Academic Writing

Pamela Vang

 Lecture 1 Structuring your writing Lecture 2 Writing in English Lecture 3 How to avoid plagiariam

Why do we write?
To

communicate

As a

tool for thinking processes

Lennart Bjrk, Christine Risnen, Studentlitteratur 2003

Traditional views

ProcessOriented views
Fig.1 Writing

How can we use writing?

Figure 2, uses of writing

Lennart Bjrk, Christine Risnen,

Writing is used to

communicate

Communication
What?

Why?

To whom?

The Shannon / Weaver Communication Model

Sender

Sign

Receiver

Fig.3 Shannon/Weaver modet

How accurate is this model?

Bhler Communication Model

THINGS
Sender

T h i n g s

Sign

Receiver

Fig.4 Bhler Communication Model

What sort of things? What can they be?

Making sense of a text is an act of interpretation that depends as much on what the reader puts into the text as what the author puts into it. Interpretation can be seen as a set of procedures. Procedural approaches to reading and understanding emphasis the role of the reader in actively buildingthe text, based on his/her experience of the world and how states and events are characterisitically manifested. The reader is ACTIVE in making inferences and constantly assessing his/her interpretation in the light of the situation and aims and goals of the text as he/she perceives them. Michael McCarthy 1991

Reader-Oriented Writing

Audience Expectations Prior knowledge

Texts are like blank cheques . the readers put their own signatures on them. (adapted from
Thornton Wilder)

Considerations in academic writing

Swales & Feak, 2004, p.1

Fig.5 Considerations in academic writing

Structure/Organisation

A whole is that which has a beginning, a middle, and an end.

Aristotle, Poetics

 Word the smallest unit we will consider Sentence difficult to define. Sometimes
considered a single thought, sometimes by its structure.

Paragraph

`a subdivision of a piece of writing or a speech that consists of one or more sentences and develops in an organized manner one point of a subject or gives the words of one speaker. (Websters) A paragraph always starts on a new line.

Ways of structuring texts

The Purpose or objective of the text will determine the structure.
Instruct? Convince? Present new findings? Challenge old results? Fulfil course requirements? Etc.etc

Some different text types

Causal-analysis Proposals to solve problems Argumentation Summarising Critique Report Research paper

Basic features of Causal-Analysis Texts

A clear presentation of the trend or phenomenon An analysis of the causes A clear outline/structure A reasonable, but authorative tone

Bjrk and Risnen

Analysis of the causes

Offer convincing arguments in favour of the cause(s) you suggest. Indicate awareness of possible objections to your suggestions. (mention, integrate or refute) Indicate an awareness of alternative causes (which can be mentioned, refuted etc.)
Bjrk and Risnen

Clear Outliune/Structure
There are two main patterns for structuring a causal analysis. a) the main cause(s) first? b) the minor cause(s) first? You must always consider which is more Bjrk and Risnen effective in your case?

Tone
Although you should not be too shrill or aggressive, being too cautious in your argumentation undermines your authority and can be boring and Risnenreader. Bjrk for the Do not use perhaps, in my opinion too often.

Bjrk and Risnen

Proposals to solve problems

What does the reader want to know? What is the problem? What would happen if the problem is left unsolved? How can it be solved? What will the benefits of the proposed solution be? What other possible solutions are there?
Bjrk and Risnen

Argumentation

Fig.6 Argumentation; Basic model

Fig.7 Argumentation with examples

Bjrk and Risnen

Summaries

When and why do we write summaries?

Abstracts, presidents report, own notes, etc.

What are the basic features of a summary?

(Full, clear information about original) Overall purpose of the original Main supporting points Use your own words! Objective Coherent Summary markers (The author argues, maintains, suggests etc) The reader who has NOT read the original should get an adequate understanding of the original.

