following the five-step PRIDE model: Provide positive working environment Recognize, Reward Reinforce Right Behavior Involve everyone Develop their skills potential Evaluate improve continuously

STEP 1--PROVIDE A POSITIVE WORKING ENVIRONMENT

You dont have to be the highest paying employer to provide a positive and attractive work environment. One of the most important factors is how employees feel" about the company. Motivated workers are more committed to the job and to the customer. On the other hand, de-motivating workplaces force workers to vote with their feet. Take for example Rodger McAlister who owns a construction equipment dealership in Kentucky. His turnover is almost nonexistent. His employees and service technicians share a profitsharing plan that possibly means$700,000 upon retirement. Every year employees celebrate their work anniversary with a cake and receive $100.00 for each year employed. Twice a year employees children receive a $50 savings bond when they bring in their "all As" report card. To minimize the we-they syndrome, every Friday employees rotate jobs. The person in the parts department becomes a service technician and visa versa. This builds a stronger team and improves both communication and retention

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STEP 2--RECOGNIZE, REWARD AND REINFORCE THE RIGHT BEHAVIOR

Reward and recognition is not just a nice thing to do, but a critical element in the management toolkit. People have a basic human need to feel appreciated and recognition programs help meet that need. The second aspect of this science is management must create consequences for the behavior important for business success. One of the easiest and most effective recognition programs is "peer recognition." Peer recognition allows employees to reward each other for doing a good job. It works because employees themselves know whom works hard and deserves recognition. Also, workers may value each others opinion more than their supervisors. (Peer pressure) Managers cant be everywhere all the time. Therefore, the employees are in the best position to catch people doing the right things.

STEP 3--INVOLVE EVERYONE

Studies show that having workers involved at all levels has a major impact on improving morale and motivation. TD Industries in Dallas, Tex., has a unique way of making its employees feel valued and involved. One wall in the company has the photographs of all employees who have been with the company more than five years. This involvement program goes beyond just photographs, slogans, posters, and HR policies. There are no reserved parking spaces for executives. Everyone uses the same bathrooms and the same water fountains. Everyone is an equal. Maybe thats why TD Industries was listed last year by Fortune magazine as one of the Top 100 Best Companies.

STEP 4--DEVELOP WORKER'S SKILLS AND POTENTIAL

Well-trained employees are more capable and willing to assume greater control and ownership over their jobs. They need less supervision, which frees management for other

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tasks. Employees are more capable of taking care of customers, which builds stronger customer loyalty. All this leads to better management-employee relationships. When former Intel executive David House became CEO of Bay Networks, he realized the troubled computer manufacturers problems involved some basic fundamentals. To solve the problem, he created four courses to teach the practices that hed set in place at Intel: Decision-Making, Straight Talk, Managing for Results, and Effective Meetings. He personally taught the courses to Bays 120 highest-ranking executives who, in turn, taught the same courses to the other 6,000 employees. His personal example had a major impact on the entire company. Here are some tips for setting up your own processes to help develop the potential of your employees:Explain"bigpicture"forcompanyhowthisinfluencestheiremploymentgrowth. Provide feed back the employees performance. Be specific; mention particular situation activity. Make sure they understand the companys expectations. Involve the decision-making process whenever possible. List en their idea suggestions. Give them room do the without unnecessary restrictions. For employees attend workshops and seminars. Offer on-site classes where employees can learn new skills improve upon old ones. Challenge them with lots responsibility.

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STEP 5--EVALUATE AND IMPROVE CONTINUOUSLY

Continuous evaluation and never ending improvement is the final step of the PRIDE system. The primary purpose of evaluation is to measure progress and determine what needs improving. Continuous evaluation includes, but is not limited to, the measurement of attitudes, morale, turnover and motivation of the workforce. It includes the identification of problem areas needing improvement and the design and implementation of an improvement plan. Businesses continue to search for the competitive advantage. It wont be found with gimmicks or within the latest management fad. The true competitive advantage is found within the hearts and minds of motivated people proudly working together and led by people driven by a higher purpose.

OTHERS
Other motivational techniques used in organizations to influence employee performance include management by objective (MBO) flexible working hours two-tier pay system flexible benefit and the like. MBO refers to a formal set of procedures that begins with goal setting and contributes through performance review. The key of MBO is that it is a participative process, actively involving managers and subordinates at every organizational level. Propounded by peter F.Drucker in 1954, MBO has motivational potentials because the participants become egoinvolved in decisions they have made. They to accept the decisions as their own and feel personally responsible for implementing them. A system of flexible working hours, also called flextime, to suit the convenience of individual employees, has often been pointed out as one of the techniques of motivation. Various work weeks are being used, all with the aim of lengthening the leisure between work periods. Most common are the four-day, 40-hour week with here day off (4\3); the three-day, 36-hour week with four days off (3\4); and the seven-day, 70-hour week with seven day off (7\7). Of these, 4\3 arrangement is highly popular.

