Project report

On- telecommunication system in BHEl

Haridwar

From 11\6\2012 to 10\7\2012 By-saima raziq Branch- electronics and communication engineering (EC) Of- invertis institute of Engineering and technology, bareilly

Project report

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is a matter of great pleasure and privilege for me to present the report on the practical training of 30 days on the basis of practical knowledge gained by me during the training at BHARAT HEAVY ELECRTICALS LIMITED, HARIDWAR from 11th June to 10th July 2012. I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to senior executive Vikas singhla Sir. for his valuable guidance in telecom exchange. I heartily thank Sir. who had always been a great guide for telecommunication exchange. I gained a lot of practical knowledge under him. The working staff here in BHEL was always very helpful. During training in BHEL, I had a wonderful experience of my life where not only I had the practical knowledge of the subject but also got acquainted with the working culture in BHEL. I am thankful to the officials and the working staff at BHEL for making my visit there very fruitful.

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TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM IN BHEL HARDWAR.

VOCATIONAL TRAINING REPORT: 2012

CONTENTS

1. Introduction.

2. The Organization.

3. Telecommunications.

4. Electronic Exchange(s) and cards used.

5. Telephone Lines.

6. Connection Types.

7. NTC (new telephone connection)

8. General faults occurring in an Exchange.

9. Removal of faults in a connection.

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10. Special User Features of Various Exchanges.

11. Optical Fiber System.

12. Maintenance.

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INTRODUCTION

In past few years the field of communication has been developing with no leaps or bounds. It has become a necessity of each human being to be connected with each other. Telephone is rapidly becoming a tool to quench this thirst. In Automatic Telephony, operators are not required to establish connections manually between the different calling and the called subscribers as are required in the case of manual telephone systems. In these system subscribers themselves establish required connections by operating the different switches placed at the central place known as the EXCHANGE from their telephones at remote place from it. The automatic telephone systems are rapidly replacing manual ones due to their outstanding merits over the latter types, some of which are enumerated below: * In Automatic Telephony higher level of secrecy is maintained due to absence of Operators who can overhear the conversation if they like in the manual telephone systems. The working of an Automatic Telephone system does not depend for its efficiency On the personal efficiencies of the operators

* There is no possibility of the calls being missed or wrong metering being done due to faults of operators or due to phonetic errors between the subscribers and the operators.

As no operator is required, the running cost of the exchange is reduced.

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Introduction to BHEL

BHEL was primarily set up to meet the needs of the power sector in the country. The first plant was established nearly 35 years ago at Bhopal, which heralded the genesis of the heavy electrical equipment in India. BHEL is today the largest engineering enterprise in India, with excellent track record of performance, making profits continuously since 1971-72. It achieved a sales turnover of Rs. 3154 crores with a pre-tax Profit of Rs.201 crores, in 1990-91. The areas of BHEL operations broadly cover conversion, transmission, utilization and conservation of energy in core sectors of the economy like Power, Industry and Transportation, etc., and fulfil vital infrastructure needs of the country. Today, BHEL has 13 manufacturing divisions, 8 service centers and 4 Power Sector Regional Centers, in addition to over 150 project sites spread all over India and even abroad to provide prompt and effective service to customers. BHEL Hardwar is one of the premier organizations which is honored by I.S.O.-9002 specifications and supplies 45% of the total 75% production of generation of generators and turbines of India.

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TELECOMMUNICATION

BHEL manufactures EPABX and MAX systems based on C-Dot technology and has plans to make other ranges of telecommunication equipment also.