Examples of summary phrases

Benfield and Howard state that .. (What alternatives to `state are there?) The author goes on to say. They further state that . X. Also believes that.. In the second half of the paper, X presents . Goodman goes on to say . The author further argues
(adapted from Swales and Feak (2004)p.168)

Abstracts
An abstract is an abbreviated representation of the contents of a document, preferably prepared by its author(s) for publication with it. (ANSI, 1979:1)
(American National Standards Institute)

The abstract tells the reader

What the author did
(Purpose)

How the author did it

(Methodology)

What the author found

(Results)

What the author concluded

(Conclusions)

Critiques
Positive or negative (book, film reviews common examples) In academic life To ensure that reading assignments are done To assess understanding To develop analytical reading To train students in integrating new knowledge with previous knowledge To begin to understand what is expected in their research.

Summaries vs Critiques
Summaries provide an accurate account of source material Critiques evaluate Different fields have different emphasis: Humanities: interesting arguments Social sciences: methodology Natural sciences and engineering: results and implications

Things to consider when making a critique.

The physical presentation of the paper (page numbers, headings,general organisation, organisation of the different sections, figures, contents, references etc.) Does the paper do what it claims to set out to do? What is the strength of the paper? Is the reader over/underestimated?

Give clear reasons for criticism Give suggestions for improvement.

Peer critique or feedback is a very useful learning tool. Use it to help each other!

Reports
Structure: (title page, contents page) Summary/ abstract/introduction (headings, sections,
numbering)

Problem/purpose Method diagrams etc. Findings statistics etc. Conclusions and Recommendations

N.B.This is a standard structure for a long report. There are many variations

Research papers
Title Abstract Introduction (methods) (results) Discussion Acknowledgements References

What do we need to think about?

CONSTRAINTS Time plan Topic Assessing readers Collecting material Organising material Tone Credibility Sources Quotations

General-Specific Texts

Swales&Feak 2004,p.45
Fig.7, General-Specific model

Overview of a research paper

Introduction General Specific

Methods and Materials

Results (and analysis) Discussion Specific General

Fig. 8 IMRAD model

IMRAD

Introdution CARS (Swales)

Create a research space
a) by showing that the area is important, interesting, problematic, relevant etc. b) by introducing and reviewing previous research in the area

Establish a niche
By indicating a gap in the previous research or by extending existing knowledge

Occupy the niche by

Outlining purpose or stating the present research Listing research questions and hypotheses Announcing principle findings Stating the value of the present research Indicating the structure of the paper

Student Dissertation Introductions (Dudley-Evans 1989)

Move 1: Introducing the field Move 2: Introducing the general topic (within the field) Move 3: Introducing the particular topic (within the general topic) Move 4: Defining the scope of the particular topic by (i) introducing research parametres (ii) summarising previous research

Move 5: Preparing for present research by

(i) indicating a gap in previous research (ii) indicating a possible extension of previous research Move 6: Introducing present research by (i) stating the aim of the research or (ii) describing briefly the work carried out (iii) justifying the research

Results
Find the right strength in your claim Highlight the results presented in the data Totally objective presentation Simply report the data

Discussion
Comment on the results section Highlight the strengths of the study Discuss possible weaknesses Comment on the objectives Widen the scope of the research territory Compare with results from other researchers/ scientists Future research

Discipline
What is a discipline? An `identity A discipline is defined as a domain, a collection of methods, a body of claims that are considered true, a game made up of rules and definitions and of techniques and instruments. (Foucault, The Order of Discourse, 1971)

Academic Genres

Fig.9, Academic Genres

Bjrk and Risnen

Genre
A genre is a recognised communicative event with a shared public purpose and with aims mutually understood by the participants in that event.
F. Davies(1988) in Academic Writing: Process and Product, ELT Documents 129.

Most academic institutions have a well-developed schemata for academic discourse and clear, stable views about what is appropriate. Make sure you know what your host institution expects and requires!

To build genre awareness

READ!

READ!

READ! Actively!

