Biyani's Think Tank

Concept based notes

Discrete Mathematics
(BCA Part-I)

Varsha Gupta
M.Sc. (Maths)

Lecturer Deptt. of Information Technology Biyani Girls College, Jaipur

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Published by : Think Tanks Biyani Group of Colleges

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First Edition : 2009 Price :

While every effort is taken to avoid errors or omissions in this Publication, any mistake or omission that may have crept in is not intentional. It may be taken note of that neither the publisher nor the author will be responsible for any damage or loss of any kind arising to anyone in any manner on account of such errors and omissions.

Type Setted by : Biyani College Printing Department

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Preface

am glad to present this book, especially designed to serve the needs of the students. The book has been written keeping in mind the general weakness in understanding the fundamental concept of the topic. The book is self-explanatory and adopts the Teach Yourself style. It is based on question-answer pattern. The language of book is quite easy and understandable based on scientific approach. I have made a meaningful effort to summarize the complete syllabus. This includes various topics which are explained in simplest way. Any further improvement in the contents of the book by making corrections, omission and inclusion is keen to be achieved based on suggestions from the reader for which the author shall be obliged. I acknowledge special thanks to Mr. Rajeev Biyani, Chiarman & Dr. Sanjay Biyani, Director (Acad.) Biyani Group of Colleges, who is the backbone and main concept provider and also have been constant source of motivation throughout this endeavour. I look forward to receiving valuable suggestions from professors of various educational institutions, other faculty members and the students for improvement of the quality of the book. The

reader may feel free to send in their comments and suggestions to the under mentioned address.

Author

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Syllabus
B.C.A. Part-I

Discrete Mathematics
Number Systems : Natural Numbers, Integers, Rational Numbers, Real Numbers, Complex Numbers, Arithmetic Modulo a Positive Integer (Binary, Octal, Decimal and Hexadecimal Number Systems), Radix Representation of Integers, Representing Negative and Rational Numbers, Floating Point Notation. Binary Arithmetic, 2s Complement Arithmetic, Conversion of Numbers from One of Binary / Octal / Decimal / Hexadecimal Number System to other Number System, Codes (Natural BCD, Excess-3, Gray, Octal, Hexadecimal, Alphanumeric EBCDIC and ASCII), Error Codes. Logic and Proofs : Proposition, Conjunction, Disjunction, Negation, Compound Proposition, Conditional Propositions (Hypothesis, Conclusion, Necessary and Sufficient Condition) and Logical Equivalence, De Morgans Laws, Quantifiers, Universally Quantified Statement, Generalized De Morgans Laws for Logic, Component of Mathematical System (Axiom, Definitions, Undefined Terms, Theorem, Leema and Corollary), Proofs (Direct Proofs, Indirect Proofs, Proof by Contra-Positive), Valid Argument, Deductive Reasoning, Modus Ponens (Rules of Inference), Universal Instantiation, Universal Generalization, Existential Instantiation, Universal Generalization Resolution, Principle of Mathematical Induction, Structural Induction. Sets, Venn Diagrams, Ordered Pairs, Sequences and Strings, Relation (Reflexive, Symmetric, Anti-symmetric, Transitive, Partial Order), Inverse Relation (Injective, Subjective, bijective), Coposition of Functions, Restriction and Function Overriding, Function Spaces, Lambda Notation for functions, Lambda Calculus, Equivalence Relations, Interpretation using Digraphs. Cardinals, Countable and Uncountable Sets, Infinite Cardinal Numbers, Russells Paradox, Operations on Cardinals, Laws of Cardinal Arithmetic. Graph Theory, Undirected Graph, Digraph, Weighted Graph, Similarity Graphs, Paths and Cycles, Hamiltonian Cycles, Shortest Path Algorithm, Isomorphism of Graphs, Planar Graphs. Trees, Characterization of Trees, Spanning Trees, Breadth First Search and Death First Search Method, Minimal Spanning Trees, Binary Trees, Tree Traversals, Decision Trees and the Minimum Time for Sorting, Isomorphism of Trees.