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The benefits claim for flexi time is numerous. They include reduced absenteeism, increased productivity, reduced overtime expense, lessening of hostility towards management, elimination of tardiness, and reduced traffic congestion around work sites. In terms of motivational theories, flextime corresponds to the diverse needs of the workforce. It appeals to an individuals growth needs (ERG theory) or desire for autonomy (motivation hygiene theory). The Two-tier pay system provides for offering significantly lower wage rates to newly hired employees than those already employed in the same job. The two-tier pay system is seen everywhere in organizations. A junior lecturer in a university is paid less than a senior-grade lecturer. Similarly, a worker in a factory with 15 to 20years of experience is put on a higher scale than a beginner. The two-tier pay system is said to place a premium on experience and loyalty. It will reduce a new recruit to stick to the same organization. The two-tier system corresponds to the equity theory, but in a negative way. A junior worker perceives an inequity or an injustice when he\she is paid less than his\her senior though; both attend to the same work. This, it is claimed, results in an increased turnover rate among those newly hired. Flexible benefits allow employee to pick and choose from a menu from benefit packages that is individually tailored to his or her own needs and situations. The idea of flexible benefit operates on the following lines. An organization sets up a flexible spending account for each employee, usually based on some percentage of his her salary, and then a price tag is put on each benefit. Option might include inexpensive medical plus high deductibles; expensive medical plus low or no deductibles; hearing, dental and eye coverage; vacation options; extended disability; a variety of savings and pension plans; life insurance; college tuition reimbursement plans; and extended vacation time. Employees then select benefit options until they have spent the amount in their respective accounts. Consistent with the expectancy theory thesis that organizational rewards should be linked to each individual employees goals, flexible benefits individualize rewards by allowing each employee to choose the compensation package that best satisfies his\her current needs. The two most popular and time-tested methods of employee motivation are participative management and employee communication.

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Motivation and frustration: The basic process of motivation as defined earlier involves a smooth progression of the need-drive-goal motivational cycle. The motivational cycle begins with a need followed by a response directed toward a goal object, when this goal directed drives blocked before reaching a desired goal, frustration result. Frustration is a common event in the daily lives of employees. The strength of frustration in a situation is related to the magnitude of the need which is being thwarted. In the above figure, goal-directed drive faces a barrier and frustration results due to blocking of goal attainment. The barrier may be either overt (outward, or physical)or covert (inward, or mental-socio-psychological). When a person is frustrated, defense mechanisms get triggered in him. Traditionally, psychologists like Dollard ** and others felt that frustration always leads to the defense mechanism of aggression. On becoming frustrated, it was thought that a person will react by physically or symbolically attacking the barrier. More recently, aggression is considered as only one possible reaction. Responses to frustration are now viewed as defense mechanisms falling into four broad categories: aggression, withdrawal, fixation and compromise. In order to analyze specific aspects of on-the job behavioral reaction to know some behavioral reactions to frustration that may occur in the formal organization. Drive (Deprivation With Direction) B Goal (Reduction of the drive) Barrier 1. Overt 2. Covert Needs (Deprivation) Frustration

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Defense Mechanisms Blocking of Goal-attainment: Frustration

Aggression :
Aggression is a reaction to a situation wherein ones motives are blocked causing one to turn against others or oneself in verbal, ranting attacks or physical injury. Individual tries to injure or hurt the object, person or group that is acting as the barrier.

Withdrawal \ Flight : Leaving the field in which frustration, anxiety, or conflict is experienced either physically or psychologically. Fixation : Maintaining a persistent non-adductive reaction even though all the cues indicate the behavior is not an appropriate response to the problem. Behavior is repeated over and without accomplishing anything for instance, unreasonable stubbornness.

Compromise :
It usually involves substituting a new goal \ Sublimation.

Compensation :

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Individual devotes himself to a pursuit with increased vigor to make up for same feeling of real or imagined inadequacy. In indirect compensation the individual puts in hard efforts to make-up for a weakness in one area by becoming outstanding or excelling in some either area.

Conversion :
Emotional conflicts are expressed in muscular, sensory, or bodily symptoms of disability, malfunctioning, or pain. This is sometimes also known as introverted aggression and it is usually indicated by depression, lack of initiative, selfaccusation and low energy. Individual anger is directed inwards. His sense of failure results in self-punishment.

Displacement :
It is also known as transferred aggression. Basic psychological process is redirecting pent-up emotions towards persons, ideas, or objects other than the primary source of the emotion. This form occurs when the obstacle is unknown or when the obstacle is known but it is unwise to show direct aggression. When people cannot attack the cause of their frustration directly, they may look for a scapegoat as a target for their hostility. For instance, a worker feels hurt and gets angry when his boss insults him in front of some co-workers. However, the workers future prospects in the organizations and his fate are in the hands of the boss. In such situations. the resentful worker may pick a quarrel with his wife, kick the cat, beat his children. (poor fellows, without having done anything they have to face the consequences of what happened in the organization !) . or , more constructively, work off his feelings by chopping wood, by cursing and

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swearing, or engaging in violet exercises or horseplay of an aggressive nature. A typical example is seen when a disgruntled employee continually picks on a week colleague and makes him suffer for the frustration factory atmosphere.

Fantasy :
Day dreaming or other forms of imaginative activity provide an escape from reality and imagined satisfaction. The individual may attempt to daydream that his goals(for instance, promotion) which are otherwise impossible to achieve in real life, have been accomplished. The individual tries to reduce frustration by imagining the satisfaction which he cannot otherwise attain. Temporary escape from reality by day dreaming is apparently a universal characteristic. It serves many useful functions because it tends to strengthen aspirations during a period when goals might otherwise disappear. However, there is danger when the individual relies too heavily upon fantasy and becomes inactive.