These are basically used for connecting links between various modules like peripherals, exchange and its equipments. It is necessary to run a number of internal cables of suitable conductors between the following stages and frames:-

1. Handset to exchange's cable chamber 2. Cable chamber to M.D.F. 3. M.D.F. to I.D.F. 4. I.D.F. to Number Block 5. Number Block to Exchange Equipment 6. between two exchanges 7. between two cities 8. between two countries

Prior to advent of Electronic Exchanges inter-connection of various circuits are made by mechanical contacts that are operated by mechanical movements produced by the attraction of an iron armature of an electromagnet or by the operation of an electric motor. There are some disadvantages of such systems for using mechanical contacts, due to following reasons: Contacts are subjected to wear and tear. Require adjustments time to time. Maintenance is highly precise. Prone to corrosion. Etc...

But now-a-days Electronic Exchanges are used. In Electronic exchange electronic devices effect the inter-connection between different transmission circuits and Electro-mechanical relays and switches are dispensed with. Such electronic devices remove difficulties associated with mechanical contacts. The greatest advantage of using electronic devices in place of electromechanical devices is that no time is lost in making a connection and a very high speed of operation is possible.

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ELECTRONIC EXCHANGES

Electronic Exchanges are of two types: 1. Tone type 2. Pulse type 1. Tone type: In this type of exchange sine waves are used. There speed of dialling for a given number is more than that of Pulse type.

2. Pulse type: In this type of exchange square wave is used due to which the dialling speed is lesser. The telephone apparatus used for both types are different in construction. But now days both types of apparatus are integrated in a single machine in which switch-over can be made via a selector switch.

TONES USED IN MODERN TELEPHONY

Dial Tone: When handset is picked up from the cradle, then Dial tone is heard if a free line is available. This means that the instrument is ready to send the signals to the exchange. When the subscriber takes up the receiver then signals are sent M.D.F. then to I.D.F., line Number block and to Peripherals where in various line-cards are mounted in a shelf. When corresponding number on the line-card is free then the Ringer section of that Peripheral generates a signal called tone. This tone is a continuous burble sound of 400 Hz. modulated by 25Hz. and is sent to the calling subscriber as soon as his line seizes the free line. The subscriber must not dial before receiving this tone; otherwise he is liable to get wrong connection. If he does not get this tone, he should try after some time. Busy Tone: When the called subscriber is engaged with other call, this tone is heard. It consists of a sound of 400 Hz. which is regularly interrupted at equal intervals. It is generally on for 0.75 sec. and off for also 0.75 sec. Ringing Tone: When a number is dialled then telephone of the called subscriber starts ringing. Calling subscriber should get this information and this is indicated by sending ringing tone of interrupted 400 Hz. supplies modulated by 25 Hz. and its durations are generally equal to the duration of ringing current, which rings the bell. It may be 0.4 sec. on, 0.2 sec. off , 0.4 sec. on and 2 sec. off and so on or it may be 0.75 sec. on and 0.75 sec. Off and so on. When this ringing tone is received, the calling subscriber knows that the connection is completed and that the bell of the called subscriber is ringing.

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Number Unobtainable Tone: This tone is sent when the number dialled cannot be obtained. If any subscriber dials which is not actually connected to the exchange, this indication is send. This is also a tone of 400 Hz. with interruption of 200 msec. every 3 sec. Now-a-days push button type telephone apparatus are used. This apparatus can be exploded into following sections: 1. Ringer section 2. Speech section (Transmitter and Receiver section) 3. Voltage limiter section From telephone exchange two wires or connectors run for each number, in which one is neutral and the other is main or positive. For the telephone circuit to work the necessary supply is provided by the exchange. Like other circuits telephone also operates when a circuit is established between calling and called subscriber. When one dials a number then the corresponding relays at the exchange established a circuit automatically. The telephone exchange supplies 40-60 volt D.C. and 110/20 Hz. to operate this circuit. This is required because of voltage drop that may creep in long transmission wires. As soon as the handset is picked-up this 48-volt D.C. supply is available at voltage limiter section, dialling pulse generator and speech section. In telephone dialling two types of frequencies are used which are: * High band tone (1216 Hz. to 1645 Hz.) * Low band tone (701 Hz. to 936 Hz.)

