Contents

Research methods Flash back.....................................................................................................2

Sampling..................................................................................................................................... 4
Ethical Issues.............................................................................................................................. 5
Review of research methods....................................................................................................... 6
Experimental Design................................................................................................................... 8
Observation................................................................................................................................ 9
Correlations..............................................................................................................................12
Self-report methods:................................................................................................................. 13
Interviews.................................................................................................................................15
Case Study................................................................................................................................17
Toolbox..................................................................................................................................... 18
Inferential statistics................................................................................................................... 20
Tea for one or two dear............................................................................................................. 21
Which Research Method are the following studies?...................................................................22
Which Research Method do I use?.............................................................................................24
Reporting Psychological Investigations:.....................................................................................25

Research methods Flash back

Investigation design
Define and explain with examples
Aims
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Null hypothesis
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Experimental (Alternate) Hypothesis

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Directional (One tailed)

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Non-directional (Two tailed)
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Operationalisation of variables
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Variables
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Independent
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Dependent
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Extraneous variables
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Confounding variable
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Sampling
Clearly it is impossible to include all members of the target population within a study
so a section of that population, a sample is included instead. Samples should be of a
sufficient size to represent the variety of individuals in a target population, but not so
large as to make the study uneconomical in terms of time and resources. If a sample is
truly representative of the target population, then psychologists should be able to
generalise the conclusions/findings of the study to the whole target
population.
Random sampling
Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected.
Give 3 steps for doing this:
1.
2.
3.
Opportunity sampling
Use whoever is immediately available e.g. go out and ask passers-by.
Volunteer sampling
Use whoever puts themselves forward e.g. advertise in the paper.
Advantages

Disadvantages

Random
sampling

Opportunity
sampling

Volunteer
sampling

Ethical Issues

Why are ethical guidelines important to follow when

conducting psychological research?

The main issues put forward by the BPS are:

Peter Piper cried when Charles Darwin Died

Researchers should also consider following the following three ethical issues:

1.
2.
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3.
Review of research methods
EXPERIMENTS
Experiments try to establish cause and effect relationships. There are three main types
- laboratory, field and natural (or quasi) experiments. The best experiments are
ones which manipulate the IV and measure the effect this has on the DV. A causal
relationship can only be established if all other extraneous variables are controlled. For
this reason, the majority of experiments are conducted in lab environments.
Complete the table below to identify a definition, strengths and weaknesses
of each experimental method:
Definition
Lab Experiment:

Strengths

Weaknesses

Field Experiment:

Natural Experiment:

Experimental Design
Once the researcher has chosen the experimental method which best suits the nature
of the study, they then have to choose what type of design it will have. The choices are
repeated measures, independent groups and matched pairs.
Now fill in the table below, and answer the questions that follow:
Experimental
Design: definition

Strengths

Weaknesses

Repeated
measures:

Independent
Groups:

Research
example

Matched Pairs:

Observation
There are two main types of observation - controlled and naturalistic. Controlled
observations allow the experimenter to control any variables which may influence
behaviour (e.g. noise). Controlled observations are often used within experimental
or laboratory designs for example Milgrams obedience studies.
Naturalistic observations do not control any variables as they are purely
observational.
In this method people are studied in their natural environment. The
researcher does not interfere in any way. They are usually looking
for particular types of behaviour e.g. aggression being shown or use
of mobile phones etc.
Observations may be structured or unstructured
Observations can also be participant or non-participant, covert
or overt based.
Complete the following tables and define the terms that follow:
Structured Observation
Definition

Advantages

Unstructured Observation
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Disadvantages

Definition

Advantages

Disadvantages

Covert Observation
Definition

Advantages

Disadvantages

Advantages

Disadvantages

Advantages

Disadvantages

Overt Observation
Definition

Participant Observation
Definition

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Coding system
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Inter-rater Reliability
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Event sampling
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Time sampling
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Correlations
Correlations are designed to investigate the strength of a relationship between two
variables. The strength of this correlation is expressed by the correlation coefficient.
The correlation coefficient is always between +1 and -1 where +1 represents a perfect
positive correlation and -1 represents a perfect negative correlation. A correlation
coefficient of 0 means that there is no correlation between the two variables.
Advantages/strengths

Disadvantages/ Weaknesses

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Self-report methods:

Questionnaire and rating scales:

Structured questionnaire
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Semi-structured questionnaire
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Unstructured questionnaire
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Rating scales
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Closed and open questions
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Issues for design

