Applied Thermal Engineering 25 (2005) 13251336

www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Inuence of temperature inversions on wet-cooling tower performance

J.C. Kloppers
a b

a,*

, D.G. Kroger

b,1

Sasol Technology (Pty) Ltd, Private Bag X1034, Secunda 2302, South Africa Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Stellenbosch, 7600 Stellenbosch, South Africa Received 14 November 2003; accepted 9 September 2004 Available online 10 November 2004

Abstract Nocturnal temperature inversions have a detrimental eect on the performance of natural draft wetcooling towers. The eects of the temperature inversion prole, the height of the inversion and the height from which air is drawn into the cooling tower, on the performance of cooling towers are investigated. Relatively simple and accurate equations are employed in the analysis to determine the temperature inversion proles and inversion heights, which only have ground based measurements as input. The detrimental eect in tower performance, during nocturnal temperature inversions, is due to the reduced potential in draft and the increase of the eective air inlet temperature. 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Wet-cooling tower performance; Nocturnal temperature inversion

1. Introduction The inuence of temperature inversions on the performance of wet-cooling towers is investigated. Homan [1] did a numerical evaluation of the eect of temperature stratication in the
*

Corresponding author. Tel.: +27 17 6192739; fax: +27 11 5220599. E-mail addresses: chris.kloppers@sasol.com (J.C. Kloppers), dgk@sun.ac.za (D.G. Kroger). 1 Tel.: +27 21 8084259; fax: +27 21 8084958.

1359-4311/$ - see front matter 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2004.09.003

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Nomenclature b g H K m n p Q R T v w z exponent gravitational acceleration, m/s2 height, m loss coecient mass ow rate, kg/s number pressure, N/m2, or Pa heat transfer rate, W gas constant, J/kg K temperature, C or K velocity, m/s humidity ratio, kg water vapor/kg dry air elevation, m

Greek symbols D dierential q density, kg/m3 Subscripts a air, or above b below d day i inlet, or inside it inversion top m mean o outlet, or outside r reference, or radial coordinate s shell v vapor w water

atmospheric boundary layer on the performance of natural draft dry-cooling towers. A semiempirical approach is followed in the current analysis with the emphasis on simplicity. Pure theoretical approaches that predict temperature proles during nocturnal inversions are generally impractical due to the vagaries of nature and the complexity of the models. Relatively simple equations were developed by Kloppers [2] to predict the vertical temperature prole or distribution and the height of the inversion throughout the course of the year. The buoyancy force that drives the air through a natural draft tower is negatively aected when temperature inversions occur. Cooling tower designs are generally based on the ambient air drybulb temperature, measured at, or near, the ground with a corresponding dry adiabatic lapse rate.

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The average temperature of the air at the inlet of the tower may deviate signicantly from the measured air temperature near the ground due to temperature inversions. The eective inlet air temperature is higher than the measured air temperature at ground level because the tower draws in air from high above the ground. A simple equation is recommended to determine this height for a particular natural draft cooling tower. Temperature inversions generally occur during the night when air temperatures are lower. The detrimental eect of temperature inversions on cooling tower performance is therefore not as detrimental on overall power plant performance as what it would have been if temperature inversions occurred during the day when temperatures are higher. It is nevertheless very important to accurately predict the performance of cooling towers during periods when temperature inversions are present. The eect of humidity inversions was investigated by the authors. The eect of humidity inversions on tower draft were found to be generally negligible while eective inlet humidity ratio during humidity inversions also had a generally minor inuence on cooling tower performance when compared to temperature inversions. The eect of humidity inversions, however, falls outside the scope of the current paper. Refer to Kloppers [2] for more information on the eect of humidity inversions on cooling tower performance. The humidity prole is assumed constant in the current paper.

