JAVA

Geographical setting: - Java is the largest island in

Suvardvipa. Its total area is about 51,000 square miles. It is bounded on the North by the shallow Java Sea which separates it from Borneo. On the south of it is the Indian Ocean. On the east is the narrow strait which separated it from the island of Bali. A brief account of the political history of the Java: - several Hindu kingdoms flourished in Java in the fifth and the sixth century A.D. the most outstanding history of the Java is Hindu colonization of the island. We learn from a Chinese source that two kings of Java were sent regular embassies to China. In the sixth century AD was one king Pundravarman and had his capital at Taruma. The most important kingdom of the Java during the Tang period was Kalinga, named after the well known province in India. But we have definite information about the five dynasties which ruled Java. 1. CENTRAL JAVA or THE KINGDOM OF MATARAM About the beginning of the eighth century A.D., powerful kingdom was founded in central Java by king Sannaha, we come across his information by the Cangal inscription which was found among the ruins of the Saiva temple in Cangal.the king Sannaha was succeeded by his son Sanjaya who was a

mighty king. According to some literature his conquests included Sumatra, Kambuja and also the Malay Peninsula. There is no doubt that he was a great hero. The kingdom of central Java was known as Mataram with capital at Prambanan. Shortly after the death of Sanjaya the Sailendras conquered central Java in A.D 742-755, whereupon the successors of Sanjaya were forced to shift their capital 150 miles to the east. After the Sailendras had withdrawn from central Java, the capital was shifted back to the old city. According to the Chinese sources Java was powerful kingdom at that age. Then Balitunga dominated both the eastern and western Java. In 915 A.D. Balitunga was succeeded by Dakshottama. He was then succeeded by Tulodong in or before 919 A.D. this plainly appears from the fact that during his rule the self-same officer are known to have held office in central Java and eastern too. Tulodong was then succeeded by Wawa. The records of Wawas reign are only partially known from one of the six copper plates. In 928 A.D. the kingdom of Mataram came to an end after the death of Wawa who was the successor of Dakshottama. After the death of Wawa the central political gravity was shifting to eastern Java in the middle of the 10 century A.D, and the Hindu Civilization came to an end. Perhaps the transfer was made because of a probable attack of the Sailendra empire or any epidemic or Volcanic eruption or any other unforeseen events. The Kingdom of Mataram

occupied the most prominent place in the Java during these two eventful centuries. 2. EASTERN JAVA or THE DYNASTY OF SINDOK With the accession of Sindok, sometime between 927 and 929 A.D., the central political authority definitely changed to eastern Java. Since the 11th century A.D. for 500 years eastern Java became the only stronghold of the Hindu Culture and civilization in Java. Sindok was the founder of a new line of the kings that ruled the eastern Java. He ascended the throne in 929 A.D under the name of SriIsana-vikrama Dharmottungadeva. He left an impression upon the posterity which was not shared by any of his successors. He ascended the throne in c.929 A.D. and ruled for nearly twenty years, his last date being 947 A.D. The copper plates attribute many pious foundations to Sindok, and these are mostly in Saiva in character. Sindok was succeeded by his daughter, who ruled as Queen Sri Isanatunggavijaya. The Calcutta pprasasti which is the only source of information about the successors of Sindok, compares her to a swan. She was a follower of Buddhism. She was married to the king Sri-Lokpala and her son Sri Makutavamsavardhana succeeded her. Bali was included in his reign. He had a daughter Mahendradatta. She was married to Udayana who belonged to some royal family. Then after a gap of few years there was a king named Dharmavamsa ruling over

Java at the close of the 10th century A.D. his title, king of east Java, may indicate he was one of the several kings of east Java. His name is associated with the old Javanese language books. His reign is important for two events; the conquest of Bali and after the conquest the struggle with Sailendras. Possibly the Javanses embassy of 992 A.D was sent to counteract the activity of the enemy. Under the king Dharmavamsa the international glory and prestige of Java was revived towards the close of the 10th century A.D. buit again this success was short lived, as by 1003 A.D. the Sailendra king had evidently hurled back the invasion of Java. Within four years of this great catastrophe involved Dharmavamsa and kingdom in a common ruin and thus this great king came to an end in the 1700 A.D.

3. KINGDOM OF KADIRI From this catastrophe Java was rescued by Airlangga, son-in-law of Dharmavamsa. He came to power on 1019A.D.and had to silence the opposition of many kingdoms that had declared independence. He devoted himself in the improvement of the trade and commerce. He was a great patron of literature. In his old days he became religious and abdicated the throne. Before his death he had divided his kingdom into two parts and bestowed then upon his two sons, the western kingdom

with Kadiri as the capital and the eastern Java. Thus there rose two kingdoms Panjala and Janggala. Panjalu was the name of the western kingdom which changed to Kadiri. We possess a very little information about the kingdom of Janggala. Next comes a stone inscription of a king whose full title is rake Halu pu Jaru. The first king of Kadiri whose name is known to us is Sri Jayavarsa Digjaya with the title Sastraprabhu and Jayaprabhu. His stone inscription os dated A.D 1104. From 1116 onwards we come across a series of records referring to the kings bearing exactly the same titles, but with the first part written variously as Bamesvara, Paramesvara and Kamesvara. King Kamesvara reign thus covers the period 1115 to 1130 A.D. he was then succeeded by his son Jayabhaya who was regarded as the incarnation of Visnu in a poem composed by Sedah in 1157. He was then succeeded by his son Kamesvara II. The last king of Kadiri dynasty was Kratajaya. Thus Java during the period of Kadiri became an empire having control over Bali, southwestern part of Borneo and some islands of the Archiepelago. The Kadiri period which laid the foundation of the Javanese empire also witnessed a high development in art and literature. This period constitutes an important landmark in the political and cultural history of Java.

4. KINGDOM OF SINGHASARI Like many other founders of Royal Families, the life of Angrok, who established a new kingdom in Singhasari has been a subject to popular legend. Angrok assassinated his master, married his widow, queen Dedes and made himself the ruler of the territory to the east of mount Kavi. The establishment of his new power soon brought Angrok intoconflict with Krtajaya, king of Kadiri who was hten defeated and killed by Angrok. Angrok then declared himself with the title of Rajasa. Thus he united the whole of eastern Java. With this faded away Hindu culture and civilization and purely Javanese culture became prominent. Rajasa restored peace in his country. Rajasas death is goven as 1227 A.D, Anusapati succeeded him, who was his eldest son. He died in the year 1248 A.D. Rajasas both sons were assassinated. In 1254 A.D we find a notable king- Kritanagra who had an eventful reign both at home and foreign politics. After along interval Java entered into political relations with the neighboring lands. A military expedition was sent to Bali in 1284 A.D. to re-establish the supremacy of Java over that island, and the king of Bali was brought as a prisoner before Kritanagra. The success over Bali was evidently short lived, for it soon became independent. He established his influence also over Malay peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra and Madura island. So, Kritangara is

memorable in the imperial history of Java. But during his regin a various revolution took place and the king was killed byh a rebel governor of Kadiri, who reestablished his supremacy over Kadiri. But again this was short lived as we see Vijaya the son-in-law of Kritanagra founded a small state at Majapahit. 5. THE MAJAPAHIT DYNASTY When the royal troops of Java were busy in expeditions against Malayu,Jayakatvang, the governor of Kadiri by a coup removed Kritanagra from the throne of Java. The king and the ministers who were having wone were killed on the spot and in this way he established the pre-eminence of Kadiri over Java. But Vijaya the sonin-law of Kritanagra headed the royal army and established a small state Mahapahit and ended the rule of the king of Kadiri.Vijaya also attacked the Chinese army. The fight ended in a draw and the Chinese left Java. Vijaya now became the undisputed master of Java with Majapahit as his capital. It is strange that the Mongols who had come to worst Kritanagra really helped the re-establishment of his family in the person of Vijaya. Majapahit now became the Nucleus of the might Hindu empire which continued its existence till the 16th century A.D. 6. THE JAVANESE EMPIRE

Vijaya assumed the name Kritarajasa Jayavardhana after his accession to the throne, and became the master of the Java with Majapahit as the capital. The reign of Kritarajasa was full of troubles. Various officers declared independence in different principalities, to suppress which the entire reign of Kritarajasa was spent. He died in 1311 A.D and was succeeded by his son Jayanara , who came up with the title Sundrapandyadeva dhiavara Vikramottungadeva. His regin was again full of troubles. The king of Java exercised suzerainty over other seven kings. After the death of Jayanara there was no male heir so that Gitarajja one of the widows of Jayanara ruled as the regent with the title of Queen of Majapahit and her minor son took the title of Prince of Jivana. At the age of 16 Rajasanagara came to the throne in 1350 A.D. during his reign the kingdom of Java rose to be the supreme political power. The rulers were of the subordinate status and they readily paid tribute to Majapahit. Thus the Reign of Rajasangara constituted the high-watermark of the power and glory of the Java. The greatest achievement of the next king Vikramavardhana was the military conquest over Virabhumi. But the greatness of Java beagan to wane in Suvarnadvipa yielding place to China. Thus in the beginning of the 15th century Java started to decline as an international power. The civil war in Java was

followed by a volcanic eruption in 1411 A.D.After this the hindu kingdom of Java came under the possession of the muslims. The last trace of the Hindu rule can be dates to 1513-1515 A.D

