CM121A, Abstract Algebra 1.

Consider the following subsets of Z:

Solution Sheet 1

A = { multiples of 3 }, B = { a Z | 6 < a 6 }, C = { 3, 2, 4, 9, 31 }. (a) Find B (A C). Solution: A C = {3, 9}, so B (A C) = {5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9 }. (b) Find (B A) C. Solution: The only element of C which is not in B A is 31, so (B A) C = {3, 2, 4, 9}. (c) Find (B \ A) C (where X \ Y denotes the set of elements of X which are not in Y ). Solution: B \ A = {5, 4, 2, 1, 1, 2, 4, 5}, so (B \ A) C = {2, 4}. (A B) C = (A C) (B C). Solution: Suppose that x (A B) C. Then x A B, and x C. Since x A B, we have that x A or x B. Suppose rst that x A. Since also x C, it follows that x A C, and therefore x (A C) (B C). Simlarly, if x B, then x B C, so x (A C) (B C). We have now shown that (A B) C (A C) (B C). Now suppose that x (AC)(B C). Then x AC, or x B C. Suppose rst that x A C. Then x A A B and x C, so x (A B) C. Similarly if x B C, then x B A B and x C, so x (A B) C. We have now shown that (A B) C (A C) (B C). Combining the two inclusions shows the two sets are equal. 3. Decide which of the following assertions are true for all x, y, z R. If false, give a counterexample. (a) If x2 y 2 , then x y. Solution: False, take x = 0, y = 1.

2. Let A, B and C be subsets of a set X. Prove that

(b) 0 x y x2 y 2 . Solution: True.

(c) x z y z if and only if x y. Solution: True. (d) x 2 x2 2x. Solution: False, take x = 1.

4. Prove by induction that the sum of the rst n odd positive squares is 1 3 3 (4n n), i.e., that 1 1 + 9 + 25 + + (2n 1)2 = (4n3 n). 3 Solution: Let P (n) be the equation we need to prove. Then P (1) is obviously true since 1 = 1 (4 13 1). Suppose now that n 1 and 3 P (n) is true, and we will show that P (n + 1) is true. Adding (2n + 1)2 (the next odd square) to both sides of P (n) gives 1 + 9 + 25 + + (2n + 1)2 = = =
1 3 2 3 (4n n) + (2n + 1) 4 3 1 2 + 4n + 3 n 3 n + 4n 4 3 11 2 3 n + 4n + 3 n + 1.

We need to show that this agrees with the right-hand-side of P (n + 1), which is
1 3 (4(n

+ 1)3 (n + 1)) = =

1 3 2 3 (4(n + 3n + 3n + 1) 4 3 2 + 11 n + 1. 3 n + 4n 3

(n + 1))

5. Suppose that a, b, c, d Z and n N. Prove the following:

Since P (1) is true, and P (n) P (n + 1) for all n 1, it follows that P (n) is true for all n N. (a) If a|b and b|c, then a|c. Solution: If a|b then b = sa for some s Z (by denition of divisibility), and if b|c then c = tb for some t Z (again by denition). Therefore c = tb = t(sa) = (ts)a, and since ts Z, we conclude that c is divisible by a.

(b) If a|n, then a n. Solution: First note that if a 0, then a n (since we assumed n > 0). So we may assume that a > 0. If a|n, then n = sa for some s Z. Since a and n are positive, so is s. Therefore s 1. Since a is positive, it follows that as a 1, so n a.

(c) If n|a and n|b, then n|(ac + bd). Solution: If n|a and n|b, then a = sn and b = tn for some s, t Z. Therefore ac + bd = (sn)c + (tn)b = (sc + tb)n, so ac + bd is divisible by n. 2

6. Use the Euclidean algorithm to nd gcd(1066, 2009) and express it in the form 1066m + 2009n with m, n Z. Solution: The Euclidean algorithm gives: 2009 1066 943 123 82 = 1 1066 = 1 943 = 7 123 = 1 82 = 2 41. + 943, + 123, + 82, + 41,

Therefore gcd(1066, 2009) = 41. Writing 41 in terms of the preceding two remainders and iteratively substituting gives: 41 = 123 82 = 123 (943 7 123) = 8 123 943 = 8(1066 943) 943 = 8 1066 9 943 = 8 1066 9(2009 1066) = 17 1066 9 2009, 7. Suppose that a1 , a2 , . . . , ak are integers, not all of which are 0. (a) Write down the denition of gcd(a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ). Solution: g = gcd(a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) (the greatest common divisor of a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) if: 1) g Z and g|ai for i = 1, . . . , k, and 2) d Z and d|ai for i = 1, . . . , k d g. Remark: Variants on this with the same meaning are ne, for example: gcd(a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) is the greatest integer g such that g|a1 , g|a2 , . . . , g|ak . (b) Prove that gcd(a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) is the least positive integer of the form n1 a1 + n2 a2 + + nk ak with n1 , n2 , . . . , nk Z. Solution: Let S = { n1 a1 + n2 a2 + + nk ak | n1 , n2 . . . , nk Z }. Then S contains a positive integer, for example choose i so that ai = 0 and then |ai | is a positive element of S. Let m be the least positive element of S. We show that m|ai for each i = 1, . . . , k. By the Division Algorithm, ai = mq + r for some q, r Z, and 0 r < m. We will prove by contradiction that r = 0. Suppose that r > 0. Since m = n1 a1 + n2 a2 + + nk ak for some n1 , n2 , . . . , nk Z, we 3 so let m = 17 and n = 9.

have r = ai qm

= ai q(n1 a1 + n2 a2 + + nk ak )

= (qn1 )a1 + (qn2 )a2 + + (1 qni )ai + + (qnk )ak . Therefore r S. Recall that 0 r < m. If r > 0, then since r < m, we get a contradiction to m being the least element of S. We therefore conclude that r = 0 and ai = mq is divisible by m. We have now shown that m is a common divisor of a1 , a2 , , ak . Now suppose that d is any common divisor of a1 , a2 , , ak . Then for each i = 1, 2, . . . , k, we have ai = dci for some ci Z. Therefore m = n1 a1 + n2 a2 + + nk ak = d(n1 c1 + n2 c2 + + nk ck ) is divisible by d. Since d|m and m > 0, it follows that d m. We have now shown that m = gcd(a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ).