The power factor of an AC electric power system is defined as the ratio of the active (true or real) power to the

apparent power where

Active (Real or True) Power is measured in watts (W) and is the power drawn by the electrical resistance of a system doing useful work. Apparent Power is measured in volt-amperes (VA) and is the voltage on an AC system multiplied by all the current that flows in it. It is the vector sum of the active and the reactive power. Reactive Power is measured in volt-amperes reactive (VAR). Reactive Power is power stored in and discharged by inductive motors, transformers and solenoids

Reactive power is required for the magnetization of a motor but doesn't perform any action. The reactive power required by inductive loads increases the amounts of apparent power measured in kilovolt amps (kVA) - in the distribution system. Increasing of the reactive and apparent power will cause the power factor - PF - to decrease.

Power Factor
It is common to define the Power Factor - PF - as the cosine of the phase angle between voltage and current - or the "cos".

The power factor defined by IEEE and IEC is the ratio between the applied active (true) power - and the apparent power, and can in general be expressed as: PF = P / S (1) where PF = power factor

P = active (true or real) power (Watts) S = apparent power (VA, volts amps) A low power factor is the result of inductive loads such as transformers and electric motors. Unlike resistive loads creating heat by consuming kilowatts, inductive loads require a current flow to create magnetic fields to produce the desired work. Power factor is an important measurement in electrical AC systems because

an overall power factor less than 1 indicates that the electricity supplier need to provide more generating capacity than actually required the current waveform distortion that contributes to reduced power factor is caused by voltage waveform distortion and overheating in the neutral cables of three-phase systems

International standards such as IEC 61000-3-2 have been established to control current waveform distortion by introducing limits for the amplitude of current harmonics.
Example - Power Factor

A industrial plant draws 200 A at 400 V and the supply transformer and backup UPS is rated 200 A 400 V = 80 kVA. If the power factor - PF - of the loads is only 0.7 - only 80 kVA 0.7 = 56 kVA of real power is consumed by the system. If the power factor is close to 1 (purely resistive circuit) the supply system with transformers, cables, switchgear and UPS could be made considerably smaller. Any power factor less than 1 means that the circuit's wiring has to carry more current than what would be necessary with zero reactance in the circuit to deliver the same amount of (true) power to the resistive load. A low power factor is expensive and inefficient and some utility companies may charge additional fees when the power factor is less than 0.95. A low power factor will reduce the electrical system's distribution capacity by increasing the current flow and causing voltage drops.

"Leading" or "Lagging" Power Factors

Power factors are usually stated as "leading" or "lagging" to show the sign of the phase angle.

With a purely resistive load current and voltage changes polarity in step and the power factor will be 1. Electrical energy flows in a single direction across the network in each cycle. Inductive loads - transformers, motors and wound coils - consumes reactive power with current waveform lagging the voltage. Capacitive loads - capacitor banks or buried cables - generates reactive power with current phase leading the voltage.

Inductive and capacitive loads stores energy in magnetic or electric fields in the devices during parts of the AC cycles. The energy is returned back to the power source during the rest of the cycles.

Power Factor for a Three-Phase Motor

The total power required by an inductive device as a motor or similar consists of

Active (true or real) power (measured in kilowatts, kW) Reactive power - the nonworking power caused by the magnetizing current, required to operate the device (measured in kilovars, kVAR)

The power factor for a three-phase electric motor can be expressed as: PF = P / [(3)1/2 U I] (2) where PF = power factor P = power applied (W, watts) U = voltage (V) I = current (A, amps)

Typical Motor Power Factors

Power Factor Power (hp) Speed (rpm) 1/2 load 0-5 5 - 20 20 - 100 1800 1800 1800 0.72 0.74 0.79 3/4 load 0.82 0.84 0.86 full load 0.84 0.86 0.89

Power Factor Power (hp) Speed (rpm) 1/2 load 100 - 300

3/4 load 0.88

full load 0.91

1800

0.81

1 hp = 745.7 W

Common electrical units used in formulas and equations are:

Volt - unit of electrical potential or motive force - potential is required to send one ampere of current through one ohm of resistance Ohm - unit of resistance - one ohm is the resistance offered to the passage of one ampere when impelled by one volt Ampere - units of current - one ampere is the current which one volt can send through a resistance of one ohm Watt - unit of electrical energy or power - one watt is the product of one ampere and one volt - one ampere of current flowing under the force of one volt gives one watt of energy Volt Ampere - product of volts and amperes as shown by a voltmeter and ammeter - in direct current systems the volt ampere is the same as watts or the energy delivered - in alternating current systems - the volts and amperes may or may not be 100% synchronous - when synchronous the volt amperes equals the watts on a wattmeter when not synchronous volt amperes exceed watts - reactive power Kilovolt Ampere - one kilovolt ampere - KVA - is equal to 1,000 volt amperes Power Factor - ratio of watts to volt amperes