Rationalization:
The basic psychological process involves justifying inconsistent or undesirable behavior, Beliefs, statement, and motivations by providing acceptable explanations for them. It simply means making excuses. An individual rationalizes when he gives a good reason rather than a true reason for his behavior. It is interesting to observe when an employee tries to explain why he made a mistake or why he was late to work. The motive to avoid criticism and disapproval is quite strong in many individuals when they rationalize and invent reasons.

Projection :
Individual protects himself from awareness of his own undesirable traits or unacceptable feelings by attributing them to others. Individual tends to attribute

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ones own shortcomings to others so as to cover up his own weakness. The individual does not have to be troubled about a weakness that everyone else has; if he can project that weakness on to other people, he does not have worry about it in himself. So the individual projects: its you, not me `

Repression :
The basic psychological process involves completely excluding from consciousness impulses, experiences and feelings which are psychologically disturbing because they arouse a sense of guilt or shame or anxiety. Repression is a form of forgetting an unhappy incident involving emotions and thereby avoiding all mentions or thought of it. It involves efforts to repress threatening information and keep it in the unconscious. The example of repression is the behavior of a subordinate who forgets to tell his boss something which was embarrassing to him.

Regression :
Regression is essentially not acting ones own age. Individual returns to an earlier, less mature level of adjustment and behave in childish way when exposed to frustrating situation, for instance, individual may engage in behaviors such as crying, weeping, sulking or throwing temper- tantrums whenever they are under stress, annoyed or frustrated.

Reaction formation:
Individual acts contrary to his real feelings and emphasizes it with force Thus, an individual who has acquired a reputation as abrasive may behave cordially to minimize his anxieties arising from past abrasive activities. Urge not acceptable to consciousness are repressed and in their stead opposite attitudes or modes of behavior are expressed with considerable force.

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 Negativism:
Active or passive resistance operating unconsciously.

Negative adaptation :
Accepting things as they are, making psychological adaptations unpleasant situation.

Identification :
Individual may react to the characteristics and achievements of another person as if they were his own. The individual wants to become like someone else and thus, closely associates with his attitudes and actions identification is modeling oneself after another person imitating his or her characteristics, values, attitudes and other allied qualities. It is not simply copying another individual. It relates to incorporation of another individuals thinking and behavior in ones own thinking and behavior. For instance the junior executives take on the vocabulary, style and mannerisms, or even pomposity of their senior boss who may be highly successful.

Resignation \ apathy \ Boredom :

It is a type of frustration where is one gives-up. It occurs after prolonged frustration when individual loses hope of accomplishing his goal in a particular situation and withdrawn from reality and the source of frustration. This phenomenon is common characteristic of people in dull and boring of routine jobs. Resignation or apathy essentially involves breaking psychological contact with the environment; withholding any sense of emotional or personal involvement. Insulation : The individual tries to protect himself emotionally by keeping distance from others. He

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insulates himself, gets detected, uninvolved, aloof and isolated. He may appear selfsufficient but he maintains this behavior as a protection rather than because he enjoy it. Individuals who learn to fear situations where they will fail or be ridiculed are particularly apt to adjust by using the mechanism of insulation.

Sour Grapism :
The fox and grapes fable is a classic example of reaction to frustration. So urgrapism is that reaction where by highly desirable but unattainable goals or objectives are considered undesirable. Just like the fox who convinced himself that he never wanted the grapes at all since they were sour, the individual also tries to deceive oneself by saying, I never did want to have this promotion since it involved transfer to a remote place. Actually, just like the fox who tries in vain to reach the bunch of grapes, this individual also tries in vain to get the promotion. The sour grapes mechanism comes into existence when the individual wants to hide sense of failure.

Devaluation :
Since one of the common causes of self rejection is unfavorable social judgments. One way to defend ones ego against such judgments is to devalue their source. This can be done either by minimizing the importance of judgment or by trying to prove to one and others that those who made the adverse evaluation were not competent to pass judgment or were prejudiced.

Importance of frustration in Industry:

The concept of frustration is extremely important in a work situation. Frustrated ambitions, frustrated friendliness, and frustrated self-esteem in work situation lead

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to nervous tension. The pent up continuing frustrations produce people who are difficult to get along with, or who are centers of poor morale in industry. However, there are some people for whom lack of frustration is the most frustration situation of all. To them, the challenge of finding a way to deal effectively with whatever barriers confront them as they strive for a particular goal is what provides the spice to their job. They actually look forward to meeting these obstacles, and if they did not occur they would probably find their work very drab and dull. In this Activation theory, Scott suggests that human organism needs stimulation and variety in the environment; without this motivation will suffer and frustration may result. To the extent, then, that barriers and obstacles to goals provide variety and stimulation to the employee, they may actually tend to reduce the overall frustration experienced. Knowledge about theories of motivation, though useful, is not enough to motivate employees at work situations. An HR manager must know the specific ways which could help him\her motivate his\her motivate his\her subordinates. It goes to the credit of HRM that it has several readymade techniques and programmed that can be used by the manager. The more important among them, namely, rewards, job enrichment and job rotation, behavior modification, empowerment, goal setting, quality of work-life.