Frequencies used in Telephony The numbers from 1 to 5 falls in low band and 6 to 9, 0 falls in high band. Till the handset is on-hook, the ringing section of the apparatus is on through telephone line but on lifting the handset the ringing section becomes off, also the dialling and speech section becomes ready. On lifting the handset first the dial tone is received which is amplified by the amplifier of speech section. When a number is pressed on the keyboard, the dialling pulses are made on and off according to the number dialled. For example if 5 is pressed then dialling pulses are made on and off 5 times. This process can be heard on the receiver. There is a gap of 1 sec. between consecutively pressed numbers. When the handset is placed on or is lifted from the instrument a switch is operated called the hook-switch. The main function of this switch is to toggle between telephone-line and ringer, dialling & speech sections of the telephone. When the handset is on the telephone then ringer section of the telephone is on while on lifting it ringer section is disconnected and dialling section is connected.

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How to make telephone call? Telephone call is characterized into two sections: 1. Outgoing calls: Generally a voltage of 48V-60V D.C. always remains on the telephone line but as the handset is picked-up the voltage limiter drops this voltage to 9-12V. On hearing the dial tone it is confirmed that the apparatus is ready to work and after dialing the number a ringing pulse is send to the called party. When the calling party picks-up the handset the billing meter of the exchange becomes activated. There is a counter in the exchange, which counts the pulse and converts them into calls.

2. Incoming calls: These are just opposite of outgoing calls. In the incoming calls the telephone detects the ringing signal from the exchange and provides the ring. At the instance of ringing signal, there remains a voltage of 75-110V./20 Hz. on the telephone. A high voltage (A.C.) is sent from the ringer section of the exchange to start the ringer circuit of the telephone. When the ringing signal is received it should be properly isolated as it may give a shock. This ringing circuit is on until the handset is not picked-up at the called party. The duration of this tone, if unattended, is 1 minute after which an engage tone is heard. After lifting the handset a circuit is established and a call is made.

Electronic Exchange Dig. I

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There are various powers providing circuits available in the exchange to run the circuitry. These are broadly categorized in two categories: * Outside the exchange * Inside the exchange Outside the Exchange: Since the voltage supplied in Indian Subcontinent is 220-volts/50 Hz. A.C. but for the normal working of the exchange 48(46-53) volts of D.C. is required. Hence a Rectifier circuit, backed with battery array for power-failures, is used. This rectifier block not only rectifies the input supply but also works as a battery charger. It is known as Float rectifier cum charger. Battery backup is utilized for smooth operation of the exchange during power failures. For battery back-up lead acid battery array is used in parallel to the supply from the rectifier block, so that during power failures the exchange supplies are not terminated. Inside the Exchange: Inside the telephone exchange various types of power supplies are used for powering various modules (for example: - Line-cards, Ringer). Some of them are: # -5 V. 12 A # +5 V. 12 A # +12 V. 6A

From M.D.F. a number of cables, based upon the requirement of a place, are connected to cabinets. On the cabinets these cables are divided into cables of 20 pairs. Now every 20 pair cable goes to the distribution box (D.B.). At the D.B. this 20 pair cable is further divided into two parts of 10 pairs each. These pairs are then connected to the subscriber ports via jumpers. The line from these ports then goes to the subscribers through single pair cables which are usually of P.V.C. type. These wires are connected to the instrument via RosetteBox. Main distribution frame (M.D.F): This frame serves the following purposes: It is place where both external and internal cables are terminated. The external individuals cable carry conductors from subscribers who are necessarily from the same locality and as such their numbers cannot be in numerical order. On the other hand, the internal cable conductors come from apparatus side in numerical order. This crosssection between the two cables is done on the M.D.F. through jumper wires. It carries all the protectors used in the exchange. The different protectors that are used are (a) Fuses, (b) Heat coils, and (c) lightning protectors. Page 11

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This M.D.F. is an ideal place for testing purpose. Both the internal and the external cables are available at this frame and, therefore, both external and internal wiring and lines can be tested for this purpose.

Intermediate distribution frame (I.D.F): These frames like M.D.F. consists of a large number of verticals with horizontal cross-arms fitted with tag blocks at both the ends. The cable from M.D.F. is terminated on the multiple sides from where connections are extended to metering and from the exchange side cables are run to the respected line-cards. The two tag blocks are joined by means of jumper wires as in the M.D.F., so that any subscriber can be given connection to any ports on the linecard. The subscriber and, therefore, their ports are divided into different groups and it is necessary for these groups to originate more or less the same amount of traffic for smooth distribution among different trunks.

NEW MDF Dig.III

Module Crown

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OLD MDF Diag. IV

Module- it is a collection of 10 crowns together and collection of modules form a distribution frame like main distribution frame. Crown-it is a card or box which connects exchange to home. It has the capacity to hold 10 pair of wires or numbers.

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Different types of cards used in exchanges.
Here are different kinds of cards used in telephone exchanges depending on the number of connections and the purpose.

S no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Card name Z-24 Ua-32 Atr-2 nddi Cpu3 Intof Mmfsd Suvg Ldtl8 Pcm2 Gpa-1

Meaning of card Analog extension card. Digital extension card DIT card used through proper line Analog trunk card used as junction to junction Central processing unit Interface card Floppy drive used by owner Voice card (like no. Is busy transfer some time) Loop dialling card Digital trunk card used through OFC Conference call

For example Z-24 card is used in BHEL exchange which have 24 port numbered from 0-23. For each port there is a pair of wire from exchange to the main distribution frame (MDF). Each cars has its own central processing unit (CPU) apart from the two main CPU of an exchange.

Convention used in numbersThe first digit corresponds to rack number The second digit or pair corresponds to slot number The rest corresponds to port number

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Z-24 card Rack no. 1 27

Rack no. 0

27

Exchange
Number are like this R-S-P Rack-slot-port Eg. 1-13-18 Here 1 is rack number, 13 is slot and 18 is the port. There are 28 slots or cards in a rack numbered from 0-27.

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TELEPHONE LINES

In BHEL-Hardwar three types of telephone lines are used. They are: -

MAX Lines

EPABX Lines

C-DOT Lines

MAX Lines: Before MAX Ex. Lines are used only Internal Exchange. But New (CORAL) MAX lines are used for both internal (Intercom) and external communication links BHEL. EPABX Lines: EPABX lines are used for both internal and external communication links in BHEL. If the user wants to dial outside the periphery of BHEL, he can use these lines. There are about 500 lines available here. These lines are distributed in 17 line-cards with 24 line numbers in each. Its I.D.F. section has 40 tag blocks. 96 numbers available here are connected via digital lines in which a host of facilities are provided that can be accessed using code 69. C-DOT Lines: These lines are the direct telephone lines from C-DOT The facility they provide is called DID (Direct Inward Dialling). It has 24 lines and any BHEL number starting with digit 5 can be accessed using code 48.

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CONNECTION TYPES

Types of Connections: * With wires i.e. Cables * Wireless Microwave Links through Satellite

Cables: Two types of Cables are used. They are: 1) Underground cables: - These types of cables run under the earth and are basically used to connect the exchange to the subscriber's Distribution Box (D.B.). They are further of two types based upon their construction and the insulating material used. a. Paper core A.T.C. (Armored Tin Cable) b. Jelly filled A.T.C. (Armored Tin Cable) 2) Overhead cables: - These types of cables are used to connect the equipments inside the exchange and to connect the peripheral devices to the subscriber's Distribution Box (DB) They are generally of P.V.C. type. In an exchange, based upon the number of conductor pairs, following types of cables are used: * Single Pair cable * 2 Pairs cable * 5 Pairs cable * 10 Pairs cable * 20 Pairs cable * 50 Pairs cable * 100 Pairs cable