Electric Power Formulas

W = E I (1a) W = R I2 (1b) W = E2/ R (1c) where W = power (Watts) E = voltage (Volts) I = current (Amperes) R = resistance (Ohms)

Electric Current Formulas

I = E / R (2a) I = W / E (2b) I = (W / R)1/2 (2c)

Electric Resistance Formulas

R = E / I (3a) R = E2/ W (3b) R = W / I2 (3c)

Electrical Potential Formulas - Ohms Law

Ohms law can be expressed as: E = R I (4a) E = W / I (4b) E = (W R)1/2 (4c)

Example - Ohm's law

A 12 volt battery supplies power to a resistance of 18 ohms. I = (12 Volts) / (18 ohms) = 0.67 Ampere

Electrical Motor Formulas

Electrical Motor Efficiency

= 746 Php / Winput (5) where = efficiency Php = output horsepower (hp) Winput = input electrical power (Watts) or alternatively = 746 Php / (1.732 E I PF) (5b)

Electrical Motor - Power

W3-phase = (E I PF 1.732) / 1,000 (6) where W3-phase = electrical power 3-phase motor (kW) PF = power factor electrical motor
Electrical Motor - Amps

I3-phase = (746 Php) / (1.732 E PF) (7) where I3-phase = electrical current 3-phase motor (Amps) PF = power factor electrical motor

As a "rules of thumb" amps horsepower rating can be estimated as

115 Volts motor - single-phase : 14 amps/hp 230 Volts motor - single-phase : 7 amps/hp 230 Volts motor - 3-phase : 2.5 amps/hp 460 Volts motor - 3-phase : 1.25 amps/hp

Always check nameplate information before designing protective devices, wiring and switchgear.

Single-Phase Motors - HP and Full-Load Currents

Motor Size (hp) 1/6 1/4 1/3 1/2 3/4 1 1 1/2 2 3 5 Full Load Current (Amps) 115 V 4.4 5.8 7.2 9.8 13.8 16 20 24 34 56 208 V 2.4 3.2 4.0 5.4 7.6 8.8 11 13.2 18.7 30.8 230 V 2.2 2.9 3.6 4.9 6.9 8 10 12 17 28

Three-Phase Motors - HP and Full-Load Currents

Motor Size (hp) Full-Load Current (Amps) Induction Type Synchronous Type

Squirrel-Cage and Wound Motor Unity Power Factor 2300 2300 115 V 230 V 460 V 575 V 230 V 460 V 575 V V V 1/2 4 2 1 0.8 3/4 5.6 2.8 1.4 1.1 1 7.2 3.6 1.8 1.4 1 1/2 10.4 5.2 2.6 2.1 2 13.6 6.8 3.4 2.7 3 9.6 4.8 3.9 5 15.2 7.6 6.1 7 1/2 22 11 9 10 28 14 11 15 42 21 17 20 54 27 22 25 68 34 27 53 26 21 30 80 40 32 63 32 26 40 104 52 41 83 41 33 50 130 65 52 104 52 42 60 154 77 62 16 123 61 49 12 75 192 96 77 20 155 78 62 15 100 248 124 99 26 202 101 81 20

1 hp (English horse power) = 745.7 W = 0.746 kW = 550 ft lb/s = 2,545 Btu/h = 33.000 ft lb/m = 1.0139 metric horse power ~= 1.0 KVA Electrical motor efficiency is the ratio between the shaft output power - and the electrical input power.

Electrical Motor Efficiency when Shaft Output is measured in Watt

If power output is measured in Watt (W), efficiency can be expressed as: m = Pout / Pin (1) where m = motor efficiency Pout = shaft power out (Watt, W) Pin = electric power in to the motor (Watt, W)

Electrical Motor Efficiency when Shaft Output is measured in Horsepower

If power output is measured in horsepower (hp), efficiency can be expressed as: m = Pout 746 / Pin (2) where Pout = shaft power out (horsepower, hp) Pin = electric power in to the motor (Watt, W)

Primary and Secondary Resistance Losses

The electrical power lost in the primary rotor and secondary stator winding resistance are also called copper losses. The copper loss varies with the load in proportion to the current squared - and can be expressed as Pcl = R I2 (3) where Pcl = stator winding - copper loss (W) R = resistance () I = current (Amp)

Iron Losses
These losses are the result of magnetic energy dissipated when when the motors magnetic field is applied to the stator core.

Stray Losses
Stray losses are the losses that remains after primary copper and secondary losses, iron losses and mechanical losses. The largest contribution to the stray losses is harmonic energies generated when the motor operates under load. These energies are dissipated as currents in the copper windings, harmonic flux components in the iron parts, leakage in the laminate core.

Mechanical Losses
Mechanical losses includes friction in the motor bearings and the fan for air cooling.