EASY WAYS TO MOTIVATE YOUR EMPLOYEES

Set Goals Its important to help your employees set goals for themselves. These can include both long-term and short-term goals and they can be both work-related and personal in nature. Often, goals are set on a weekly, monthly, quarterly, or even yearly basis. Many companies use performance management systems, which get every

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employee on the same page, regardless of his or her position. If they understand the relationship between their specific job and the companys success, theyll often approach their work with a sense of belonging. Frequently, that senses all it takes to get that individual to finish a given task. And, of course, rewarding your employees for achieving their goals goes a long way toward creating consistently motivated workforce.

Encourage Creative Thinking

Successful companies promote an environment in which creative thinking by the employees is allowed, if not encouraged. If youve been successful in explaining your companys overall objectives in detail, employees will often come up with their own creative strategies for achieving these goals. In the case of the sales force that I help manage, I usually tell them the successful tactics that I used while making sales but I also add that theres no one correct way. Everyone has a unique personality that might translate into an effective method of making sales. The challenge of figuring out an effective method on their own can be liberating and much more fulfilling. Plus, employees are more apt to listen to future advice if you let them figure out that you are right on their own. Devise a System of Teamwork and Trust Employees are never going to produce the way you expect them to if they think you dont care about them. Start off by learning about your employees personal lives. This will give you insights into how to deal with them in certain situations. Your relationship with your workers should seem like one between partners as opposed to one between employee and boss. Also, spread specific assignments around among your workers. By giving employees special tasks, you make them feel more important. When your employees feel like they are being trusted with added responsibilities, they are motivated to work even harder so they wont let the company down.

Foster an Environment of Fun

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Studies have shown that employees are more dependable and productive when they think their workplace is a fun place to come to every day. Ive found that one of the most effective methods of doing this is simply engaging my sales reps in conversations about topics that we both find interesting. Its not necessary to talk to them all day long, but a few minutes here and there throughout the day can work wonders. Little talks like these allow the employee to see you as a regular person, and when your employees like you as a person, they are more likely to listen to you when you need them to get something done.

REWARDS
People join organizations expecting rewards. Firms distribute money and other benefit in exchange for the employees availability, competence and behaviors. The following diagram identifies four types of rewards: membership and seniority, job status, competency and performance. Membership and Seniority-based Rewards Benefit an employee receives depends on the firm which he or she joins. An MBA taking up a job in Wipro or Infosys gets more benefits than boy or girl who joins a state government undertaking. In the same firm, a senior employee receives more benefits than employee. Advancement , pay raises, retirement benefits and perquisites depend on seniority of an employee.

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Membership& Seniority Task Job Status Competency Organizational Rewards Types of organizational rewards There are advantages and limitations associated with membership and seniority based reward .Membership based reward attract job applicants but the problem is such reward may not directly motivate job performance .Seniority based rewards tend to reduce turnover but may fail to motivate achievers to perform better. Another problem with is that they discourage poor performers form leaving the film voluntarily because alternative jobs are simply not available to them.

Job Status-based Rewards

Every firm rewards employees for the status of the jobs they are holding firms use job evaluation system which helps establish differentials in status of jobs. Status differentials are used as the basis for establishing salary / wage differentials. Jobs that require more skill and effort, have more responsibility and have difficult working co Pay Performance and Intrinsic or the or a job Extrinsic the and on and a and of and employee to the in and editions would have more value and consequently would be placed in higher pay grades. Firms that do not use job evaluation system still reward job status based on pay survey information about the labor market. A supervisor will receive higher rewards than purchasing assistant as the job of the former enjoys better status than the latter. It has more value to the organization(calculated by job evaluation system or pay survey) and therefore employees in that job receive more status-based rewards in the organization. High status jobholders are also rewarded with more perquisites.

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One advantage of status-based pay is that it helps maintain feelings of equity. Job evaluation system try to maintain internal equity, that is, to ensure that employees feel their pay is fair when compared to how much other jobs in the firm are paid. Pay survey helps maintain external equity, that is, ensure that employees feel their pay is fair when compared to how much people I other firms are paid. Job-based rewards also motivate employees to compete for positions higher up the organizational hierarchy. Job-based rewards are criticized by man. For one thing, such benefit fails to motivate achievers to perform better. Just because an employee holds a high priced job, he or she is rewarded better, not with standing the level of performance attained by the individual. Competency-based Rewards Increasingly organizations are linking rewards to competencies of employees. Competencies are reflected through skills, knowledge and traits that lead to desirable behaviors. Employees are expected to have several competencies and these competencies are evaluated by observing specific behavior patterns. Where rewards are linked to competencies what emerges is the skill-based pay. In the skill based pay employees are paid on the basis of number of jobs they are capable of discharging, or on the depth of their knowledge. The purpose of this system is to motivate employees to acquire additional skills so that they become more useful to the organization. They are also expensive. Performance-based Rewards The trend that is emerging recently is to link pay to performance rather than to seniority or membership. Firms in N.America, Europe and Asia are paying their employees more for performance than ever before. For instance, in a recent survey of 210 large firms in Tokyo, Japan, 24 per cent awarded pay increases on the basis of performance than seniority. Performance-based rewards are many, but the most common among them are:

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Organizational rewards Profit sharing Stock options Team rewards Gain sharing Special bonuses Individual rewards Piece rate Commission Merit pay Bonuses

