Tentative Title

Improving Crime Prevention Policies in Ecuador: An analysis of principles, best practices and public policy implementation
RESEARCH QUESTIONS General Question How can public policies implementations be improved (evaluated) for preventing crime in Ecuador? Can Crime Prevention best practices be implemented in Ecuador? TOPIC RESEARCH QUESTIONS CRIME PREVENTION QUESTIONS Which are the crime prevention dispute fields in the prioritized crime prevention focus/topic in this thesis? What are the best crime prevention approaches to resolve the types of crime prioritized in Ecuador through this research? Which are successful approaches of social prevention related with the present study case? Which are the approaches and principles that can be applied under environmental prevention for the present study case? Which are the limits of the social and environmental prevention for preventing homicide in Ecuador? CRIME PREVENTION Homicide Crime Prevention Approaches Social Prevention Principles and Limits Environmental Prevention Principles and Limits CRIME PREVENTION POLICY IN ECUADOR Crime Prevention Public Policies Public Institutions and Policy Analysis A whole of government and whole of community approach BEST PRACTICE IN CRIME PREVENTION POLICY Implementing Best Practice Crime Prevention Policies (An ideal daily Practice: Youth in Crime Prevention) Crime Prevention Evaluation Future Planning

METHODS The methodology of this research will have a qualitative and quantitative approach. The information gathering techniques for the basis for theoretical analysis will be mainly based on: Or just qualitative analysis, there are tendencies In Europe and the US that determines that just the specific case in many shows already the reality enough. Tools: speech analysis, Observation Notes, etc Primary sources: Questionnaires, interviews and focus groups will be designed to collect primary information in order to build information about the effectiveness of crime prevention measures in public institutions directly related to crime prevention policies, social prevention, environmental prevention and crime prevention evaluation. Interviews and focus groups will be address to: The Coordinating Minister of Internal and External Security and Ministers of State related to national security, Police and Prosecution Directors in areas of public and private education institutions, and criminal prosecution Officials involved with policy reforms in public security. The questionnaires will be designed adequately, with a methodology for collecting the data, a s system of selection of candidates and respective organization, classification and tabulation. Secondary sources: Secondary sources will include theoretical perspectives from specialized researchers in criminological theory, public institutions and crime prevention response, and public policy. Documentary research, videos, articles and journals on security institutions and crime prevention will also be used. Data and interviews of security public institutions officers will be analyzed, likewise sources of human rights organizations and state security organizations with relevant data. It is expected that interviews and focus groups data will show information about the criteria that is currently used to prevent crime, its priorities and corresponding prevention policies. Studies will be conducted that investigate the nature of the principles of crime prevention as a multiplier effect and its influence on public institutions and problem solving. Finally, data will be compiled with longitudinal studies to demonstrate the prevalence of social and environmental prevention associated with its evaluation in the public policy context. These results will be considered for improvement of the design and implementation strategies of crime prevention policies in security institutions and consequent continue assessment.

S SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT PROBLEM: One of the most important issues in the subject of citizen security is anticipating crime. It seems that in Ecuador, like in many countries worldwide, the crime prevention approach has not been effective as evidence of continual increasing crime. Many criminologists around the world have written about crime prevention and even though mass media and political discourses have neglected the subject, governments in western countries like Australia have rediscovered crime prevention and committed resources to its development and implementation at various times over the last four decades (Sutton, Cherney & White 2008). In the nineties, in the United States noticing that the tendency of crime prevention was more rhetorical than a reality decided to create a more effective evidence-based policy. Initiatives and the crime policy agenda were driven by political ideology, anecdotal evidence and program favorites of the month, rather than scientifically based evidence. A large amount of programs have been comprehensively and rigorously assessed with the existing scientific knowledge applied to settings such as families, schools, labor markets, places and communities linking policy makers, researchers and community leaders (Farrington, Mackenzie, Sherman & Welsh, 2002). In this way specific literature was developed through the last decades in North America taking in account that successful crime prevention depends on a comprehensive theory. This theoretical aspect coincides with the ability to recognize crime relevant similarities and differences in order to apply a specific part of the theory. It is important to identify that crime problems may manifest themselves at varying levels from the specific incident that may have been seen in national or international patterns. Thus preventive measures can be applied at any or all levels (Tilley, 2009). As a result crime prevention definition, classification, models and approaches have evolved. Crime prevention may be classified in three approaches. Primary crime prevention is normally responsible for providing, analyzing and proposing solutions for risk factors in society and criminal trends. Secondary prevention analyzes objective situation policies as the individuals and/or neighborhoods at risk. Tertiary prevention addresses issues of avoidance of recidivism and rehabilitation (Lab, 2010). On the other hand, the center of attention of this research will be focused on social and environmental prevention together with correspondent evaluations in the crime prevention policy context and will concentrate effort in best practices principles. Crime prevention principles can be applied according crime types and corresponding contexts.