2. Temperature inversion prole Many theoretical studies have been made to predict the nocturnal atmospheric temperature prole from ground based measurements. Some of these studies are according to Anfossi et al. [3] and Surridge [4]. The equations of Anfossi et al. [3] and Surridge [4] require considerable temperature data, are relatively complex and do not readily allow for further analysis of the inuence of inversions on cooling tower performance. Kloppers [2] presents the development of an empirical approach to extrapolate temperature proles during nocturnal inversions from ground based measurements. He collected data on a 96 m weather mast from 16 March 1994 to 30 January 1995 in a relatively arid area near Lephalale (Ellisras) (2340 0 S, 2747 0 E). Eq. (1) gives the temperature inversion prole, developed by him after the rst few hours after the inception of an inversion.  b z T T r 273:15 1 zr where Tr and zr are the reference temperature and reference height respectively. Tr (C) is measured at zr which is typically between 1 m and 2 m above ground level. The unit of measurement for all temperatures in this study is Kelvin except for Tr which is degree centigrade. The value of the exponent, b, generally varies throughout the course of the year. Eq. (2) shows the annual variation of the exponent, b, determined at Lephalale (Ellisras) (2340 0 S, 2747 0 E). b 0:0035 sin0:0177nd 2:32392 0:0065 2 where nd is the number of the day of the year (1 January is the rst day of the year). Eq. (2) is only valid for the specic geographical location. It would appear that the exponent, b, at a particular

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100 90 80 70
Height, m

Anfossietal.[3]Option1 Anfossietal.[3]Option2 Surridge[4] Equation(1) Measuredvalues

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20 22.5 25 27.5 30 32.5 35 Temperature,C 5/6 September 01h00 n d = 248; b = 0.0096 T r = 9.8 C; z r = 2 m

Fig. 1. Comparison between temperature inversion proles.

location, is a function of humidity and may also be dependent on other variables such as wind speed, heat ux, evapotranspiration and the albedo of vegetation or surface cover. At other locations the exponent, b, determined by Eq. (2), is not known and can be approximated by Eq. (1). This is done by taking temperature measurements at two dierent heights (z and zr) and solving for b in Eq. (1). The temperature, Tr, is typically measured between 1 m and 2 m above ground level. The temperature T, given in Eq. (1), is measured at the height z where z must be as high as practically possible. A height of at least 10 m is recommended for the measurement T at the height z. Fig. 1 shows the measured temperature inversion proles compared to the predictions of Kloppers [2], Anfossi et al. [3] and Surridge [4] for an inversion prole measured at 01h00 during the morning of 6 September 1994. The accuracy of the empirical equation of Kloppers [2] is evident from Fig. 1. The same trends are observed for other inversion proles during the course of a year. The height of the inversion is of importance in a cooling tower performance analysis, especially when the cooling tower draws in air from above this height. The fully developed inversion height, according to Kloppers [2], is given approximately by 1  b1 0:00975 3 zit bT r 273:15 Eq. (3) will predict, in conjunction with Eq. (2), inversion heights of approximately 300 m in the winter months and approximately 90 m in high summer at the specic geographical location, as mentioned above.

3. Height from which air is drawn into a cooling tower To determine the inuence of nocturnal temperature inversions on cooling tower performance it is important to know from which height air is drawn into a cooling tower. The height from which air is drawn into a natural draft cooling tower, Hr, is shown schematically in Fig. 2.

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Fig. 2. Schematical diagram showing the height from which air is drawn into a natural draft cooling tower.

It is shown by Kloppers [2] that Hr is only a function of the diameter of the cooling tower and not of the air ow through the cooling tower. For a specic cooling tower diameter, the height from which air is drawn into the cooling tower, Hr, is constant at any radial distance away from the cooling tower. In his analysis, Kloppers [2] employs the boundary layer theory of Schlichting [5] for turbulent circular jets where the cooling tower is modelled as a turbulent circular jet and a point sink. The inlet of the cooling tower is modelled as point sink while the exit is modelled as a turbulent circular jet. The fact that the height from which air is drawn into the cooling tower is constant at radial distances, a distance away from the cooling tower, is consistent with the numerical results of Thiart [6]. Wilber et al. [7] state that Hr is generally between 50 and 100 m for natural draft cooling towers while Lauraine et al. [8] estimate Hr to be between 50 and 150 m. It will be shown that tower performance prediction is relatively insensitive to the choice of practical values of Hr. It is therefore recommended that Hr be arbitrarily taken as half the height of the cooling tower shell, H r H s =2 where Hs is the height of the tower shell, as shown in Fig. 2. 4. Eect of temperature inversions on the Eective air inlet temperature The equation to quantify the eective mean temperature at the inlet of the cooling tower during a nocturnal inversion is developed in this section. The temperature inversion prole is given by Eq. (1). The temperature of the air owing from below the inversion top, zit, into the cooling tower taking into consideration adiabatic compression is given by  b   z Hi T bit T r 273:15 0:00975z 1 5 zr Hr where Hi and Hr are shown in Fig. 2. zit is given by Eq. (3) and Tr (C) is measured at zr which is usually between 1 and 2 m above ground level. The air originally from a region above the inversion top enters the cooling tower at   Hi 6 T ait T it 0:00975z zit 0:00975z 1 Hr The last term in Eqs. (5), (6) accounts for the heating of the air due to adiabatic compression. 4

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The mean eective inlet temperature to the cooling tower is thus the integral of Eqs. (5), (6) up to a height of Hr, if zit < Hr, and is given by T aim T bit T ait dz Hr 0  b  # Z zit " z Hi dz T r 273:15 0:00975z 1 zr Hr Hr 0   Z Hr  Hi dz T it 0:00975z zit 0:00975z 1 Hr Hr zit Z
Hr

After integration of Eq. (7) and rearrangement nd, T aim  b       zit 1 zit H r zit z2 Hi it T r 273:15 0:00975 zit b 1 Hr zr Hr 2H r 2 8

If zit > Hr then Eq. (7) reduces to  b  # Z Hr Z Hr " T bit z Hi dz T aim dz T r 273:15 0:00975z 1 zr Hr Hr Hr 0 0 After integration of Eq. (9), nd T aim  b      Hr 1 Hr Hi T r 273:15 0:00975 1 b1 zr 2 Hr

10

5. Eect of temperature inversion on tower draft The equation for the pressure dierential on the outside of the natural draft cooling tower, which inuences tower draft during temperature inversions, is derived in this section. In its simplest form the draft equation of a cooling tower can be expressed as Dpo Dpi RKqv2 =2 11

where Dpo is the pressure dierential outside the tower and Dpi is the corresponding pressure differential inside the tower while the ow resistances are represented by RKqv2/2. The left hand side of the draft equation commonly employed by researchers like Bourillot [9] and Mohiuddin and Kant [10] have basically the following form: Dpo Dpi = (qavi qavo)g(Hs Hi) where qavi and qavo are determined on the inside and outside of the tower shell respectively at the elevation just above the cooling tower ll. The potential for draft is therefore established by the density dierence between the inside and outside of the cooling tower. This form of equation, commonly employed by researchers, does not make possible the evaluation of the eect of temperature inversions on the draft equation of natural draft cooling towers.

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Fig. 3. Natural draft cooling tower with external points 1 and 2.

The eect of the atmosphere on the draft equation will be evident from the pressure dierence external to the tower, Dpo, where Dpo is equal to Dpo p1 p2 12 where p1 and p2 refer to the atmospheric pressure at points 1 and 2 respectively shown in Fig. 3. The pressure gradient in a gravity eld is given by dp qav g dz The density of mixtures of air and water vapor is given by Kroger [11],   w p w 1 p % 0:622 qav 1 w 1 w 0:62198 RT w 0:622 RT Substitute Eq. (14) into Eq. (13) and nd after rearrangement dp 0:622w 1 g dz p w 0:622 R T 15 13

14

The pressure dierence between ground level and an arbitrary elevation z can be obtained by integrating Eq. (15) between these two points. After rearrangement nd   Z 0:622 g z w 1 dz 16 p p1 exp R 0 w 0:622 T Eq. (16) can be solved if the humidity and temperature proles as a function of the altitude, z, are known. If it is assumed that the humidity ratio is constant at w1 substitute w1 and Eq. (1) into Eq. (16). After integration between ground level and Hs nd,   w1 1zb H 1b r s p2 p1 exp 0:021232 17 w1 0:622T r 273:151 b If the height of the inversion, zit, is higher than the tower height, Hs, then the pressure dierence between points 1 and 2 in Fig. 3 is

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 p1 p2 p1

w1 1zb H 1b r s 1 exp 0:021232 w1 0:622T r 273:151 b

 18

If the top of the inversion is lower than the tower height then the pressure at the inversion top is given by   w1 1zb z1b r it 19 pit p1 exp 0:021232 w1 0:622T r 273:151 b where pit is the pressure at the inversion top at elevation zit. Kroger [11] shows that the temperature distribution for moist air of constant humidity is, T T1 0:009751 w z 1 1:9w 20

Assume that the humidity ratio is constant at w1 and substitute Eq. (20) into Eq. (16) to nd upon integration between ground level and Hs with g = 9.8 m/s2 and R = 287.08 J/kg the pressure at this latter elevation  2:177811:9w1 0:009751 w1 H s zit w1 0:62198 21 p2 pit 1 1 1:9w1 T it where pit is given by Eq. (19) and Tit is given from Eq. (1) by  b zit T it T r 273:15 zr where Tr is in C. The pressure dierential outside the tower is hence given by  2:177811:9w1 0:009751 w1 H s zit w1 0:62198 p1 p2 pit 1 1 1:9w1 T it

22

23

For details about the pressure distribution on the inside of the cooling tower, refer to Kroger [11] where the pressure distribution accounts for the moist air that is raised in a gravitational eld, adiabatic cooling and condensation.