Colour-coding: TYPE OF CABLECOLOR OF WIRES Single pair 2 Pair cable 5 Pair cable Blue-White Blue-White/Orange-White Blue-White/Orange-White/Green-White/Brown-White/Grey-White

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10 Pair cable Blue-White/Orange-White/Green-White/Brown-White/ Grey-White/Blue-Red/Orange-Red/Green-Red/Brown-Red/Grey-Red 20 Pair cable Blue-White/Orange-White/Green-White/Brown-White/Gray-White/BlueWhite-Blue/Orange-White-Blue/Green-White-Blue/Brown-White-Blue/ Gray-White-Blue/Blue-White-Orange/Orange-White-Orange/Green-White -Orange/Brown-White-Orange/Gray-White-Orange/Blue-White-Green/ Orange-White-Green/ Green-White-Green/Brown-White-Green/ Gray-White-Green For 100 pairs cable the colour-coding is same as that of the above 20 pairs cable except mate colour is changed after each bunch of 20 pairs. PAIRMATE COLOR 1st 20 pairs White2nd 20 pairsYellow3rd 20 pairsBlack4th 20 pairsViolet5th 20 pairs Red

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NTC (new telephone connection)

For a new telephone connection, there should be an unused port in the exchange. If there is an empty port we can assign that port to the new user. When the request for a new connection comes, we look for a number and corresponding colour code of wires associated to that number. We forward this data to the area person who manages the connection of that particular area, he looks for the wires of that particular colour specified by exchange for new connection in the cabinet. Cabinet is a box which acts as a distribution frame for that area. When found, he then takes a pair to the DB (distribution box), which is a small box, from where connection is given. When all this is over we check for the working of number, which is done by checking the dialing tone and 48 volt in the line, if both found the number is in working condition.

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General faults occurring in an Exchange

There are mainly two types of faults that often occur in the Exchange. These are basically * Faults that occur from Line * Faults that occur due to Instrument A. Faults that occur from Line: Due to line three types of faults may occur. They are categorized as under: 1. Break fault: They are also called as Disconnection faults. They can occur in the connectors at home, in line or in exchange. In common they are broadly called as "Telephone is dead". 2. Loop fault: They are also called as Line-Shorting faults. In this fault connectors are shorted prior the instrument forming a local loop. If unattended for a long time they may cause severe damage to the Exchange. 3. Earth fault: This fault may occur due to: * wetting of connectors * Water in Rosette-Box * Weak insulation or * Oxidation of copper wire Connectors can either touch from earth, with other connector or with any conductor (such as metallic table, frame etc.) Problems that can occur due to line faults: 1. Subscriber cannot dial a number. 2. Ring Trip i.e. connection from the exchange breaks after one ring. 3. False Ring 4. Low speech 5. One sided speech Faults that occur due to instrument: These may be: * The number is not being dialled * One way speech Receiver coil is faulty

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Faults that occur due to instrument: contd * Plunger or Push switch faulty. Dial tone breaks after two or three rings. From second subscriber bell is heard to be going but at first subscriber only dial tone is heard. * Instrument circuitry faulty. When loop or earth fault is received than exchange can be affected, so it is wedged as soon as possible because if not wedged for longer it can damage line-card too. To sense these faults first line-side is checked and then exchange side is checked at exchange. If however exchange side is correct then line faults after detection are handed over to the concerned lineman for further checking. Testing Procedure Dig.V

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Testing Procedure Dig.VI

Testing Procedure Dig.VII

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Testing procedure Dig VIII

Testing Procedure Dig IX

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Testing Procedure Dig X

Testing Procedure Dig XI

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Testing Procedure Dig.XII

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Removal of various faults

Problem can be outside the exchange. Problem can be in the exchange.

First of all we check for the problem outside the exchange, this is done by using a plug in switch which has a property of blocking the signal of one side called as black.