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Content
S.No. 1. Name of Topic Graph Theory 1.1 Simple Graph 1.2 Isomorphism 1.3 Dijekstra Algorithm 1.4 Non-Planarity 1.5 Matrix Representation 1.6 Regular Graph and Complete Graph Trees 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Page No. 7-14

2.

15-21 Definition and Properties of Trees Prims Methods Tree Transversal m-ary and Full m-ary Tree 22-24

3.

Number System 3.1 Conversion from Decimal to Binary Number System 3.2 Sum of Binary Numbers 3.3 Conversion from Decimal to Octal Number System 3.4 Conversion from Hexadecimal to Decimal Form Binary Arithmetics 4.1 2s Complement 4.2 8-bit 2s Complement 4.3 BCD Code 4.4 Gray Code 4.5 EBCDIC Code Name of Topic Sets 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Power Set Operations on Sets Symmetric Difference of Two Sets De-Margans Law Russells Paradox

4.

25-26

S.No. 5.

Page No. 27-30

6.

Relations

31-36

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7. 8.

Functions Proportional Calculus 8.1 Converse, Inverse and Contraposition 8.2 De-Margans Law 8.3 Quantifiers

37-42 43-46

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Chapter-1

Graph Theory
Q.1 Ans.: V1 Draw simple graphs with one, two, three and four vertices.

Simple graph with one vertex

Simple graph with two vertices

V1

V2

Simple graph with three vertices V1

V3 V2

Simple graph with four vertices

V4 V1

V3 V2

Q.2

Show that if G = (V, E) is a complete bipartite graph with n vertices then the n2 total numbers of edges in G cannot exceed . 4

Ans.: Let Kp,q be a complete bipartite graph. The total no. of edges in Kp,q is p.q and n total no. of vertices will be (p+q). If we take p = q = then in complete bipartite 2 n n n2 graph K n , n no. of edges will be . = which is maximum (If two numbers 2 2 2 2 4

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are equal then their product is maximum). Hence in a complete bipartite graph of n2 n vertices the no. of edges cannot exceed . 4 Q.3 Show that following two graphs are not isomorphic. V5 U6

V1

V2

V3 G

V4 V6

U1

U2

U3 G

U4

U5

Ans.: In graph G and G we find that (i) (ii) (iii) No. of vertices in G = No. of vertices in G = 6. No. of edges in G = No. of edges in G = 5. No. of vertices of degree one in G and G = 3. No. of vertices of degree two in G and G = 2 No. of vertices of degree three in G and G = 1 i.e. Number of vertices of equal degree are equal. Although it satisfies all the three conditions but then also G and G are not isomorphic because corresponding to vertex V4 in G there should be a vertex U3 because in both G and G there is only one vertex of degree three. But two pendent vertices V5 and V6 are incident on the vertex V4 in G whereas only one pendent vertex U6 is incident on the vertex U3 in G. Hence G and G are not isomorphic. Q.4 Define the followings :(i) Ans.: (i) Walk (ii) Trail (iii) Path (iv) Circuit (v) Cycle Walk : An alternating sequence of vertices and edges is called a Walk. It is denoted by W.

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Example : a e1 e6 e5 e Figure (1) Here W = ae1 b e2 c e3 d is a walk. Walk is of two types :(a) Open Walk : If the end vertices of a walk are different then such a walk is called Open Walk. Example from fig.(1) : W = a e1 b e2 c e3 d is an open walk. (b) Closed Walk : If a walk starts and end with same vertex then such a walk is called closed walk. Example from fig.(1) : W = a e6 e e5 b e1 a is a closed walk as it starts and end with same vertex a. (ii) Trail : An open walk in a graph G in which no edge is repeated is called a Trail. Example from fig.(1) : (iii) W = a e1 b e2 c e3 d is a trail. b e2 c e4 e3 d

Path : An open walk in which no vertex is repeated except the initial and terminal vertex is called a Path. Example for fig.(1) : W = a e1 b e4 d e3 c is a path. Circuit : A closed trail is called a Circuit. Example for fig.(1) : W = a e1 b e5 e e6 a is a circuit. Cycle : A closed path is called a Cycle. Example for fig.(1) : W = a e1 b e5 e e6 a is a cycle.