More than two decades ago the United Nations proclaimed and adopted principles to prevent youth delinquency. It was then called as an essential part in society to build up and engage lawful, socially useful activities and implement a humanistic orientation towards society and outlook on life, so that young persons can develop non-criminogenic attitudes. Plans or programs obey to principles design and thus in the decade of the nineties, in the United Kingdom was designing and implementing its Crime Reduction Program. Here specific but linked initiatives of varying scale were organized around several broad themes such as approaching families, children and schools (Chambers, Ullmann, Waller & Lockhart, 2009). This in concordance with a second main principle stated that the successful prevention of juvenile delinquency requires efforts on the part of the entire society to ensure the harmonious development of adolescents, with respect for and development of their personality influences from early childhood. In the Latin American context during the nineties, initiatives were developed and linked to community crime prevention based on U.S. and European experiences. Although some initiatives lost efficiency because they were implemented without clarity of indicators and quantification of their impact. Also these initiatives had short durations and in some cases the disappearing of political scene stopped the implementation process (Dammert 2007). Similarly National Plans' operations were rather political and possessed electoral purposes (Rico and Chinchilla 2002). Overall the evaluation of actors and institutions influenced the immediacy in the decisionmaking, articulation and lack of vision for implementing policies affected its development. However, there have been successful initiatives in taking crime prevention as a necessary measure. In Colombia, the success obtained in Bogota 1994-2002 in the homicide rate and traffic accident death reduction was associated with government intervention that emphasized prevention as an education mechanism, methodology and management. This Bogota Coexistence Program included strategies like the Local Security Fronts, which focused on neighbors fear versus apathy, indifference and solidarity. However, it was noted the personnel and institutional leadership were based on a strong Mayor who directed interventions and policy design, achieving a speech that emphasized the need to address violence and crime from a different perspective (Dammert, 2007). At the same time, it was important the use of social accountability mechanisms. Viva Rio, a nongovernmental organization created in Brazil during a violence crisis in Rio de Janeiro, focused on conflict resolution, the importance of citizenship, non-violence, and weapons removal/collection among youth in more than 350 slums (Dammert, 2007). This initiative showed how interventions should be focused and that civil society participation can be done even in a violent context. It also considered that the youth are the most vulnerable and susceptible group to violence and risk factors. The Municipality of Quito, FLACSO-Ecuador and Pan-American Organization of Health created the

Metropolitan Observatory of Quito to collect, analyze exchange and disseminate systematic and updated information about the different forms of violent death and crime, domestic violence (Dammert, 2007). Although public policies have directed efforts to focus on these problems, a dilemma persists about how civil society participation should be approach. Crime in Latin America has grown; it has diversified and changed, to the extent that it has become one of the main issues debated in the academic and public policy agendas. There are more challenges than assertive approaches. The situation is obvious at the point that the society is able to perceive the problems and demands solutions (Sozzo, 2008). The challenges include finding financing associations, political sustainability, police reforms and judicial integration and institutional coordination, expanding the role of citizen such as the use public spaces, networks, project management and public policies. However, initiatives need to work on the minimizing of citizen authoritarian discourse, due to the increase of violence such as the lynching, which occurred in Peru, Mexico, Bolivia and others. There must be crime prevention recognition as an effective mechanism to reduce violence and crime, but the corresponding evaluation and monitoring should also be valued and implemented, along with a significant increase in the exchange experiences with other countries. In Ecuador the interest in the prevention of violence and crime was more rhetorical than actual, and this was seen in the resulting public investment priorities and budget (Dammert, 2007). Although the scarce human resources were devoted to these tasks, a dramatic change was noted in recent years. For example, sectors that made up the security accounted for $ 1,6 thousand million, which was recorded 29.51% increase over the previous year. Also, by 2008 this percentage increased significantly to 40.07%, with a value of $ 2,3 thousand million. (Carrin, Pontn and Armijos, 2009). Another reason for gap between discourse and practice is still the lack of empirical data showing benefit from preventive interventions with the participation of the population. It is this lack of analysis in the security literature that provokes the problem where people in charge of the programs do not develop evaluation systems, indicators, and baselines for analysis (Dammert, 2007). This is shown in many cases such as the indicators of violence in the northern border where the two provinces are respectively ranked first and second for high violence rates: Esmeraldas and Sucumbos, with the highest rates of violence in the country together with weak or little government presence in the area and found on the border with Colombia. In 1990, the coastal province Los Ros ranked first in homicide rates, ten years later Esmeraldas was the first; Sucumbos second and fourth Carchi. The increase of violence in the North border area may be a result of varying causes (Carrin et al, 2009), but the production, collecting and analysis of information on the insecurity in the northern border is vague in order to implement corresponding preventive policies.