Profit sharing is an organizational performance-based reward. In profit sharing, Designated employees are allowed to share in the profit earned by a company. Employees stock potion schemes (ESOPS) confer ownership of the firm on employees. ESPOS encourage employees to buy shares of the company andrew3ard them through divided and market appreciation of the shares. Team rewards are common where firms rely in teams to get work done. Some teams are rewarded with special bonuses or gifts if they collectively achieve specific goals. A gain sharing plan is a type of team reward that motivates team members to reduce costs and increase labor efficiency in their work process. Gain sharing plans use a predetermined formula and calculated cost savings and pay bonus to all team members. Typically, the company shatters the cost savings with employees. Are rewards, particularly monetary rewards, reality motivators? Put in another way, does money motivate employees? The answer is yes and no. Money is understood to be powerful motivator for more than one reason. In the first place, money is fundamental for completion of task. Work, unless it is voluntary or play involves a contract between two parties guaranteed by the payment of

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money. The employee takes pay as the reward for his or her work and the employer views it as the price for using the services of the employee. Second, as a medium of exchange, money is the vehicle by which employee can buy numerous need satisfying goods and services they desire. Third, money is one of the hygiene factors, and improving maintenance factors is the first step in effort directed towards motivation. Fourth, money also performs the function of a scorecard by which employees assess the value that the organization place on their services and by which employees can compare their values to others. Fifth, reinforcement and expectancy theories attest to the value of money as a motivator. In the former, if pay is contingent upon performance, it will encourage workers to high levels of effort, Consistent with the expectancy theory, money will motivate to the extent that it is seen as being able to satisfy an individuals personal goals and is perceived as being dependent upon performance criteria. Expects Pay Performance Job Evaluated Consider equity of performance Pay Employee sets new expectations Employee Performance Job Evaluated Feedback to employee Based on previous expectations Pay and performance-relationship

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Sixth, money acts as punctuation in ones life. It is an attention-getting and effectproducing mechanism Money has, therefore, tremendous importance in influencing employee behavior. Seventh, money is easily vulnerable for manipulation. Other factors like satisfaction, responsibility, a challenging job and the like are nebulous. Payments and the plans with which they are linked are manipulatable. Finally, money will be a powerful motivator for a person who is tense and anxious about lack of money. Many worries and concerns are financially based. It is relaxing to receive sufficient money to clear the outstanding bills and past debts which have been causing tension. But behavioral scientists think otherwise. They downgrade money as a motivator. They prefer, instead, other techniques such as challenging jobs, goals, participation in decision of behavioral scientists to money as a motivator is understandable for at least six reasons. First, money is not important to all people. High achievers, for example, are intrinsically motivated. Money has little impact on such people. Second, people fail to see a direct linkage between monetary and performance. In these days of unionization, protective legislation, seniority based promotion, and the coast of living indexation, pay raises do not depend on performance. Third, for money to motivate the difference in pay increase between a high performer and an average performer must be significant. In practice it rarely is. Fourth, management must have the discretion to reward high performers with more money. This is not possible, thanks to strong unionization. Fifth, relationships among employees are often ruptured because of the scramble for monetary rewards. Finally, financial incentives discourage risk-taking propensity of people. Whenever people are encouraged to think about what they

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will get for performing a task, they become less inclined to take risk or explore possibilities. The conclusion is that money can motivate some people under some conditions. Putit another way money cannot motivate all people under all circumstances. Studies too attest to the same assertion.

Motivating Employees without Money

The employees who work for your company are naturally motivated. All you need to do is to utilize their natural ability, which you can do without spending a time. Thats right! No money. In fact, money can actually decrease an employee's motivation and performance. The first step in utilizing your employees' natural abilities is to eliminate your organization's negative practices that zap away their natural motivation. The second step your organization can take is to develop true motivators which can spark all your employees into being motivated. By decreasing negative zapping demotivators and by adding true motivators, you will tap into your employees' natural motivation. Your employees' natural motivation relies on the fact that all people have human desires for affiliation, achievement, and for control and power over their work. In addition, they have desires for ownership, competence, recognition, and meaning in their work. The following is a list of ten motivation zapping organizational behaviors that will demotivate your employees. Create an atmosphere full of company politics. Develop unclear expectations regarding your employees' performance. Create a lot of unnecessary rules for employees to follow. Plan unproductive meetings for employees to attend. Promote internal competition between employees. Withhold information critical for employees to perform their work. Provide criticism instead of constructive feedback. Tolerate poor performance so your high performing employees feel taken advantage of.

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 Treat employees unfairly. Underutilize the capability of your employees. The following are examples of true motivators that will help your employees tap into their natural ability to be motivated. Remember; implement these true motivators without spending money. Instead of focusing on money, focus on how you can make some changes within your organization. If your employees do routine work add some fun and variety to their routine. Provide employees with input and choice in how they do their work. Encourage responsibility and leadership opportunities within your company. Promote social interaction and teamwork between employees. Tolerate learning errors by avoiding harsh criticism. Promote job ownership. Develop goals and challenges for all employees. Provide lots of encouragement. Make appreciation part of your repertoire. Develop measurement that shows performance increase. By eliminating demotivators and adding in no cost motivators you are tapping into your employees' natural human desires to perform at their maximum level of motivation and productivity. The following are the human desires that you are tapping into. Desire for activity Desire for ownership Desire for power Desire for affiliation Desire for competence Desire for achievement Desire for recognition Desire for meaning

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That's it! Remember; don't work to change one individual at a time. Work to change your organization to decrease the demotivators and thereby increase your employees natural ability to self motivates themselves.

EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION
Principles of improving employee motivation and empowerment Employee motivation questionnaires or surveys Staff surveys are usually very helpful in establishing whether staff in your company is motivated and therefore performing to best effect. Aside from the information that questionnaires reveal, the process of involving and consulting with staff is hugely beneficial and motivational in its own right, (see the 'Hawthorne Effect').Whilst your survey will be unique to your company, your staff issues, your industry and culture, some useful generic guidelines apply to most situations. Although not exhaustive, the following ten points may help you cover the relevant subject areas and help towards establishing facts rather than making assumptions about motivation when designing your own questionnaires on employee motivation. Ten tips for questionnaires on employee motivation 1. What is the 'primary aim' of your company? Your employees may be more motivated if they understand the primary aim of your business. Ask questions to establish how clear they are about your companys principles, priorities and mission. 2. What obstacles stop employees performing to best effect? Questionnaires on employee motivation should include questions about what employees are tolerating in their work and home lives. The company cans eliminate practices that zap motivation. 3. What really motivates your staff?

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It is often assumed that all people are motivated by the same things. Actually were motivated by a whole range of factors. Include questions to elicit what really motivates employees, including learning about their values. Are they motivated by financial rewards, status, praise and acknowledgment, competition, job security, public recognition, fear, perfectionism, results...

4.Do employees feel empowered?

Do your employees feel they have job descriptions that give them some autonomy and allow them to find their own solutions or are they given a list of tasks to perform and simply told what to do? 5. Are there any recent changes in the company that might have affected motivation? If your company has made redundancies, imposed a recruitment freeze or lost a number of key people this will have an effect on motivation. Collect information from employees about their fears, thoughts and concerns relating to these events. Even if they are unfounded, treat them with respect and honesty. 5. What are the patterns of motivation in your company? Who is most motivated and why? What lessons can you learn from patches of highland low motivation in your company? 7. Are employee goals and company goals aligned? First, the company needs to establish how it wants individuals to spend their time based on what is most valuable. Secondly this needs to be compared with how individuals actually spend their time. You may find employees are highly motivated but about the "wrong" priorities. 8. How do employees feel about the company? Do they feel safe, loyal, valued and taken care of? Or do they feel taken advantage of, dispensable and invisible? Ask them what would improve their loyalty and commitment. 9. How involved are employees in company development?

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Do they feel listened to and heard? Are they consulted? And, if they are consulted, are their opinions taken seriously? Are there regular opportunities for them to give feedback? 10. Is the company's internal image consistent with its external one? Your company may present itself to the world as the 'caring airline', 'the forward thinking technology company' or the 'family hotel chain'. Your employees would have been influenced, and their expectations set, to this image when they joined your company. If you do not mirror this image within your company in the way you treat employees you may notice motivation problems. Find out what the disparity is between the employees image of the company from the outside and from the inside.

EMPOWERMENT
Empowerment is one of concepts discussed much in HRM. Empowerment is what young job aspirants are looking for in organizations. More than monetary rewards, it is the feeling that employee owns the job that motivates him or her nowadays. Empowerment may be understood as a process of enhancing feelings of self .efficacy among organizational members through the identification of conditions that foster powerlessness and through their removal by both formal organizational practices and informal techniques of providing efficacy information Empower employees are energetic and passionate. They aspire to do better job because they get personally rewarded for doing job.

Empowerment consist five stages.

The first stage involves identifying .The conditions existing in the organizations that lead to feelings of powerlessness on the part of organizational members. These conditions manifest through poor communication, centralized resources, and

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authoritarian styles of leadership, low incentive value rewards, low task variety and unrealistic performance goals.

Diagnosis being completed as suggested above, the next stage is to introduce empowerment strategies and techniques. Use of participative management implementing merit-Pay systems and job enrichment are example of possible empowerment practices. The use of the programmes (stated above) is designed to accomplish two objectives in the third stage. One is simply to remove the conditions identified in the first stage as contributing to powerlessness. The second, and more important, is to provide self-efficacy information to subordinate. Self-efficacy describes a belief in ones effectiveness. Individuals high in self-efficacy information to subordinates. Selfefficacy describes a belief in ones effectiveness. Individuals high in self-efficacy tend to be confident and self-assured and feel they are likely to be successful in whatever Endeavours they undertake. Receiving such information result in feeling of empowerment in the fourth stage. This is because increasing self-efficacy straightens effort performance expectancies. Finally, the enhanced empowerment feelings from stage four are translated into performance in the fifth and final stage. These behavioral consequences of empowerment include increased activity directed towards task accomplishment. Identifying conditions of Of powerlessness

Implement empowerment strategies techniques Remove condition of powerlessness provide self-efficacy information

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Feeling of empowerment generated

Empowerment result in performance

Empowerment is facilitated by a combination of factors including values, leadership, job structure and reward systems. Empowerment occurs when power of decision making and authority to share resources go to employees who then experiences a sense of ownership and control over jobs. Empowered employees know that know that their jobs belong to them. Given a say on how things are done, employees feel more responsible. When they feel responsible, they show more initiative in their work, get more done and enjoy the work more. Information sharing is another building block of empowerment. Employees need to be informed about the business and demonstrate how their work fits in. One of the most important measures of job satisfaction is whether employees find meaning in their work-if they know what they are working towards and understand how their work affects other employees and the organization as a whole.