NEMA Design B Electrical Motors

Electrical motors constructed according NEMA Design B must meet the efficiencies below:

Power (hp) 1-4 5-9 10 - 19 20 - 49 50 - 99 100 - 124 > 125

Minimum Nominal Efficiency1) 78.8 84.0 85.5 88.5 90.2 91.7 92.4

1)

NEMA Design B, Single Speed 1200, 1800, 3600 RPM. Open Drip Proof (ODP) or Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled (TEFC) motors 1 hp and larger that operate more than 500 hours per year

Power versus torque and motor velocity in electric motors are indicated below:

Motor Velocity (rpm) Power 3450 2000 Torque hp 1 1.5 2 3 5 7.5 10 15 20 25 kW (in lbf) (ft lbf) (Nm) (in lbf) (ft lbf) (Nm) (in lbf) (ft lbf) (Nm) (in lbf) (ft lbf) (Nm) 0.75 1.1 1.5 2.2 3.7 5.6 7.5 11 15 19 18 27 37 55 91 137 183 274 365 457 1.5 2.3 3.0 4.6 7.6 11 15 23 30 38 2.1 3.1 4.1 6.2 10 15 21 31 41 52 32 47 63 95 158 236 315 473 630 788 2.6 3.9 5.3 7.9 13.1 20 26 39 53 66 3.6 5.3 7.1 10.7 18 27 36 53 71 89 63 95 126 189 315 473 630 945 5.3 7.9 7.1 10.7 126 189 252 378 630 945 1260 10.5 14.2 15.8 21.4 21.0 28.5 31.5 42.7 52.5 79 105 158 210 263 71 107 142 214 285 356 1000 500

10.5 14.2 15.8 21.4 26.3 39 53 79 36 53 71

107 1891 142 2521 178 3151

1260 105 1576 131

Motor Velocity (rpm) Power 3450 2000 Torque hp 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 125 150 175 200 225 kW (in lbf) (ft lbf) (Nm) (in lbf) (ft lbf) (Nm) (in lbf) (ft lbf) (Nm) (in lbf) (ft lbf) (Nm) 22 30 37 45 52 60 67 75 93 548 731 913 1096 46 61 76 91 62 83 945 79 107 142 178 214 249 285 321 356 445 534 1891 158 2521 210 3151 263 3781 315 4412 368 5042 420 5672 473 6302 525 7878 657 214 3781 285 5042 356 6302 427 7563 499 8823 315 420 525 630 735 427 570 712 855 997 1000 500

1260 105

103 1576 131 124 1891 158 145 2206 184 165 2521 210 186 2836 236 207 3151 263 258 3939 328 310 4727 394 361 5515 460 413 6302 525 465 7090 591

1279 107 1461 122 1644 137 1827 152 2283 190

570 10084 840 1140 641 11344 945 1282 712 12605 1050 1425 891 15756 1313 1781

112 2740 228 131 3197 266 149 3654 304 168 4110 343

9454 788 1069 18907 1576 2137

623 11029 919 1247 22058 1838 2494 712 12605 1050 1425 25210 2101 2850 801 14180 1182 1603 28361 2363 3206

Motor Velocity (rpm) Power 3450 2000 Torque hp 250 275 300 350 400 450 550 600 kW (in lbf) (ft lbf) (Nm) (in lbf) (ft lbf) (Nm) (in lbf) (ft lbf) (Nm) (in lbf) (ft lbf) (Nm) 187 4567 381 205 5024 419 224 5480 457 261 6394 533 298 7307 609 336 8221 685 516 7878 657 568 8666 722 891 15756 1313 1781 31512 2626 3562 980 17332 1444 1959 34663 2889 3918 1000 500

620 9454 788 1069 18907 1576 2137 37814 3151 4275 723 11029 919 1247 22058 1838 2494 44117 3676 4987 826 12605 1050 1425 25210 2101 2850 50419 4202 5699 929 14180 1182 1603 28361 2363 3206 56722 4727 6412

410 10047 837 1136 17332 1444 1959 34663 2889 3918 69326 5777 7837 448 10961 913 1239 18907 1576 2137 37814 3151 4275 75629 6302 8549

Electrical Motor Torque Equation

Torque can be calculated in Imperial units like T = Php 63025 / n (1) where T = torque (in lbf) Php = horsepower n = revolution per minute (rpm)

Alternatively Tft = Php 5252 / n (1b) where Tft = torque (ft lbf) Torque can be calculated in SI units like T = PW 9.554 / n (1) where T = torque (Nm) PW = power (watts) n = revolution per minute (rpm)

Example - Electrical Motor Torque

Torque from an electrical motor with 100 hp and speed 1000 rpm can be calculated as T = (100 hp) 63025 / (1000 rpm) = 6303 in lbf To convert to foot pound-force - divide the torque by 12.