Clarity of Questions
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Bias of Questions
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Analysis of results
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Pilot Study
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Fill in the following tables: Open questions

Advantages

Disadvantages

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Closed questions
Advantages

Disadvantages

Rating Scales
Advantages

Disadvantages

Interviews
Structured
15

Semi-structured
Unstructured

Difficulty of recording answers

Positives about interviews

Negatives about intervie

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Case Study
A case study is an in-depth study, using a range of methods on one person or a small group.
Because it uses a range of different research methods, this increases reliability, by the process
of triangulation. Using a range of different methods is a way of double-checking results. E.g. s
Clive Wearing and HM, Little Hans

Strengths:

Weaknesses:

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Toolbox
Reliability
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Validity
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Internal validity
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External validity
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Face validity
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Concurrent validity
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Predictive validity
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Extension
Find examples for the following:
1. Mundane realism
2. Social desirability
3. Population validity
4. Temporal validity
5. Situational Variables
6. Participant Variables
7. Demand characteristics
8. Investigator effects
9. Single blind Technique
10.
Double blind technique

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Inferential statistics

Probability and significance:

Probability, or p, is expressed as a number between 0 and 1. 0 means an event will not happen,
1 means that an event will definitely happen. The P value will always be found to be between 0
and 1 due to the way in which it is calculated. To calculate the probability that a particular
outcome will occur, it has to be divided by the number of possible outcomes.
YOU DO NOT HAVE TO DO ANY CALCULATIONS
To give you an idea and to keep things easy complete the following exercise using 0 100
rather than 0 - 1
Task: - Complete the following exercise

On a scale of 0-100 rate the following statements for probability 0 = Impossible and 100 =
Certain (Remember the only thing certain is death and the only thing impossible immortality!)

1. You winning the lottery

2. It raining in the next week
3. Dreaming of elephants this week
4. Having a day off ill this term
5. Becoming a famous entertainer
6. Becoming a parent in your lifetime
7. A cure for cancer being discovered in your lifetime
8. If you spin a coin it will come down heads
9. If you spin two coins they will both come down heads
10.

Passing all youre A levels

Because we used a scale between 0-100 your answers are expressed as percentages.

Percentage
50

Fraction

Decimal

0.5

Convert them into fractions and then decimals e.g. 50% is or 0.5 (50/100 cancelled down to lowest possible)
50% move the decimal point two places to the left). This converts the probability to a decimal between 0 and 1.

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Tea for one or two dear

Type one and two errors

Type I Error

A false negative. Rejecting the null hypothesis, when there is

a possibility that the results were due to chance. Often
caused by using a significance level that is too lenient e.g.
10%, 0.10, 1 in 10, p0.10. Not being cautious enough
(Optimistic)

Type II Error

A false positive. Accepting the null hypothesis, when there is

a possibility that the results were significant. Often caused
by using a significance level that is too strict e.g. 1%, 0.01, 1
in 100, p0.01. Being over cautious. (Pessimistic)

1. Illust

rate
a
type
1

error

0
0.
05

Significant

Not significant

Null hypothesis cant be

rejected
Alternative hypothesis
is rejected

Null hypothesis
Alternative hypothesis
is accepted
2. Illustrate a type 2 error

0
Significant

0.
05

Not significant

Null hypothesis cant

be rejected
Alternative hypothesis
is rejected

Null hypothesis
Alternative hypothesis
is accepted
1. What are type one and type two errors

marks]
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[4

2. Explain why using more stringent significance levels can cause greater likelihood

of type 1 error.
marks]

[4

Which Research Method are the following studies?

The task
Using As texbooks refer back to the studies below and attempt the
following questions:
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1. Is the study quantitative or qualitative explain your answer

2. Briefly outline the method of the study, be sure to mention the
participant, design, and materials procedure
Extension Qs
3. Where there are methodological issues if so how could they have
been alleviated.
4. Where there are ethical issues if so how could they have been
reduced
Asch 1951

Milgram 1963

Sherif 1936

Baddeley 1966

Extension Task
Ainsworth "The Strange Situation" 1970

23

Loftus 1975

Watson and rayner (1920)

Peterson and Peterson 1959

Which Research Method do I use?

Task: complete the chart using P518 of Nelson Thornes text book see hand-out.

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Reporting Psychological Investigations:

The reporting of psychological investigations is done in a way which ensures that it is
both professional and well communicated. Using P278, identify the main elements of
each section shown in the diagram below.

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