The following tips may be useful in empowering employees:

1.Delegate responsibility and along with it authority. role with that of partner role. 2.Have tolerance for mistakes committed by subordinates. Demonstrate this tolerance through deeds and words. 3.Share information with subordinates. Empowered employees need sufficient information to get full perspective. 4.Allow teams to form. Teams are the best vehicles to empowerment.

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5.Performance feedback is always important. It is particularly important for newly empowered employees. Feedback enhances learning and can provide needed assurance that the job is being mastered. Empowerment needs to be implemented with caution. Where employees suffer from inflated egos and are highly self-centered, empowerment does not work. Many employees entertain the feeling that they are subjected to be led and not to led. Empowerment has no appeal to such subordinates. When employees look for secured but not challenging jobs, empowerment sounds hollow. Employee motivation principles - a short case study - sound familiar? When Michael started his own consultancy he employed top people; people hed worked with in the past who had shown commitment, flair and loyalty and who seemed to share his values. But a few months down the line one of his team members started to struggle. Jo was putting in the hours but without enthusiasm. Her confidence was dropping; she was unfocused and not bringing in enough new business. Michael explained to Jo the seriousness of the situation. Without new business he would lose the company and that would mean her job.

JOB ENLARGEMENT, ENRICHMENT AND ROTATION

Job is a significant aspect in ones life. It is the primary institution through which the employee satisfies his or her diverse needs. He or she earns a living from the job, socialize in work organizations, and realizes potentialities through work. Work is also a primary means of achieving goals-economic, social, political and cultural. People, in general, spend a considerable amount of time working. In fact, seems to be the only thing that people can do eight hours or more, day after day, without much interruption. All the other activities one enjoys, such as eating, plying and sex, no matter how much one enjoys these, are easily suitable. In our society, we philosophy upon work and treat it as worship.

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Naturally, job has become a serious subject for social scientists and practicing managers. It has become an issue for many workers because it is losing its intrinsic value. Some workers express dissatisfaction with their jobs, and this dissatisfaction seems to have an adverse effect on motivation and quality of life general. Attempts have been made to use jobs for motivating employees in organizations. Job enrichment and rotation are but example in that direction.

JOB ENRICHMENT
First coined by Herzberg in his famous research on motivators and maintenance factors, job enrichment has now become a popular concept. It simply means adding a few more motivators to a job to make it more rewarding. To be specific, a job is enriched when the nature of the job is exciting, challenging, and creative, or it gives the job holder more decision-making, planning and controlling powers. According to Herzberg, an enriched job has eight characteristics. These features are described as follows and illustrated.

1. Direct feedback:
Employees should be able to get immediate knowledge of the results they are achieving. The evaluation of performance can be built into a job (as in an electronic spell-checker, indicating the presence or absence of errors) or provided by supervisor.

2. Clint Relationship:
An employee who serves a client or a customer directly has an enriched job. The client can be from outside the firm (such as a mechanic dealing with car owner) or from inside (such as a computer operator running a job for another department).

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3. New learning:
An enriched job allows its incumbent to feel that he\she is growing mentally. An assistant who clips relevant newspaper articles for his\her boss is, doing an enriched job.

4. Scheduling Own Work:

Freedom to schedule ones own work contributes to enrichment. Deciding when to tackle which assignment is an example of self-scheduling. Employees who perform creative work have a greater opportunity to schedule their assignments than employees performing routine jobs.

5. Unique Experience:
An enriched job has some unique qualities or features, such as a quality controller visiting suppliers place.

6. Control Over Resources:

One approach to job enrichment is for each employee to have control over his\her resources and expenses. For example, he\she must have the authority to order supplies necessary for completing his\her job.

7. Direct Communication Authority:

An enriched job allows the worker to communicate directly with people who use his\her output, such as a quality assurance handling a customers complaints about the quality of the company product.

8. Personal Accountability:
An enriched job holds the incumbent responsible for the results. He or she receives praise for good work and blame for poor work.

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The usefulness if job enrichment in motivating employees is well-known to everyone, especially to people working in government establishments. A laboratory technician in the health department of a state-government enterprise experiences frustration after 20 years of working in the same capacity. The incumbent hardly finds the job interesting. The only regular work the employee does on every working day is to sign the attendance register at 10 a.m. He or she, naturally, plans to take voluntary retirement. The frustration of such employees, whose number unfortunately is considerable, can be enriching the jobs. Some cautions about job Enrichment Since job enrichment has been so well-published in recent years, as a method of increasing worker motivation, one can easily be misled by its possibilities. Although job enrichment can cause increased employee motivation there are some other factors that should be considered. 1. Job Enrichment is not a substitute for good Management: Regardless of how enriched jobs might be in an organization, if other environmental factors in the organization are not adequate, job enrichment will have little or no effect. Job enrichment is not a substitute for good supervisory practices, wages, and company policies . 2. Enriched is a Relative Team: As a general rule, job enrichment proposes that jobs with little responsibility should be improved to provide a greater responsibility for the incumbent. However, we must remember that describing a job as one with little responsibility carries an implicit assumption about the person occupying that role. While the job may appear to be boring to the observer, the person actually performing the job may find it quite challenging. 3.Enriching Jobs may Create a Snowball Effect: Given that organizations have affixed amount of authority to distribute among its member, enriching one persons job means taking authority away from another (most likely the manager). This not only present system