(iv) (v)

Q.5

Find the shortest path between the vertex a and z in the following graph. b 4 a 3 2 3 33 1 2 4 5 d 5 f 7 z

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c
a
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

6
c
3

e
d

5
e
9

g
f

Ans.: First we label the vertex a by permanent label 0 and rest by .

b
4 4 4 4 4 4 4

6 6 6 6 6 6

3 3 3 3 3 3

9 7 7 7 7

11 11 11 11

12 12 12

18 16

Hence shortest path is a c d e g z = 16 Q.6 Prove that K5 is non-planar. Ans.: Let the five vertices of K5 be V1, V2, V3, V4 and V5. Since K5 is a complete graph so every vertex of K5 is joined to every other vertex by means of an edge. Therefore we must have a circuit going from V1 to V2, to V3, to V4, to V5 and to V1 i.e. a pentagon. V2 V1 V3 V1 V2 V3

V5 (a) V2 V1

V4

V5 (b) V2

V4

V3

V1

V3

V5

V4

V5

V4

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(c) V2 V1 V3

(d)

V5 (e)

V4

Since vertex V1 is to be connected to V3 by means of an edge, this edge may be drawn inside or outside the pentagon (without intersecting the five edges drawn previously). Suppose we draw a line from V1 to V3 inside the pentagon. Now we have to drawn an edge from V2 to V4 and another one from V2 to V5. Since neither of these edges can be drawn inside the pentagon without crossing over the already drawn edge. We draw both these edges outside the pentagon. Now the edge from V3 to V5 cannot be drawn outside the pentagon without crossing the edge between V2 to V4. Therefore V3 and V5 have to be connected with an edge inside the pentagon. Now we have yet to draw an edge between V1 and V4. This edge cannot be placed inside or outside the pentagon without a crossover. Hence K5 is not a planar graph. Q.7 State and prove Handshaking Theorem.

Ans.: Handshaking Theorem : The sum of degrees of all the vertices in a graph G is equal to twice the number of edges in the graph. Mathematically it can be stated as :

deg(v) = 2e
vV

Proof : Let G = (V, E) be a graph where V = {v1, v2, . . . . . . . . . .} be the set of vertices and E = {e1, e2, . . . . . . . . . .} be the set of edges. We know that every edge lies between two vertices so it provides degree one to each vertex. Hence each edge contributes degree two for the graph. So sum of degrees of all vertices is equal to twice the number of edges in G. Hence

deg(v) = 2e
vV

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Q.8

Explain Matrix Representation of Graphs.

Ans.: Although a pictorial representation of a graph is very convenient for a visual study, other representations are better for computer processing. A matrix is convenient and useful way of the representation of a graph to a computer for a graph. There are different types of matrices : (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Q.9 Incidence Matrix Circuit Matrix Adjacency Matrix Path Matrix etc.

How many edges are there with 7 vertices each of degree 4?

Ans.: In graph G, there are 7 vertices and degree of each vertex is 4. So sum of the degrees of all the vertices of graph G = 7 x 4 = 28. According to Handshaking Theorem

deg(v) = 2e
vV

28 = 2e e = 14 So, total no. of edges in G = 14. Q.10 Define Regular and Complete Graph. Ans.: Regular Graph : A simple graph G = (V, E) is called a Regular Graph if degree of each of its vertices are equal. Examples : 1V1 V2 Here degree of each vertex is one. So it is regular graph.

2V1

V3 V2

Degree of each vertex is two.

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3-

V4 V1

V3 V2

Degree of each vertex is two.

