Theory Basic Thermodynamics of Reciprocating Compression

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression
October 2011
Basic Thermodynamics of Reciprocating Compression

Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
Phone: 740-397-0311 gphillippi@arielcorp.com www.arielcorp.com
This short course will provide the attendee an opportunity to learn the very basic and fundamental concepts governing compression with a reciprocating compressor. This will include discussions of pressure versus time (or crank angle) and pressure versus volume diagrams, volumetric efficiency, capacity, horsepower and compression efficiency. In addition, the effects of changing conditions, gas analysis, temperature, and gas pulsation will be discussed. Many of these topics are presented through the explanation of the underlying thermodynamic theory.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
October 2011
Course Outline
Pressure - time diagram animation Pressure - volume diagram Capacity
Fixed clearance Volumetric efficiency ACFM, ACF, SCF, MMSCFD
Ideal and real gas laws
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The short course will cover the basic thermodynamic theory supporting a reciprocating compressor. Mechanical design details will not be covered. An understanding of the basic thermodynamics is vital and forms a good foundation for a deeper understanding of the mechanical aspects.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
October 2011
Course Outline
Horsepower
Adiabatic Valve loss Resistance factor Valve equivalent area Deactivated end IHP, BHP, friction Compression efficiency
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Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
October 2011
Course Outline
Varying conditions
Pressure Speed
Gas analysis effects

Adiabatic exponent (k-value) Compressibility factor (Z)
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Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
October 2011
Course Outline
Temperature
Adiabatic discharge temperature Actual discharge temperature Suction temperature preheat
Multi-stage compression
What Why How Capacity balance
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Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
October 2011
Course Outline
Rod load
Tension Compression Gas + inertia Non-reversing
Pulsation
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Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
October 2011
Pressure versus Time Diagram Animation
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The P-T diagram (pressure versus time diagram) is a plot of the pressure inside the compression chamber (inside the bore) versus time or crank angle time and crank angle being directly related. IDC is inner dead center. ODC is outer dead center. PD is discharge pressure (typically said to be the pressure that exists at the cylinder flange). PS is suction pressure - at the cylinder flange.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
October 2011
Pressure
Ps
ODC
CO MR ES
IDC
CO MR ES SIO N
Pd
IO NS PA EX N
SI ON
Crank Angle
Suction
IO NS PA EX
ODC
Head End
Crank End
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Discharge
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
October 2011
Pressure-Volume Diagram
PD
Pressure
PS
VMIN
Volume
VMAX
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The P-V diagram (pressure-volume diagram) is a plot of the pressure inside the compression chamber (inside the bore) versus the volume of gas inside the chamber. A complete circuit around the diagram represents one revolution of the crankshaft. This is an ideal diagram in that it does not show any valve pressure drop and therefore no valve loss horsepower (which will be explained later in the course). PD is discharge pressure (typically said to be the pressure that exists at the cylinder flange). PS is suction pressure - at the cylinder flange.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
October 2011
Compression
PD
C
Pressure
Discharge valve opens
om
pr
es si
on
PS
Volume
Suction valve is closed

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This depicts the compression event. It starts at the point where the suction valve closes. When the suction valve closes, gas is trapped inside the compression chamber at suction pressure and suction temperature. As the piston moves towards the other end of the compression chamber, the volume is decreasing, the pressure increasing and the temperature increasing. Compression stops when the discharge valve opens. The shape of the curve of the compression event is determined by the adiabatic exponent (k-value or n-value). This is a thermodynamic property of the gas and will be discussed later in the course.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
10
October 2011
Discharge
PD
Discharge
Discharge valve closes
Pressure
PS
Volume
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When the discharge valve opens, compression stops, and gas at discharge pressure and discharge temperature is pushed out of the compression chamber through the discharge valve, into the discharge gas passage and out into the discharge piping. The discharge event continues until the piston reaches the end of the stroke, where the discharge valve closes and the next event, expansion, begins. The compression and discharge events together represent onehalf of one revolution of the crankshaft and one stroke length.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
11
October 2011
Expansion
PD
nsion Expa
Pressure
PS
Volume
Suction valve opens