This lacks of information complexes the concepts of development on the current public policies: prevention, community and partnerships. Although community participation in terms of policy implementation of security policies may be limited due to durability and convincing support, Latin America has a history of experience in community participation initiatives (Rico and Chinchilla 2002). THEORETICAL APPROACH (Include what social scientific methods are you going to use (1): Statistics by the National Police & MICS can help to determine which polices are not being implemented successfullyInclude those statistics and write an analysis (2) , then write first contrasts with successful best practices of crime Prevention (3) write explicitly What you want to prove with this (4) Do you recommend starting own research quantitative methods or analyzing the existing ones (not only in the government)? Whats better? (do I need to decide this?) Which stats are really helpful in my research? So youre your own survey in QlM are going to be used and QnM can be used from private & public stats. the raw data (1) and the published data (2 bias) Time: which are going to be the comparisons of tendencies according to time: newly collected data (secondary data) with previously collected data (primary data) Causation is a type of research method that examines and tries to interpret trends (Social relations and neighborhoods affect behavior); Longitudinal data has the goals of quantifying trends in behavior, describe progression of life events, examine patterns of behavioral change, and begin to apply theories to such data. It helps to evaluate programs such as intervention or rehab and also in regards to methods in reducing crime. Longitudinal research designs are ones that involve repeated measurement over time of one or more groups of subjects. This helps because it is research over time and is useful in determining causal relationships between variables. There are four specific types of designs that can be used, which include trend studies, cohort studies, panel designs, and time-series designs Using social scientific methods, criminal trends will be studied together with their policies, which will be analyzed in detail with public institutions cases, analyzed with a policy implementation approach. The scientific approach helps us to understand the internal and external situations that lead a group of people, officers team, etc. to consent or indulge in a specific performance and more importantly provides understanding about why some policies worked best. Moreover, they explain new trends and rediscover aspects of todays actions, their prevention, implementation and evaluation. The importance of this research is that little has been completed on crime prevention policy across Ecuador especially in the light of best practices. Crime prevention is a science that has faced multiple dilemmas. According to O'Malley its

classification can be divided by social and opportunity reduction objectives. Taking for example the situational crime prevention under the opportunity reduction subgroup, it is noticed here that biographical individual disciplines are destroyed. Crime opportunities are caused only in relation to potential criminals who convert them in such (OMalley, 1992). Voluntary individuals are free to act in a perfectly rational self-interested fashion. It becomes legitimatized in the political, academic and administrative fields to regard criminals as unconstrained agents, and to regard crime control policy as divorced from questions of social justice. Thus, when the politics are failing, punitive actions are at the same time justified. Prevention then is permeated, the responsibility falls in the victim and privatization of security practice and costs occurs. Finally threats of crime generated by the Rights own market-oriented practices can be expected to increase. This research intends to explore comprehensive crime prevention alternatives in a study of public institutions and its leadership groups, to reach conclusions about their types of interaction with crime and crime prevention implementation. An analysis will be presented of common characteristics of successful programs that engage in crime prevention approaches. ECUADOR Crime Prevention Policies Crime Prevention Policies in Ecuador are throughout its Constitution and all correspondent juridical mechanism such as the Code of Territorial Organization, Autonomy and Decentralization; Organic Law of the National Police, Public Safety Act and the State Law Council of Citizen Participation and Social Control, National Defense Law, Law on Private Security and Surveillance and regulations as Organic Functional Regulation Regime Dependent Branch of the Ministry of Interior, Police, Religion and Municipalities. So are its complementary instruments such as ministerial agreements birthing Neighborhood Safety Committees or through the Communitarian National Police, the Comprehensive Plan for Modernization of Public Safety and National Police. (give example of 2 policies and institutions that are in charge of fulfilling those policies)