Complete Graph : A simple graph G = (V, E) is called a Complete Graph if there is exactly one edge between every pair of distinct vertices. A complete graph with n-vertices is denoted by Kn. K1 K2 K3

K4 K5 K6 In a complete graph Kn total no. of edges = i.e. size of Kn =

n( n 1) 2 n( n 1) 2

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Chapter-2

Trees
Q.1 Define a Tree. Prove that there is one path between every pair of distinct vertices in a Tree T.

Ans.: Tree : A Tree is a connected graph without any circuit i.e Tree is a simple graph.

Trees with one, two, three, and four vertices. Proof : Since T is a connected graph. Let a and b be any two vertices of T. If it is possible let there are two different paths between the vertices a and b. P = a u1, u2, . . . . . . . . . . um b and Q = a v1, v2, . . . . . . . . . . vn b are those two different paths between a and b. In both these paths vertices after a can be common also. Let w be the first common vertex then for any i and j W = ui = vj Where i = 1, 2, . . . . . . . . . . m j = 1, 2, . . . . . . . . . . n Then we get a cycle a u1, u2, . . . . . . . . . . ui-1 , ui , vj-1 , vj-2 , . . . . . . . . . . v2, v1 a
which contradicts our assumption that T is a Tree. Hence there is only one path between a and b.

Q.2

A Tree with n-vertices has (n-1) edges.

Ans.: Let T be a tree having n vertices. We shall prove the theorem by mathematical induction. If n=1 then T contains only one vertex and 1-1=0 edges. Hence the theorem is true for n=1.

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Let it be true for k vertices. Now we shall prove it for (k+1) vertices. Since T is a connected graph so let P be a path of maximum length in T. P cannot be a circuit. Hence P contains atleast one vertex of degree one. Let this vertex be v. Now this vertex v and edge incident on it are eliminated from T so that we obtain a new tree T* which contains k vertices. According to our assumption T* contains (k-1) edges. Now if in T* the vertex v and edge is again included we again get T in which no. of edges are k. Hence the theorem is true for (k+1) vertices also. Thus by mathematical induction theorem is true for all n N. Hence proved. Q.3 If G is an acyclic graph with n vertices and k connected components then G has (n-k) edges.

Ans.: Proof : Let G be an acyclic graph. Let G1, G2, . . . . . . . . . . GK be its k connected components. For every i (1 i k ) ith component Gi has ni vertices then clearly n1 + n2 + n3 +. . . . . . . . . .+ nK = n Again since every Gi is a tree. Hence no. of edges in every Gi will be (ni-1) so total no. of edges in G = (n1 1) + (n2 1) + . . . . . . . . . . + (nk 1) = (n1 + n2 + . . . . . . . . . . + nk) k =nk Hence proved. Q.4 Find eccentricity, centre radius and diameter of the following graph. Eccentricity : E(V1) = 2 E(V2) = 2 E(V3) = 1 E(V4) = 2 (ii) V4 Centre : Centre of the given graph is the vertex V3 because it has minimum eccentricity. (iii) (iv) Radius : Radius (eccentricity of the centre) = 1 Diameter : Maximum eccentricity = 2
Diameter of the given graph = 2

Ans.: (i)

V1 V3

V2

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Q.5 Ans.:

Prove that every tree has either one or two centres. Let T be a tree if T contains only one vertex then this vertex will be centre of T. If T contains two vertices then both vertices are centre of T. Now let T contains more than two vertices. The maximum distance max.d (v, vi) from a given vertex v to any other vertex vi occurs only when vi is a pendent vertex. Tree T must have two or more pendent vertices. Delete all pendent vertices form T. The resulting graph T is still a tree in which the eccentricity of all vertices is reduced by 1. Hence the centre of T will also be centre of T. From T, we can again remove all pendent vertices and we get another tree T. We continue this process until we are left with a vertex or an edge. If a vertex is left then this vertex is the centre and if an edge is left then both its end vertices are centre of T. Example : e(6) d(5) m(6) a(6) b(5) c(4) i(5) Removing all pendent vertices d(4) j(3) k(4) l(5) n(6) f(6) g(6) h(6)

b(4)

c(3)

j(2)

k(3)

l(4)