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When the discharge valve closes at the end of the discharge event, there is still some gas left in the compression chamber. This volume of gas is referred to as the fixed clearance volume and is usually expressed as a percentage:
% Fixed Clearance = in3 fixed clearance in3 piston displaceme nt 100%
As the piston moves away from the head, the volume inside the compression chamber increases with all of the valves (suction and discharge) closed. The gas in the fixed clearance volume expands, decreasing in pressure and temperature, until the pressure inside the compression chamber reaches suction pressure, where the suction valve opens and the expansion event ceases.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
12
October 2011
Suction
PD
Pressure
PS
Suction valve opens
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Suction
Volume
Suction valve closes
At the end of the expansion event, the suction valve opens opening the compression chamber to the suction gas passage and suction piping system. As the piston moves, the volume in the compression chamber is increasing and the compression chamber fills with gas at suction pressure and suction temperature. The suction event ceases when the piston reaches the other end of the stroke, the suction valves closes and the piston turns around and goes the other direction. The end of the suction event marks the end of one complete cycle. One complete cycle requires one complete revolution of the crankshaft and two stroke lengths.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
13
October 2011
Four Events
Discharge valve closes
PD
Discharge
C om
nsion Expa
Pressure
pr
es si
on
PS
Suction valve opens
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Suction
Volume
Suction valve closes
All four events representing the compression cycle are shown on this chart - Compression, Discharge, Expansion, and Suction.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
14
October 2011
Fixed Clearance
Head End Clearance
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There are many pockets of volume in the compression chamber that combine to form the fixed clearance volume: around the piston between the piston and the bore, between the piston and the head, around the head between the head and bore, between the end of the valve and the head, and in the valve itself. The fixed clearance volume is the gas that needs to expand from discharge to suction pressure inside the cylinder.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
15
October 2011
Fixed Clearance
Crank End Clearance
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Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
16
October 2011
Fixed Clearance
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This shows the fixed clearance volume that is between the valve and the bore and inside the valve. It can then be imagined that the fixed clearance volume changes with the diameter and thickness of the valve.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
17
October 2011
Fixed Clearance
in3 Clearance % Fixed Clearance = 3 100% in Displaceme nt
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Fixed clearance is typically expressed as a percent the ratio of the fixed clearance volume to the piston displacement in volume units.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
18
October 2011
Volumetric Efficiency
PD
Pressure
Inlet volume
PS
Volume
Displacement
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The inlet volume is the amount of gas brought into the compression chamber during the suction event. The amount of gas brought into the compression chamber out of the suction piping system IS the capacity! The displacement represents the volume displaced during one complete stroke length of the piston. The piston displacement of the head end and crank end of a double-acting cylinder are different due to the existence of the piston rod in the crank end.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
19
October 2011
VE = Inlet volume Displaceme nt
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Volumetric efficiency (VE) is the ratio of inlet volume to displacement, usually expressed as a percent. It should be noted that VE has nothing to do with when the suction valve opens. It has everything to do with how much of the compression chamber fills with gas at suction pressure and suction temperature.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
20
October 2011
Volumetric efficiency (V.E.) is the percentage of
stroke that can (or will) fill with suction gas and is the cylinder ends capacity. V.E. is NOT suction valve open time. A higher number for V.E. does not mean it is better. The influence of V.E. on compression (energy) efficiency is through the relationship of V.E. to average piston velocity (avg velocity of gas thru valves)
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Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
21
October 2011
Volumetric Efficiency Not Valve Open Time
VALVE OPEN TIME
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Here, X represents how much the volumetric efficiency is distorted by pulsation. This shows that valve open time and volumetric are not always necessarily the same thing.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
22
October 2011
Z VE S = 100 %CL s Z d Where:
VES %CL ZS ZD PD PS K = = = = = = =
P d P s
Volumetric efficiency, % Fixed clearance, % Compressibility factor @ PS & TS Compressibility factor @ PD & TD Discharge pressure, psia Suction pressure, psia Adiabatic exponent, k-value
1 K 1
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This is the equation for volumetric efficiency. Note the influence of the thermodynamic gas properties K and Z. The higher the K-value the higher the volumetric efficiency, everything else equal. The influence of Z is not so straight forward because it is actually a ratio of Z and the ratio for most typical applications is around 1.0 (meaning ZS = ZD). Also, note the influence of clearance. The higher the %CL (percent fixed clearance) the lower the volumetric efficiency.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
23
October 2011
Z VE = 100 R - %CL s S C Z d Where:
VES %CL ZS ZD PD PS K = = = = = = =
P d P s
1 K 1
Volumetric efficiency, % Fixed clearance, % Compressibility factor @ PS & TS Compressibility factor @ PD & TD Discharge pressure, psia Suction pressure, psia Adiabatic exponent, k-value
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This is the equation for volumetric efficiency. Note the influence of the thermodynamic gas properties K and Z. The higher the K-value the higher the volumetric efficiency, everything else equal. The influence of Z is not so straight forward because it is actually a ratio of Z and the ratio for most typical applications is around 1.0 (meaning ZS = ZD). Also, note the influence of clearance. The higher the %CL (percent fixed clearance) the lower the volumetric efficiency.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
24
October 2011
Low Volumetric Efficiency