Institutions The Ministry Coordinator of Security (MICS) through the Council of Public Security and State (COSEPE) develops plans, policies and strategies on security. Moreover, the National Secretariat of Planning and Development through National Plan of Good Living includes safety and prevention interventions by autonomous governments (GADS) and the Public Safety Canton Municipal Council. Plans, Programs, Initiatives MICS developed the Comprehensive Security National Plan (PNSI), which among others list emerging threatens such: extreme poverty, inequality and social exclusion; identity conflicts:

ethnic, religious, cultural and regional; Colombian conflict effects, dangerous material transport and trade, uncontrolled migration, citizenship insecurity, resources shortage and organized transnational delinquency. (pg 45) (describir dos ejemplos de los programas, planes o iniciativas ms exitosos en el pas, incluir citas en esta seccin) Targets: (omitir este ttulo) Transnational delinquency in Ecuador considers important components related from narcotraffic to linked grave felonies such as actives legitimating or money washing, weapons, munitions and explosives smuggling; human, cultural and natural heritage and fuels trafficking; kidnapping and extortion.

Finally, the issue of public policy will be debated and formulated. Structures, designs and required actions will be considered to ensure public safety objectives of the rule of law in Ecuador are met. It is imperative to further examine the current development of policies including: technical implementation, dissemination methods and the institutional management effectiveness. Likewise, the new reality applied to dynamic and changing society must not be ignored, in sense of priority c criminal trends and corresponding crime prevention type application. The guarantee of security within a country involves efforts of many public institutions and policies that direct their efforts. The Ecuadorian state's public policies, as in the rest of Latin America, have chosen predominantly repression over prevention. This emphasis on repression is established in certain management practices. Andrade says: "The weak state police initially used to solve the problems. In the police we have, there are many on staff that has very good intentions, but they act with a preference of using repression. We have police members who want to fight crime and when found in complex situations, they have to resort to force because they have no other technical guidance on how to combat crime." (Foundation for Democracy and Security, 2005). The research will therefore provide a comprehensive view of the culture and practices of public institutions to tackle crime in different ways and address the multiple factors that drive crime prevention policies to a complete, successful and ongoing implementation. Also, the research will examine aspects of democratic and good governance and its relationship with the scientific achievements dealing with delinquency prevention such us the science of implementation and crime prevention science. Ecuador as a state must change its approach to crime prevention because efficient government is not enough; fair governance is required to redistribute power and to bring the structures that serve the best quality of life for citizens...(they) will be translated and amplified in all areas of power where the public has a new concept that encompasses not only public institutions but also civil society ... the State should have to meet two primitive functions: to provide security and freedom to the citizens." (Pealoza, 2007).

Civil society and the government of Ecuador play an important role in strengthening preventive policies. Constructing the base of an effective national system of social crime prevention cannot be delayed nor can the current scientific analysis and input be ignored. Thus public policy proposals will include strategies and management practices to be implemented and evaluated not only in the ministries of state, but also those who share a major responsibility for national security and address the issue of crime prevention as a central focus as organized communities.

Reference: Abzn Estuardo Casimiro, "Crime Prevention through Education values for children and youth" Guatemala, 2010. (translated by Ivn Viteri) Aureliano Safe, Jose, Science Statistic and Criminology Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 3rd Period, no 1 (2009): 467-477 (translated by Ivn Viteri) Carrion Mena, Francisco, 120 strategies and 36 experiences PUBLIC SAFETY. Quito: FLACSO Ecuador Headquarters. Studies Program of the City: Metropolitan District of Quito. Ministry of Security and Governance. 2009, chapters: 7, 9 and 14, (translated by Ivn Viteri) Chambers Max, Ullmann Ben, Waller Irvin and Lockhart Gavin Less Crime, Lower Costs: Implementing Effective Early Crime Reduction Programmes in England and Wales, 2009, United Kingdom Dammert Lucia, Perspectives and dilemmas of the citizen security in Latin-America, Quito, 2007: 25-30 (translated by Ivn Viteri) Farrington David, MacKenzie Doris Layton, Sherman Lawrence and Welsh Brandon C., 2002. Evidence-Based Crime Prevention, New York, United States: 1-6 Foundation for Democracy and Security. 2005. "Managing Citizen Defense Policy in the Rule of Law", Ecuador: 155-166 (translated by Ivn Viteri) Lab Steven, Crime Prevention: Approaches, Practices and Evaluation, 2010: 21-29 National Public Safety Plan. Perceived Victimization Survey and Safety 2008. Quito, Ecuador: 128 OMalley Pat, Risk power and crime prevention, Australia, 1992 OMalley Pat, Crime prevention in Australia: issues in policy and research, Australia, 1997 Pealoza, Pedro Jos. 2007. "Punishment without prevention? The crisis of public safety in Mexico." Mxico D.F.: 87-89 (translated by Ivn Viteri) Rico, Jose Maria y Laura Chinchilla.