Removing all pendent vertices

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c(2) Q.6 Ans.:

j(1)

k(2)

j (centre)

Find minimal spanning tree for the following weighted graph (use Primes Method). V1 3 V2 3 V3 4 V4 V1 V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V2 3 3 1 4 1 3 3 5 3 1 4 4 V2 3 3 VV3 1 3 1 V4 1 V6 5 4 2 V5 4 2 2 V6 1 4 2 3 4 5 1 2 1 4 V6 2 V5

V3 1 V4

V5

Minimal Spanning Tree Q.7 Ans.: b Write Pre-order, In-order and Post-order transversal of the following graph. a c d

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e k Pre-order In-order Post-order Q.8 : : : l m

g h

abeklmfgchdij kelmbfgachidj klmefgbhcijda

Define m-ary and Full m-ary Tree. Gives an example for each.

Ans.: m-ary Tree : A rooted tree is said to be m-ary Tree if every internal vertex or branch node has not more than m-children. a b e g 2 Ary Tree Full m-ary Tree : A rooted tree is said to be Full m-ary Tree if every internal vertex or branch node has exactly m-children. a1 a3 a2 a8 a5 a6 Q.9 Ans.:
+ *235/ 234

c d f h

a4 a9 a10 a11 Full 3 Ary Tree a12 a13 a7

Find the value of following prefix expression.

23

+ *235 / 84
8/ 4

+ *2352
2 x3

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+ *652
65
+12

1+ 2

3
Q.10 In any tree with 2 or more vertices there are atleast two pendent vertices. Ans.: Let T be a tree with n vertices and (n-1) edges. Since all the edges are connected with 2 vertices at a time. Hence the sum of the degree of all the vertices is = 2 x (no. of edges) = 2 x (n - 1) = 2n 2 Now, we have to prove that in tree T there are atleast two vertices of degree one and rest of vertices are of degree two or higher. Since no vertex in T has zero degree so let us assume that there is only one vertex of degree one and rest (n-1) vertices are of degree two or higher. Then the sum of the degrees of vertices is 1 + 2(n 1) = 2n 1 which is contradiction of (2n 2). Hence there is another vertex of degree one. If we take two vertices of degree 1 and remaining (n - 2) vertices of degree 2 or more than two then sum of the degrees of vertices = 2 + 2(n 2) = 2n 2 which is correct. Hence proved.

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Chapter-3

Number System
Q.1 Convert (111001101)2 into decimal form and 96 into binary number. = = 256 + 128 + 64 + 0 + 0 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 = (461)10 For converting 96 into binary number 2 2 2 2 2 2 96 Remainders 48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 6 ...............0 3 ...............1 1 ...............1 (96)10 = (110000) 2

Ans.: (111001101) 2 = 1* 28 + 1* 2 7 + 1* 26 + 0* 25 + 0 * 24 + 1* 23 + 1* 22 + 0 * 21 + 1* 28

Q.2

Find the value of (195) 10 + (105)10 in binary code.

Ans.: Since (195 + 105) = 300 So, we have to find (300) 10

2 2 2 2 2 2 2

300

Remainders

150 . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 75 . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 37 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 9 4 ............0 ............1

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2 1 1

............0 ............0 ............1 (195)10 +(105)10 = (100101100) 2

Q.3 Ans.:

Convert (175) 10 into hexadecimal number. 16 16 175 Remainder (175)10 = (AF) 16 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 = F 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 = A

Q.4 Ans.:

Find the sum of (1011)2 and (10111)2. 0 1 1 So, 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0

(1011)2 + (10111)2 = (100010) 2

Q.5 Ans.: Q.6

Find fixed point representation for the decimal no. 3.056 E-5. 3.056 E-5 = 3.056 x 10-5 = 0.00003056

Convert the decimal number 692.625 into octal form. 8 8 8 692 Remainders

Ans.: Integral Part : 86 . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1 1 Fractional Part : 0.625 x8 5.000 So, Hence, 0.625)10 = (.5)8 (692.625)10 = (1264.5)8 ............2 ............1 (692)10 = (1264)8

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Q.7 Ans.:

Convert hexadecimal no. ABC.2 into decimal form. (ABC.2)16 = = = A x 162 + B x 161 + C x 160 + 2 x 16-1 10 x 256 + 11 x 16 + 12 x 1 + 2 x 0.0625 2748.125

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Chapter-4

Binary Arithmetics
Q.1 Find 2s complement of the binary no. 1101100.