POLITICAL THEORY AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN JAVA The Javanese Law-books do not contain anything about administrative law. There are three old Javanese old prose text on political theory and public administration like 1. Kamandaka: is an old Javanese txt in which duties of the king are explained. The characters of Ramayana and Mahabharata are used as illustrations For example Yudhistira is held as an ideal. 2. Indraloka: in this Indraloka gives a lesson on politics to his pupil. 3. Nitipraya: the book describes about the duties of the king towards his enemy. It was communicated by Vishnu and Vyasa. The foundation of the king was based on the absolute power of the king. Monarchy was the only form of the Government and no check was put to his power. The king was sometimes considered as the incarnation of the God. Thus the theory of the divinity of the King was sanctioned by Manusamhita and had a complete sway in

Java. The defication of the king after his death gives credence to the theory of divine right. The administrative system followed the Indian model to a certain extent. The king was the head of the state.all the large kingdoms were divided into small unitsplaced under one governor appointed by the king. The village was the smallest unit under a kind of a local self Government. The number of the designations of the officers differed from time to time. The Sanskrit designations like the Mantri, Senapati were in vogue. After the king there were three great Mantris called the Mantri Hino, Mantri Srikan, Mantri Halu. Next to them were three chief executive officers the Rakyran. The two other im[portant officers were Dharmadhikaranas and Dharmadhyakshas. While the former was the judicial officer, the latter was the suprintendant of Saiva and Buddhist institutions. The administration was highly organized with an efficient system of bureaucracy with the king as the head. The vassal states were given full autonomy in respect to internal administration of their respective states. Bali was the only state where a direct administration was carried on from the capital of Java. The mantris would visit those dependant states for the purpose of collecting the taxes.

ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF JAVA

Like the art in India the art in Java was the handmaid of religion. The religious structures were more or less built on large platforms, which were uniform with variation in details called as chandi. Each temple had three distinct parts1. A high decorated basement 2. A square body of the temple with vestibule in front and projections on all the other sides and 3. The roof consisting of a series of gradually diminishing storeys each with a minor replica of a temple with four turrets at four corners of the same design. The interior of the temple is a plain square chamber vertical walls of which support a series of projecting horizontal courses of stone which form an inverted pyramid of steps and is terminated by a high and pointed hollow cone. The art of Java has a striking affinity with that of the Palas of Bengal. The Palas were ardent Buddhist of the Mahayana school which became the compeer of Saivism in Java. Like the style of India, the arches in the temples are constructed horizontally. Another important feature is that very often in a large group of templeone or two big temples surrounding with numerous other smaller temples.

The most ancient temples of Java are to be found on the Dieng Plateau which is at the height of 6,500 ft. there are hills on all sides of the plateau. These temples are Bhraminical temples named after the heores and heroines of theMahabharata. These temples were constructed probably in the 8th century A.D. The other centre of Indo-Javanese art is the Prambana valley which has several groups of important temples which are both Buddhist and Brahaminical types of temples. Chandi Kalasan, Chandi Sari, Chandi Saru are the most important temples among the Buddhist group. Chandi Kalasan group was the temple of Tara constructed by Sailendra king in 778 AD. The Chandi Saru group contains no less than 250 temples with the main temple at the centre. The most significant feature of the centre temple is a vast paved courtyard measuring about 600 ft by 540 ft. In the Prambanan valley the Brahaminical temples are more important. Of them the Lara-Jongrang group is famous which consists of 156 temples. There are five rows of temples and three rows of minor temples. The three main temples in a row contain the images of Brahma, Vishnu and Siva. The Siva temple at the centre is the most significant. In the middle of the Dieng Plateau and Prambanan valley stands the Kedu plainland which possess a number of five temples.

The most magnificent building in Java is the famous Borobudur. It is a very big structure and regarded as the wonder of the world. It belonged to the end of the 8th century A.D. when the Sailendra empire was ruling over Java and over the whole of Suvardvipa. Borobudur is famous for its beauty. It invokes the feeling of awe and wonder at the marvelous inspiration in skill and execution. This great monument had nine gradually receding terraces. The six terraces below are square and the three above are circular. The entire structure is covered by bell-shaped stupa which is in centre of the topmost terrace and the stupa above. The uppermost terracesare encircled by rings of stupas, each with a large image of Buddha within a perforated framework. There are four successive galleries which have been formed by the inner walls forming an enclosure to the five lowermost terraces. These galleries contain eleven series of sculptured panels that depict the life and the stories of Buddha. Niches have carved temples and images of Buddha. The most attractive feature of Borobudur is its massive proportions. It gives us the impression of a hillock that has suddenly some out. So it is a very colossal structure. In the length it is 4000 ft and in height 90 ft. The temple niches each having the image of Buddha are 432 in number. The total number of sculpture panels in the galleries is 1500. It is difficult

to name any art product here. The Borobudur overshadows other artistic works of Java.