Using this we 1st block signal from outside which is done by connecting black to output line in main distribution frame. To the other end a telephone is connected and we check for dialling tone and 48 volts. If both are found the problem is outside the exchange and if not we look for connections inside the exchange. Now we look for the fault outside the exchange, which is done by automatic line tester. Here we block the signal from exchange and connect the output line from main distribution frame to the tester. Now switch on the tester the indicator which glows or blinks red gives the type of fault. Four indicators FP (foreign potential) means voltage from other source disturbing 48 volt. Full earth and low earth the wire is grounded. Line short two wires are shorted to each other. Disconnected -- the wire is broken.

Now the indicator indicates the fault, which is conveyed to lineman, and a wage (thin insulating strip) is inserted in defected port to cut off exchange from outside. Nowadays we use such instrument which gives the distance of fault from exchange.

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LIST OF SPECIAL USER FEATURES ON VARIOUS EXCHANGES

A) MAX (CORAL INDIA PVT.LTD.NOIDA) Manufacturer: - JEUMONT SCHINEDIER, FRANCE Capacity: - 2700 lines

CALL PICK UP: 89-xxxx to pick up a call ringing at another location xxxx. CALL TRANSFER: 2 Parties conversing, any party can dial 3rd party, then Conversation among them Hang-up. The party on line now Talks to 3rd party. PARTY CONFERENCE: While speaking with a party: (From Pulse Instrument: -- If CALLER requires dialing 3rd party During conversation and maintaining talks, then dial 4. (From Tone Instrument: -- If CALLER requires dialing 3rd party During conversation and maintaining talks, then flash, and dial 4.

MALICIOUS CALL TRACE: Dial 29 during conversation, to trace a malicious call From a MAX Extension. Then enquire from 4999 or 4424. APPOINTMENT REMINDER: Dial 80-xx-yy {xx=hr, yy=min}. To Cancel: Dial 27. LIST OF SPECIAL USER FEATURES ON VARIOUS EXCHANGES Contd B) EPABX=ALCATEL 4400 Manufacturer: - ALCATEL, FRANCE Capacity: - 500 lines (96 DIGITAL, 404 ANALOG) Technology used: - P.C.M. - T.D.M. 1. TONE MODE DIAL: Dial # before no.{If instrument is not tone enabled ) 2. CALL TRANSFER: Hook FLASH: Do Hook Flash Dial the no., wait for party to respond ,then

On hearing prompt "Please dial." Disconnect. BHEL

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3. ENQUIRY CALL: FLASH (from Tone mode instrument.) or 2 (from Pulse mode) During converses, to put the party on HOLD. Then, dial a 3rd party and speak. 4. BROKER CALL: (After ENQUIRY CALL): Dial 1 To go BACK & FORTH, between two parties (one party in conversation & other On HOLD) 5. CONFERENCE-3 PARTY: While talking to 1st party, first make ENQUIRY CALL (Put on hold){FLASH from Tone; or 2 from Pulse}. Then - Dial 3rd party - Flash-- Dial 3. 6. AUTO CALLBACK: Dial 5 to book auto-call-back when a busy PABX hangs up. ( To cancel auto-call back request: Dial 67 or/and 848)

7. PASSWORD MODIFICATION: 847-0000-xxxx (0000=old password; xxxx = new Password). This facility is available on STD enabled extensions only. 8. LAST CALLER CALLBACK: 851 {to ring the last unattended PABX Caller} 9. APPOINTMENT REMINDER: 852 then dial the time as {xx (hr) xx (min)} To cancel: 853 10. LAST NO. REDIAL: 854 User can use this if instrument. Doesnt have a Redial Button. 11. CALL PICKUP: 72 - XXXX to pickup a call ringing at another extension. 12. CALL-PARK / RETRIEVE: It is used during an incoming or outgoing call, to speak From a different set. (To park from own (speaking) set: FLASH-855- dial own extension number. Then "Hang-up". The call is now parked, and the other party is kept on hold. (To pick up from a different set: 855- dial own extension number) (To pick up from own set (later, if not taken elsewhere) 855)

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Optical fiber
An optical fiber is a flexible, transparent fibre made of very pure glass (silica) not much bigger than a human hair that acts as a waveguide, or "light pipe", to transmit light between the two ends of the fiber.[1] The field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers is known as fiber optics. Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications, which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than other forms of communication. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss and are also immune to electromagnetic interference. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so they can be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in tight spaces. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, including sensors and fiber lasers.