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design problems (for example, rewriting job descriptions) but it can also present a practical barrier since labor unions may resist a scheme that eliminates jobs. 4.Job Enrichment Assumes that Workers want More Responsibility: Clearly, if we take extreme case of a worker who is motivated by a lack of responsibility, then job enrichment for this person would be disaster. For workers, who for a variety of reasons, are satisfied with their current level of responsibility, job enrichment cause more problems that it may cure. 5.Job Enrichment may have Negative Short-term Effects: For a short time after an increase I the job responsibility, it is not unusual for organizations to experience a drop in productivity, as workers become accustomed to the new work systems. After this initial drop, however, many firms report an increased productivity that job enrichment is supposed to produce. If an evaluation of a job-enrichment programmers made too early, the management may erroneously conclude that the programmers not working. 6.Job Enrichment is a Static Process: People become bored in their jobs because their capacity to make decisions is not fully utilized. Even though the job is changed to utilize this capacity, there is ample evidence to suggest that personal capacity is a dynamic, developing attribute. It is likely, therefore, that after a period of time(the exact amount varies from person to person) the worker will outgrow the enriched job. If this occurs, additional enrichment will be required to fully utilize the individuals increased capacity. If jobs cannot be changed over time to use this capacity, the worker could be transferred to another job which has a higher level of work (promotion).

7. Participation can Affect the Enrichment Process: Herzberg originally recommended that workers should not be involved in the enrichment process. His logic was that workers are often conditioned to see their jobs in terms of Hygiene factors and are unable to respond to the job content. No doubt, this is a factor that the management must consider in the

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participation process, but recent research indicated that participation can have a positive effect. 8.Change is Difficult to Implement: As is too well-known, any change is resisted and this applies to job enrichment jobs through increasing the level of responsibility will result in an increased motivation. On the other hand, our knowledge about change processes tells us that this type of change is one of the most difficult things to implement in a work situation. The initiation of a job-enrichment programme must take this factor into account. In other words, employees are not likely to be elated at the announcement of a job-enrichment programme.

JOB ENLARGEMENT
Job enlargement refers to the expansion of the number of different tasks performed by an employee in a single job. For example, an auto mechanic switches from only changing oil to changing oil, greasing, and changing transmission fluid. Job enlargement attempts to add somewhat similar tasks to the job so that it will have more variety and more interesting. Figure shows the distinction between job enrichment and job enlargement. Historically too, job enlargement preceded job enrichment. An enlarged job can motivate an individual for five reasons: Job Enrichment

Job Enrichment Enlargement

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Routine Job Job Enlargement

Variety of Tasks (Focus on Breadth)

Fig. Shows a Difference between job enrichment and job enlargement 1. Task Variety Highly fragmented jobs requiring a limited number of unchanging responses tend to be extremely monotonous. Increasing the number of tasks to be performed can reduce the level of boredom. 2. Meaningful Work Modules Frequently, jobs are enlarged so that one worker completes a whole unit of work, or a major portion of it. This tends to increase satisfaction by allowing workers to appreciate their contribution to the entire projector product. 3. Ability Utilization: Workers derive greater satisfaction from jobs that best utilize their physical and mental skills and abilities. Enlarged jobs tend to fulfill this condition. However, the management must be careful not to enlarge jobs too much, because jobs that require more skills and abilities than the worker possesses lead to frustration and present obstacles to task accomplishments. Enlarged jobs with optimal levels of complexity, on the other hand, create tasks that are challenging but attainable.

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4. Worker-paced Control: Job-enlargement schemes often move a worker from machine-paced production line to a job in which, if they can vary the rhythm and work at their own pace. 5. Performance Feedback: Workers performing narrow jobs with short performance cycles repeat the same set of motions endlessly, without meaningful and points. As a result, it is difficult to count the number of finished performance cycles. Even if they are counted, the feedback tends to be meaningless. Enlarged jobs allow for more meaningful feedback, and can be particularly motivated if it tied to evaluation and organizational rewards.

Although the benefits of job enlargement are several, certain disadvantages cannot be ignored. First training costs tend to rise. Workers may require additional training for their new, enlarged tasks. Besides if the job-enlargement programme involves breaking up of the existing production line of work system, redesigning a new2system and training employees to adjust to it, the cost can be substantial. Moreover, productivity may fall during the introduction of a new system. Another drawback is that unions often argue for increased pay because of the increased work load. Finally, even after enlargement, many jobs may still be routine and boring.

Job Rotation
This involves shifting an employee from one job to another. When an activity is no longer challenging, the employee would be rotated to another job, at the same level, that has similar skills requirement. It reduces boredom and disinterest through diversifying the employees, activities. Other benefits are also available. Employees with a wider range of skills give the management more flexibility in scheduling work, adapting to changes, and filling vacancies. Job rotation has drawbacks. Training costs are increased, work is

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disrupted as rotated employees take time to adjust to a new set-up, it can demotivate intelligent and ambitious trainees who seek specific responsibilities.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

http://www.google.co.in http://www.scribd.com http://www.investopedia.com http://www.economywatch.com http://www.motivationdata.com http://www.motivation.eu http://www.tradingeconomics.com http://www.investorwords.com

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