6. Cooling tower performance evaluation A wet-cooling tower performance evaluation software program, developed by the authors, is employed in the current investigation. The software has the capability to critically investigate the eect of temperature inversions on cooling tower performance, as given by the two preceding sections, to quantify the eect of the inversions on the eective air inlet temperature and the eect on the potential for tower draft. For counterow cooling towers the software program is essentially a one-dimensional approach that yields results orders of magnitude faster than full-blown two-, or three-dimensional computational models involving the continuity, momentum and energy equations. However, the two- and three-dimensional nature of the problem are accounted

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for in some of the semi-empirical relations, such as those for the loss and transfer coecients of the rain zone. The details of the natural draft cooling tower employed in this investigation and a sample performance calculation of the particular cooling tower are presented in Kroger [11]. The Poppe [12] heat and mass transfer (evaporative cooling) analysis for wet-cooling towers is employed in this study. The reference tower, as given by Kroger [11] is 147 m high with an inlet diameter of 104.5 m. The air inlet drybulb and wetbulb temperatures for the reference case are 15.45 and 11.05 C respectively. The atmospheric pressure is 84 100 Pa and the water inlet temperature, Twi, is equal to 40 C. The heat rejection rate, Q, for this cooling tower, according to the Poppe [12] analysis is 1003.4775 MW and the cooling range (Twi Two) is 18.59 K. The atmospheric vertical temperature distribution for the reference case is the dry adiabatic lapse rate, which is 0.00975 K/m and it is assumed that the vertical humidity ratio prole is constant.

7. Eect of Hr on cooling tower performance The eect of the height from which air is drawn into a cooling tower, Hr, on the performance of the cooling towers is investigated when a temperature inversion, described by Eq. (1), is present. The results are compared to the results of the reference tower when a dry adiabatic lapse rate is present. The value of the exponent b in Eq. (1) is taken as 0.01. This is approximately the maximum value of b that can be obtained from Eq. (2), which is during the winter months. Hr is varied between 50 m and 150 m. Fig. 4 shows the eect of the variation of Hr on the eective inlet air drybulb temperature. There is only a 2 K increase in the eective inlet air drybulb temperature when Hr is varied from 50 to 100 m. As already mentioned, Wilber et al. [7] found that the approach height is between 50 and 100 m for practical natural draft cooling towers while Lauraine et al. [8] estimate Hr to be between 50 and 150 m. Fig. 5 shows the heat rejected and cooling range as a function of Hr during the occurrence of temperature inversions. The heat rejected by the cooling tower, Q, is reduced by only 0.3% and the cooling range by 0.06 K when Hr is increased from 50 to 100 m. The performance of natural draft

302

301

Taim ,K

300

299

298

297 50 62.5 75 87.5 100 112.5 125 137.5 150

H r ,m

Fig. 4. Eective air inlet temperature and humidity ratio versus Hr.

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790 14.52

789 14.49

Q , MW

788 14.46 787 14.43 786

785 50 62.5 75 87.5 100 112.5 125 137.5

14.40 150

Hr, m

Fig. 5. Heat rejected and cooling range versus Hr.

cooling towers is therefore relatively insensitive to the choice of Hr and the assumption of Eq. (4) that Hr is approximately half the height of the tower is therefore reasonable.

8. Eect of temperature inversions on tower draft and inlet conditions Since the ultimate height of the temperature inversion, zit, throughout the course of the year, as determined by Eq. (3), is generally higher than Hr, it has no eect on the eective inlet air. Fig. 6 shows the eect that the exponent, b, in Eq. (1) has on the eective inlet air drybulb temperature and the temperature inversion height from Eq. (3) when Hr = 73.5 m. The approximate minimum and maximum values of b from Eq. (2) are 0.003 and 0.01 respectively. zit from Eq. (3), with Tr = 15.45 C, varies between 90 m and 313.51 m for the minimum and maximum values of b respectively. The corresponding reduction in the heat rejection rate and cooling range, between the minimum and maximum values of b, are shown in Fig. 7 and are 15% and 2.6 K respectively.