Traditional forms of academic discourse, especially in science and social science, demand an impersonal style, and part of the `apprenticeship of a student in an academic discipline is the effacing of prior identities in academic writing in order to join the new `discourse community.
Fairclough, N. (1995) p.227 Critical Discourse Analysis

`.there is an intimate relationhip between the development of peoples critical awareness of language and the development of their own language capabilities and practices
Fairclough, N. (1995) p.227 Critical Discourse Analysis

Appropriacy
Thats all I can think of to write now. Goodbye
taken from Jordan,R.R.(1997)p.244 English for Academic Purposes

Aristotle
Appropriateness
The hearers /readers The nature of the subject The character of the speaker/ writer

(Rhetoric)

Judgement.

The academic writers material is: Analytical Intellectual Rational

approach to his or her

impressionistic subjective polemic

rather than

The academic writers Serious Impersonal Formal

tone is:
conversational personal colloquial

rather than

Reader friendliness

What makes a text reader friendly?

Structure Lay out Appropriateness Style/Language

We judge by APPEARANCES!!!!

Style
The foundation of good

style is correctness

of language:
connecting words terms which are not vague avoidance of ambiguity correct indication of grammatical number
Aristotle, Rhetoric

List of Sources

Aristotle Poetics (1997) translated by S.H. Butcher Dover Thrift Edition Dover Publications, New York(1997) Aristotle Rhetoric (2004) translated by W.Ryhs Roberts, Dover Thrift Edition Dover Publications, New York Bjrk, Lennart and Christine Risnen (2003) Academic Writing, A University Writing Course, Studentlitteratur , Lund Fairclough, Norman (1995) Critical Discourse Analysis, the Critical Study of Language Longman, England Foucault, Michel (1971) Diskursens Ordning translated to Swedish by Mats Rosengren, Brutus stlings Bokfrlag Symposium Stockholm 1993 Jordan, R.R (1997) English for Academic Purposes, A guide and resource book for teachers Cambridge University Press Swales, John, M and Christine Feak (2004) Academic Writing for Graduate Students Essential Tasksand Skills Second Edition The University of Michigan Press
Ann Arbor Websters New Encyclopedic Dictionary, (1993) Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers Inc. New York

Recommended Reading

Bell, Judith (1999) Doing your research project (education and social sciences) Third Edition Open University Press Bjrk, Lennart and Christine Risnen (2003) Academic Writing, A University Writing Course, Studentlitteratur , Lund Clark, Stewart and Graham Pointon, (2009) Words: A Users Guide Pearson Longman Heffernan, James A. and John E. Lincoln, (1994) Writing: A college Handbook Norton & Company Swales, John M. and Christine Feak (2004) Academic Writing for Graduate Students The Universityof Michigan Press, Ann Arbor Swan, Michael (1995) Practical English Usage Oxford Univerity Press A good monolingual dictionary such as Collins Cobuild Advanced Dictionary Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English(2009) with DVD-ROM, Online and mobile functions) Pearson Longman A grammar with explanations and exercises such as Hewings Advanced Grammar in Use with exercises

Academic Writing Seminar I: Critiquing a source Read the following text: Brown, Lester 2004. Blueprint for a Better Planet in Mother Earth News. February/March 2004. p.90-98. (access available through the LiU Library Journals subscription, i.e. free access from a LiU computer or with your LUKAS account: http://www.bibl.liu.se/english/tidskrifter/pere.asp Search for Mother Earth News. You find the article is on the second page of the February/March issue of 2004)

Then write a critique of it by asking:

1) Who is talking/writing whos the sender? 2) Whos the object in mind whos the receiver? 3) On what societal arena/context are the message or text talking place? (on a local, regional, national or international political arena, in an educational environment, in the world of amusement, among children, etc, etc.) 4) What kind of perspective/perspectives is present in the text? (economical, moral, ideological, technological, gender related, environmental, etc, etc.) This critique should be a short report (about one page). Bring it to the seminar.

Tomorrow We are going to look at writing correctly and appropriately in a reader-friendly manner in

ENGLISH!
Pamela Vang