Ans.: 1s complement of 1101100 is 0010011 Adding 1 to this 0 0 So, Q.2 Ans.: 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 + 0 1 1 0

2s complement is 0010100.

Find 8-bit 2s complement of (35)10. (35)10 Let X = = = (100011)2 (00100011)2 00100011 = = 11011100 11011100 +1 11011101 So, 8-bit 2s complement of (35)10 is 11011101 (12)10 = (0001 0010)BCD

1s complement of X 2s complement of X

Q.3 Ans.: Q.4 Ans.: Q.5

Write BCD code for decimal number 12.

Write Gray code of the no. (1111)2. Gray code of (1111)2 is 1000. Represent SHORT in EBCDIC code.

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Ans.:

11100010 S

11001000 H

11010110 O

11011001 R

11100011 T

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Chapter-5

Sets
Q.1 Define Power Set. Write Power Set of A = {1, 2, 3}.

Ans.: Let B be a set then the collection of all subsets of B is called Power Set of B and is denoted by P(B). i.e. P(B) = {S : S B} If A = Then P(A) = Q.2 {1, 2, 3} { , {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}}

Explain the following operations (a) Union (b) Intersection (c) Difference Union : Let A and B be two sets then union of A and B which is denoted as A B is a set of elements which belongs either to A or to B or to both A and B. So,
A B = {x : x A.or.x B}

Ans.: (a)

Example : If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6} then A B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} U

A B
(b) Intersection : Intersection of A and B which is denoted as A B is a set which contains those elements that belong to both A and B. So,
A B = {x : x A.and .x B}

Example : If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6} then A B = { 3, 4}

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A B

(c)

Difference : Let A and B be two sets. The difference of A and B which is written as A - B, is a set of all those elements of A which do not belongs to B. So, Similarly,
A B = {x : x A.and .x B} B A = {x : x B.and .x A}

Example : If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6} then A - B = { 3, 4} and B A = {5, 6}

B AB

A B-A

Q.3

Define symmetric difference of two sets If A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6}, Find A B .

Ans.: Let A and B be two sets, the symmetric difference of A and B is the set ( A B ) ( B A) and is denoted by AB or A B Thus, AB = ( A B ) ( B A) = {x : x A B} A = {2, 3, 4} and A B = {2} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6} B A = {5, 6}

AB = ( A B ) ( B A) = {2} {5,6} = {2,5,6}

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AB

Q.4

State De Margans Law. (i)

( A B )' = A ' B '

Ans.: If A and B are any two sets then and (ii)

( A B )' = A ' B '

Q.5

Prove the following relation

n( A B ) = n( A) + n( B ) n( A B )

Ans.: If A and B are two sets then we know that

A B = ( A B ') ( A B ) ( A ' B )

Hence by sum rule

n( A B ) = n( A B ') + n( A B ) + n( A ' B )

(1)

Again A = ( A B ') ( A B ) By sum rule

n( A) = n( A B ') + n( A B )

(2)

Similarly
n( B ) = n( A B ) + n( A ' B )

(3)

Now eq^(2) + eq^(3) gives

n( A) + n( B ) = n( A B ) + n( A B ) + n( A B ') + n( A ' B ) n( A) + n( B ) n( A B ) = n( A B ) + n( A B ') + n( A ' B ) n( A) + n( B ) n( A B ) = n( A B )

=>

From eq^(1)

Hence proved. Q.6 State and prove Rusells Paradox.

Ans.: See B.C.A. (Discrete Mathematics) CBH Pg. 4.22 Article No. 4.20.

Send your requisition at

info@biyanicolleges.org

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