Pd
Pressure
Ps
Volume
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This a pressure-volume diagram showing low volumetric efficiency. The concern with low volumetric efficiency is the time required for the discharge valve to open and close properly. With low VE the discharge valve will close late causing the seal element to slam against the seat with excessive closing impact velocity. The seal element will then fail.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
25
October 2011
Change in Capacity for Added 10% Clearance

90
Change in Capacity, %
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1.0
20% 40% 60% 80%
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Compression Ratio
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This chart shows the effect of fixed clearance on volumetric efficiency. Specifically, the chart shows the effect of adding 10% clearance to four different base fixed clearances over a range of compression ratio. The chart also shows the effect of compression ratio on volumetric efficiency.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
26
October 2011
ACFM
ACFM = (PD ) (VE S )
Where: ACFM = Actual cubic feet per minute PD = Piston displacement, cubic feet per minute VES = Volumetric efficiency, decimal
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This is the equation used to calculate ACFM or actual cubic feet per minute of volume flow, knowing volumetric efficiency.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
27
October 2011
What is ACF & SCF?

When capacity is provided in volume terms the
density must be specified or known. ACF = actual cubic feet
Density is PS and TS
SCF - standard cubic feet

Density is PSTD and TSTD Typically PSTD = 14.7 psia & TSTD = 60 F
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This shows how much volume one pound (mass) of gas occupies at two different pressures (14.7 psia and 500 psia) at the same temperature (60 deg F) SCF (standard cubic foot) is volume measured at a standard pressure and temperature of 14.6 psia and 60 deg F (typically). The standard pressure and temperature in the United States is usually 14.7 psia and 60 degrees F. The MMS (Minerals Management Service in the United States Department of the Interior) in the past has used 15.025 psia as the standard pressure for natural gas measurement. Believe the rules have been changed to 14.696 psia. 15.025 psia works out to 10 ounces per square inch above the average barometric pressure of 14.4 psia. ACF (actual cubic foot) is volume measured at the actual pressure and temperature conditions.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
28
October 2011
MMSCFD
MMSCFD =
Where: MMSCFD ACFM PS ZSTD TS ZS = = = = = =
(0.0509 )(ACFM)(PS )(Z STD ) (TS )(Z S )
Million standard cubic feet per day Actual cubic feet per minute Suction pressure, psia Compressibility factor @ standard conditions Suction temperature, R Compressibility factor @ suction conditions
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This equation converts ACFM (actual cubic feet per minute) to MMSCFD (million standard cubic feet per day).
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
29
October 2011
MMSCFD to LB per HR
LB 14.7LB 144IN2 1.0MMSCF 1,000,000S CF (.6 29)LB DAY LBMOL O R 1 = 2 2 HR IN FT DAY MMSCF LBMOL 24HR 1545.33FT - LB 520 O R LB = 1909.8 HR
This equation shows the conversion from MMSCFD to LB per HOUR.
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This equation converts million standard cubic feet per day capacity (MMSCFD) into pounds-mass per hour (LBm/HR).
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
30
October 2011
Ideal Gas Law

PV = mRT, V = mRT PV ,m = P RT
Where: P = Pressure, psia V = Volume, cubic feet m = Mass, pounds mass R = Universal gas constant, 1545.3/MW (FT-LB)/(LBmol-R) T = Temperature, R (F + 459.6)
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This is the ideal gas law. This is the simplest gas equation of state in that it relates pressure, mass and volume.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
31
October 2011
Real Gas Law

