Anatomy and physiology

Renal system

The excretory system consists of the kidneys, the ureters, the urinary bladders, and the urethra. The kidneys are the major excretory organs of the body. The skin, liver, lungs, and intestines eliminate some waste products, but if the kidneys fail to function, these other excretory organs cannot adequately compensate. The Urinary system eliminates waste, regulates blood volume, ion concentration and pH; and it is involve with red blood cell production.

Cardiovascular System

The heart provides the major force that causes blood to circulate, and the peripheral circulation functions to carry blood, exchange nutrients, waste products, and gases, transport hormones, components of the immune system, molecules required for coagulation, enzymes, nutrients, gases, waste products, and other substances are transported in the blood to all areas of the body, regulate blood pressure, and direct blood flow. Blood flows from the heart through elastic arteries, muscular arteries, and arterioles to the capillaries. Blood returns to the heart from the capillaries through venules, small veins, and large vein. Layers of blood vessels The tunica intima consists of endothelium, a delicate connective tissue basement membrane, a thin layer of connective tissue called the lamina propia, and a fenestrated layer of elastic fibers call the internal elastic membrane. The internal elastic membrane separates the tunica intima from the next layer, the tunica media. The tunica media, or middle layer, consists of smooth muscle cells arranged circularly around the blood vessel. The amount

of blood flowing through a blood vessel can be regulated by contraction or relaxation of the smooth muscle in the tunica media. A decrease in blood flow results from vasoconstriction, an increase in blood vessel diameter because of smooth muscle relaxation. The tunica adventitia is composed of connective tissue, which varies from the dense connective tissue near the tunica media to loose connective tissue that merges with the connective tissue surrounding the blood vessels.

Placenta

In humans, the placenta averages 22 cm (9 in.) in length and 2-2.5 cm (0.8-1 in.) in thickness. It typically weighs approximately 500 grams (1 lb). It has a dark reddish/blue or maroon color. It connects to the fetus by an umbilical cord of approximately 55-60 cm (22-24 in.) in length that contains two arteries and one vein. The umbilical cord inserts into the chorionic plate. Vessels branch out over the surface of the placenta and further divide to form a network covered by a thin layer of cells. This results in the formation of villous tree structures. On the maternal side, these villous tree structures are grouped into lobules called cotelydons. In humans the placenta usually has a disc shape but different mammalian species have widely varying shapes..