"Citizen Security in Latin America. Towards

a comprehensive policy. " Mxico, 2002: 31-35 (translated by Ivn Viteri)

Tilley Nick, Crime Prevention, USA and Canada, 2009: 182-187 United Nations Guidelines for the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency. (The Riyadh

Guidelines). Adopted and proclaimed by General Assembly resolution 45/112 of 14 December 1990, Fundamental principles. Salomon Gavriel & Nevo Baruch, Peace Education (PE) the concept, principles and practices around the world, London, 2002: 271-276 Sozzo Maximum, Insecurity, Prevention and Police, FLACSO Quito d & Metro Municipality, 2008: 11-12 Sutton, Cherney and White, Crime prevention: Principles perspectives and practice, 2008. Brisbane, Australia: 1-163

Siemens Ward Carolyn, "Community Education and Crime Prevention. Confronting Foreground and Background Causes for Criminal Behavior" United States, 1998: 79-250 Community education is a philosophical concept which serves the entire community by providing for all of the educational needs of all of its community members. It uses the local school to serve as the catalyst for bringing community resources to bear on community problems in an effort to develop a positive sense of community, improve community living, and develop the community process towards the end of self-actualization 79 Community education, which most often uses the school as the catalyst for service provision, is an evolving philosophy drawing on an eclectic array of educational theories (Decker 1980). The backbone of the concept is Dewey's educational philosophy of education as life, learning by doing, and problem solving. Community education possesses the added element of improving social conditions through an educational process comprised of three overriding elements: community empowerment, community problem-solving and the effort to involve all community members in the pursuit of lifelong learning. 81 Community empowerment Community empowerment (some prefer to think of releasing power that is already there) is operationalized through citizen advisory councils comprised of community residents, service providers to the community, and political representatives of the community. The council should be truly inclusive and representative of the community. Through this forum of community decisionmaking in assessing needs, planning programs, and evaluating programs and processes, leadership is developed and political awareness and action are encouraged within the community. The decision making process that emphasizes community empowerment and people helping people is as important as the implemented programs. The people in the community are solving their 81 own community and personal problems. 82 Community Problem-Solving This form of problem solving is possible because community residents have a stake in deciding how their problems will be solved They are accountable, not distant federal, state, and even local

governmental policy makers. Because the citizen advisory council develops programs that are designed to meet the expressed needs of the community, the priorities and emphases of community education programs across the nation will vary from one plan to another. One plan may emphasize meeting the needs of "at risk" youth through various programs such as mentoring; tutoring; linkage to the juvenile justice system; recreational and enrichment activities after school hours and on the weekends; conflict resolution, job skills and parenting classes; discussion groups; linkage to social and health services providers; linkage to job opportunities; and parenting classes for parents of youth. Another program may have as its priority economic development through linkages to agencies that could aid on providing decent housing, marketing ideas to encourage new homeowners and businesses to move into the community organization and volunteerism in order to plan, implement, and then evaluate the programs effectively. In addition to community organization, community educators have embraced the principles of interagency cooperation and networkingthrough problem-solving process involving community organization and volunteerism, the people of the community educate themselves. 82 The effort to involve all community members in the Pursuit of Lifelong learning Use of community resources and the community as a classroom, maximum use of school facilities, accessibility (facilities, programs, and services); programs for all; parent and community involvement in school governance 83 There is cause for looking to new answers for crime prevention. The Justice Department reports (1994) that our prison population is soaring- for several years the United States has been locking up a larger portion of its population than any other nation. In 1992, 455 out of every 100.000 Americans were in prison or jail (South Africa 331)finally we are considered the most violent of all western-industrialized nations The most disturbing fact is that criminals and murder victims are becoming younger. -244Confronting foreground causes of criminal behavior It was found that the crime problem in Hyde Park was the result of the same causes of criminal behavior throughout the United States. There are multiple causes including genetics (non resilient, complex and comprehensive factors), deteriorating family conditions, American culture(: unfortunately includes the western sore of institutionalized racism, cultural heritage of materialism, individualism and "quick-fixes" / female headed households, population loss and transition, low socio-economic status, high unemployment), frustration and alienation due to relative deprivation (economically, educationally, politically), institutionalized racism, and rationalization of cost and benefit (foreground causes concerning opportunity). Minimal police availability were frequent complains voiced by residents. It was determined that a comprehensive approach, addressing both background and foreground causes of criminal behavior, provided the best chance for optimal results, e.g. addressed