299 298 297 296

330 300 270 240 210 180 150 120 90 0.01

Taim , K

295 294 293 292 291 0.003

0.004

0.005

0.006

0.007

0.008

0.009

Fig. 6. Eective air inlet temperature and temperature inversion height versus b.

zit , m

Twi -Two , K

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940 920 900 18.0 17.5 17.0

1335

860 840 820 800 780 0.003

16.0 15.5 15.0 14.5 14.0 0.01

0.004

0.005

0.006

0.007

0.008

0.009

Fig. 7. Heat rejected and cooling range versus b.

Fig. 7 shows the heat rejected by this particular cooling tower as a function of the exponent, b, of Eq. (1). The particular cooling tower heat rejection rate, Q, is reduced by approximately 20%, from the reference case with a dry adiabatic lapse rate atmospheric prole, when the magnitude of temperature inversions is strongest during winter. Tower performance is 8% down in summer when temperature inversions are generally not as strong. Approximately 20% of the reduction in heat rejected is due to the reduction in draft and approximately 80% is due to the increased eective inlet air temperature and humidity. If zit is less than the height of the cooling tower shell (zit = 90 m from Eq. (3) when b = 0.003), it does not inuence the reduction in performance signicantly if zit is increased to the same height as the tower shell.

9. Conclusion A relatively simple empirical relation of the nocturnal temperature inversion prole is developed by the authors that correlates measured data more accurately than more complex equations found in the literature, which require more input data. The height of the temperature inversion and the height from which air is drawn into the cooling tower are obtained by relatively simple equations. Equations for the inversion proles are successfully employed in cooling tower analyses to determine the detrimental eect of temperature inversions. It is found that the choice of practical values of the height from which air is drawn into the cooling tower, Hr, does not inuence cooling tower performance evaluation signicantly. The effect of the inversion height, if it is less than the tower shell and higher than Hr, also does not aect tower performance signicantly. Temperature inversions reduce a particular natural draft wetcooling tower heat rejection by approximately 20% in winter and by approximately 8% in summer. The reduction in tower performance due to the adversely aected pressure dierential (draft equation) on the outside of the tower, during temperature inversions, accounts for approximately 20% of the total loss and the increased eective inlet temperature (transfer process) for approximately 80% of the reduction in tower performance.

Twi -Two ,K

Q ,M W

880

16.5

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References
[1] J.E. Homann, The inuence of temperature stratication in the lower atmospheric boundary layer on the operating point of a natural draft dry-cooling tower, Ph.D Thesis, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 1997. [2] J.C. Kloppers, A critical evaluation and renement of the performance prediction of wet-cooling towers, PhD Thesis, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 2003. [3] D. Anfossi, P. Bacci, A. Longhetto, Forcasting of vertical temperature proles in the atmosphere during nocturnal radiation inversion from air temperature trend at screen height, Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 102 (1976) 173180. [4] A.D. Surridge, Extrapolation of the nocturnal temperature inversion from ground-based measurements, Atmosph. Environ. 20 (4) (1986) 803806. [5] H. Schlichting, Boundary Layer Theory, fourth ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1960. [6] G.D. Thiart, Preliminary CFD analysis of a solar chimney, in: HEFAT2002, 1st International Conference on Heat Transfer, Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics, Kruger Park, South Africa, 2002, pp. 449452. [7] K.R. Wilber, J.G. Yost, D.E Wheeler, An examination of the uncertainties in the determination of natural draft cooling tower performances, in: Joint AMSE/IEEE Power Generation Conference, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 2024 October 1985. [8] H. Lauraine, P. Lemmens, M. Monjoie, Experimental data coupling atmospheric temperature inversions and cooling tower performances, in: Proceedings of the 6th IAHR Cooling Tower Workshop, Pisa, Italy, 1988. [9] C. Bourillot, TEFERI, Numerical model for calculating the performance of an evaporative cooling tower, EPRI Report CS-3212-SR, August 1983. [10] A.K.M. Mohiuddin, K. Kant, Knowledge base for the systematic design of wet cooling towers. Part II: Fill and other design parameters, Int. J. Refrigerat. 19 (1) (1996) 5260. [11] D.G. Kroger, Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers and Cooling Towers, PennWell Corp., Tulsa, Oklahoma, 2004. [12] M. Poppe, H. Rogener, Berechnung von Ruckkuhlwerken, VDI-Warmeatlas, 1991, pp. Mi 1Mi 15.