PV = ZmRT, V = PV ZmRT ,m = ZRT P
Where: P = Pressure, psia V = Volume, cubic feet Z = Compressibility factor @ P & T m = Mass, pounds mass R = Universal gas constant, 1545.3/MW (FT-LB)/(LBmol-R) T = Temperature, R (F + 459.6)
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This is the real gas law. It is a slightly more complicated form of the ideal gas law as it adds the compressibility factor parameter. Good to remember this relationship. Knowing pressure temperature and compressibility factor and either volume or mass, the unknown of volume or mass can be calculated.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
32
October 2011
Horsepower Breakdown
Friction Valve Loss Adiabatic
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This pie chart shows how total horsepower might breakdown for an average (say moderate to high compression ratio) application. In this type of application adiabatic horsepower is the majority of the horsepower.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
33
October 2011
Adiabatic Horsepower
Pd
W = PdV
Pressure
Ps
Volume
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This a real life pressure-volume diagram with the adiabatic horsepower region highlighted. Remember the following from thermodynamics classes?
Work = PdV
This means that the area enclosed by the P-V diagram is directly related to work or horsepower.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
34
October 2011
(144 )(K )(PS )(PD )(VE S )(Z S + Z D ) PD AHP = PS (33000 )(K 1)(2 Z S )
Where: AHP = K = PS = PD = VES = ZS = ZD = PD = Adiabatic horsepower Adiabatic exponent (k-value) Suction pressure, psia Piston displacement, cfm Volumetric efficiency, suction, decimal Compressibility factor, suction Compressibility factor, discharge Discharge pressure, psia
(K 1)
K
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This is an equation for adiabatic horsepower. Note the influence of the gas thermodynamic data, K and Zs. Remember that the product of piston displacement and volumetric efficiency (PDxVE) is capacity.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
35
October 2011
Adiabatic HP per MMSCFD

AHP = MM
Where: AHP/MM K TS Z PS PD
(0.04283 )(K )(Z S + Z D )(TS ) PD P (K 1) S
= = = = = = Adiabatic horsepower per MMSCFD Adiabatic exponent (k-value) Suction temperature, R Compressibility factor Suction pressure, psia Discharge pressure, psia
(K 1)
K
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This is an equation for adiabatic horsepower per million standard cubic feet per day (MMSCFD or MM). Note the data required: pressures, suction temperature and gas thermodynamic data (K and Zs).
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
36
October 2011
Valve Loss Horsepower

Pd
Discharge valve loss horsepower
Pressure
Ps
Suction valve loss horsepower
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Volume
This P-V diagram highlights suction and discharge valve loss horsepower (VLHP). VLHP is created by the pressure drop encountered as gas flows through the valve(s).
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
37
October 2011

3 (S RPM )3 7.045 (28.97 )(SG ) P VE R A s s p bore VLHP = 2 10 19 Z T (N ) A vlv pkt s s
( )( ) ( )( )
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This is the equation for valve loss horsepower.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
38
October 2011

VLHP P (A BORE )(VE )(S RPM )
Where: VLHP P ABORE S VE RPM = = = = = = Valve loss horsepower Pressure drop Cylinder main bore cross-sectional area Stroke Volumetric efficiency, suction, fraction Speed, revolutions per minute
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This is a relationship between pressure drop, bore area, volumetric efficiency, stroke, and speed. Stroke multiplied by speed is known as piston speed. Piston speed is the average linear speed at which the piston moves through one revolution of the crankshaft (two stroke lengths). Piston speed is:
Piston Speed = Stroke = inches Speed = rpm
2 Stroke Speed Stroke Speed = , fpm 12 6
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
39
October 2011
Valve Pressure Drop

P V 2
Where: P = Pressure drop = Density V = Velocity
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This is the general relationship for any calculation of pressure drop. Pressure drop is related to density times velocity squared.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
40
October 2011
Gas Density
P (SG ) Z (T )
Where: = Density P = Pressure SG = Gas specific gravity Z = Compressibility factor T = Temperature
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This is an equation for density. This is derived by rearranging the ideal gas law:
PV = ZMRT M P = V ZRT 1545.35 R= (SG)(28.96) M = V P(SG) ZT
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
41
October 2011
Gas Velocity
(A BORE )(S RPM ) (D BORE )2 (S RPM ) V (N)(A VLV PKT ) (N)(D VLV PKT )2
Where: V ABORE S RPM N AVLV PKT DBORE DVLV PKT = = = = = = = = Average gas velocity through the valve pocket Cylinder main bore cross-sectional area Stroke Speed, revolutions per minute Number of S or D valve pockets feeding end Valve pocket area Cylinder main bore diameter Valve pocket diameter
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This is an equation for the relationship of the velocity of the gas through the valve pocket area. Note the ratio of the area of the piston to the area of the valve (this is not valve flow area, this is the area of the full valve diameter).
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
42
October 2011
Typical Valve Pocket