"opportunity for criminal activity. -246Harold Howe, educator, emphasizes the need to look at educational reform as a much broader issue than just the improvement of schooling. He addresses the role of families, social agencies and communities as well as the impact of poverty and discrimination. Like Vasil Kerensky, he warns that children cannot be thought of as having two separated lives, a school life and an outthe-school life, and points out the ways in which families are nor supported by our society. Donna Shalala, secretary of Health and Human Services writes, "Schools must turn themselves into community centers open after school and on weekends where young people can study, play ball, make new friends and spend time with caring adults". -248Children's Charter of Metropolitan St. Louis outlines strategies: Invest in children as the highest priority Empower families so that they are able to access needed services Provide comprehensive services in a coordinated manner Deliver necessary services at the neighborhood level Promote school and agency partnerships so that schools can function as community resource centers Use partnerships between and among agencies and groups serving children and families Evaluate and monitor effectiveness of services designed to meet to needs of children and families Involve parents in the decisions, which affect the lived of the children -249-

A unique and "out of the box" feature of the Friedens Haus coalition was the important role of churches. The Friedens United Church of Christ viewed its role as its "mission" in the Hyde Park neighborhood and attempted for fulfill that mission by in-kind contributions of facility used. Additionally, the Assembly of God church contributed by furnishing materials and labor for the construction of gazebo and playground fro Clay School students and neighborhood children. Nevertheless, the separation between church and state as outlined by the courts was adhered to. Perhaps the fear of encroaching on this separation has blocked many schools from the use of church facilities and other resources that are sorely needed. Especially when school facilities are nor available to community residents beyond school hours. -250Quantitative data indicated improvements in students test scores, report card grades, attendance, and social and emotional growth. Schneider Stephen, "Refocusing Crime Prevention, Collective Action and the Quest for Community". Canada, 2007:

Obstacles to Participation in Community Crime Prevention Obstacles to a neighborhood level (demographic and socio-psychological) Individual Obstacles: Demographic: mobile renter, ethnic/racial minority, new immigrant, low socio-economic status Socio/psychological: lack of: social integration, local attachment, local commitment Collective Obstacles: Demographic: Transient population, ethnic/racial heterogeneity, widespread poverty Socio/psychological: low level of social interaction, cohesion and informal social control 120 Collective Obstacles: A look inward: primary self-imposed obstacles to a broad-based mobilization of residents were weak, inappropriate and ineffectual community outreach and communication efforts, leadership voids and weaknesses and inadequate resources. The funding problems, leadership voids at the board level and the constant turnover of coordinators meant that the CPO was plagued by instability, which undermined the development and implementation of effective community outreach and CP strategiesThe evidence indicates that throughout its life, the Mount Pleasant CPO was saddle with inadequate leadership at the governance level, which permeated all aspects of its operations. -149It can be inferred from the examples of successful crime prevention organizing that obstacles to participation that derive from the population characteristics of disadvantaged neighborhoods can be overcome through strong and effective leadership. The juxtaposition of the Mount Pleasant CPO case study against the examples of surviving CPCs appear to support the thesis that it is implementation failure, and not theory failure, that is most at fault for the "immobilization" of disadvantaged neighborhoods and potentially result in local support and participation as long as these programs are accompanied by strong leadership, effective outreach and communication, appropriate crime prevention and community development strategies and activities, sufficient resources and support by the state and police. -150Modernity has created activism but also new impediments (significant being): (1) a decline supportive capabilities of communities (2) the fact that local problems are more frequently the manifestation of global causes, (3) the concentration of unaccountable transnational power (4) the remoteness of information about power in the social structure (5) the centralized domination of symbols of legitimacy and (6) the disempowering effects of the mass media -224-225-

Cites seven basic form of social developmental interventions: (1) preventing teenage pregnancy (2) the provision of prenatal and post-natal services (3) providing education and guidance for parenthood (4) providing preschool education for the children of disadvantaged parents (5) providing support for families under economic and psychological stress (6) preserving families by avoiding the removal of a child into care and (7) preventing youth homeless. -250Theory of communicative policing: to repair systematically distorted communication between police and less powerful groups as a means of making these two groups equal partners in crime prevention and community development. -293-