An optical fiber junction box. The yellow cables are single mode fibers; the orange and blue cables are multi-mode fibers: 50/125 m OM2 and 50/125 m OM3 fibers respectively. Optical fiber typically consists of a transparent core surrounded by a

transparent cladding material with a lower index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by total internal reflection. This causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers that support many BHEL Page 29

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propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers (MMF), while those that only support a single mode are called single-mode fibers (SMF). Multi-mode fibers generally have a larger core diameter, and are used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 1,050 meters (3,440 ft). Joining lengths of optical fiber is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable. The ends of the fibers must be carefully cleaved, and then spliced together either mechanically or by fusing them together with heat. Special optical fiber connectors for removable connections are also available. Optical fiber communication Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and networking because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is especially advantageous for long-distance communications, because light propagates through the fiber with little attenuation compared to electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few repeaters. Additionally, the per-channel light signals propagating in the fiber have been modulated at rates as high as 111 gigabits per second by NTT,[17][18] although 10 or 40 Gbit/s is typical in deployed systems.[19][20] Each fiber can carry many independent channels, each using a different wavelength of light (wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)). The net data rate (data rate without overhead bytes) per fiber is the per-channel data rate reduced by the FEC overhead, multiplied by the number of channels (usually up to eighty in commercial dense WDM systems as of 2008). The current laboratory fiber optic data rate record, held by Bell Labs in Villarceaux, France, is multiplexing 155 channels, each carrying 100 Gbit/s over a 7000 km fiber.[21] Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation have also managed 69.1 Tbit/s over a single 240 km fiber (multiplexing 432 channels, equating to 171 Gbit/s per channel).[22] Bell Labs also broke a 100 Petabit per second kilometer barrier (15.5 Tbit/s over a single 7000 km fiber).[23] For short distance applications, such as a network in an office building, fiber-optic cabling can save space in cable ducts. This is because a single fiber can carry much more data than electrical cables such as 4 pair Cat-5 Ethernet cabling.[vague] Fiber is also immune to electrical interference; there is no cross-talk between signals in different cables, and no pickup of environmental noise. Non-armored fiber cables do not conduct electricity, which makes fiber a good solution for protecting communications or equipment in high voltage environments, such as power generation facilities, metal communication

structures prone to lightning strikes. They can also be used in environments where explosive fumes are present, without danger of ignition. Wiretapping is more difficult compared to electrical connections, and there are concentric dual core fibers that are said to be tap-proof.

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Here in BHEl, it is used to connect the numbers from the service provider to the DLC in an exchange. The numbers are 1st converted to pulses and transmitted by using optical fibres, these are then feed to DLC which is a box containing a setup to convert them back to original form. After that they are feed to bandwidth box to increase their bandwidth or speed.

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CONCLUSIONS
The Vocational training at BHEL Hardwar helped me in improving my practical knowledge and awareness regarding telephone exchanges to a large extent. Here I came to know about the technology and material used in telecommunication. Besides this, I also visualized the parts involved or equipments used in the fault detection. Here I learnt about how different techniques used to tackle the various problems under different circumstances. At least I could say that the training at BHEL Hardwar is great experience for me and it really helped me in making or developing my knowledge about telecommunication.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTERNET SITES: www.google.com www.scribd.com www.wikipedia.com www.media.wiley.com

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