Valve Cap Valve Cage Valve Body
Front Head
Liner
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This is a drawing of a typical valve pocket in a compressor cylinder. The section is taken parallel to the piston rod.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
43
October 2011
Valve Pocket Diameter
Valve Pocket Diameter
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This slide defines valve pocket diameter for a typical valve pocket.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
44
October 2011
Valve Pressure Drop

P
Where: P P SG RPM S ABORE Z T RP N AVLV PKT
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P (SG )(R P )(A BORE ) (S RPM )

2
Z (T )(N )(A VLV PKT )
= = = = = = = = = = =
Pressure drop Pressure Gas specific gravity Speed, rev per minute Stroke Cylinder main bore area Compressibility factor Temperature Valve resistance factor Number of S or D valve pockets feeding end Valve pocket area
Combining the density and velocity relationships into the pressure drop equation yields this relationship. Note the following: 1. Pressure drop is directly related to the ratio of the diameter of the piston to the fourth power (area squared), and inversely related to the diameter of the valve to the fourth power (valve pocket area squared). 2. Pressure drop is directly related to stroke squared and speed squared, or piston speed squared.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
45
October 2011
Valve Resistance Factor Definition

Ratio of measured pressure drop across the suction or discharge side of a cylinder to the pressure drop that would be predicted in flowing the same quantity of the same gas at identical upstream pressure and temperature conditions through a round hole having a discharge coefficient equal to one and an area equal to the valve pocket opening. Typical resistance factors range from 50 (poppet valve) to 200 (low lift plate valve).
Ref: Hartwick, Efficiency Characteristics of Reciprocating Compressors, December 1968, ASME technical paper 68WA/DGP-3.
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Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
46
October 2011
Valve Resistance Factor

RP = Compressor Valve P Orifice P
Where: P = Pressure drop, psi RP = Valve resistance factor
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This is the definition of resistance factor in equation form.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
47
October 2011
Valve Equivalent Area - Definition

Orifice area required to generate the same pressure drop as that through a compressor valve when flowing the same quantity of the same gas at the same conditions.
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Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
48
October 2011
Valve Equivalent Area

VEA = A PKT RP
Where: VEA = Valve equivalent area RP = Valve resistance factor APKT = Valve pocket area
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This equation shows the relationship between valve equivalent area and resistance factor. So, knowing one allows the other to be calculated.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
49
October 2011

VLHP
Where: VLHP = P = SG = RP = ABORE = S = RPM = VE = Z = T = N = AVLV PKT =
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P (SG )(R P )(A BORE ) (S RPM ) (VE )

3 3
Z (T )(N )(A VLV PKT )
Valve loss horsepower Pressure Gas specific gravity Valve resistance factor Cylinder main bore area Stroke Speed, revolutions per minute Volumetric efficiency, decimal Compressibility factor Temperature Number of S or D valve pockets feeding end Valve pocket area
This is the equation for VLHP with substitutions for pressure drop. Note the following: 1. The relationship of the piston diameter (or area) and valve diameter (or area) to VLHP. 2. The relationship of stroke and speed to VLHP. Another way to look at this relationship is to say that stroke times speed is piston speed and that VLHP is directly related to piston speed cubed.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
50
October 2011
Valve Pocket Area as % of Bore Area

% Valve Pkt Area of Bore Area 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 Cylinder Diameter
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This is a plot of valve pocket area as a percentage of cylinder bore area. Note that as the cylinder gets larger the amount of valve pocket area decreases significantly. Large cylinders are never as efficient as small ones.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
51
October 2011
Why Large Cylinders Are Not Efficient
D 2 Bore Area = 4
Circumference = D
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This simple drawing explains why as cylinders get larger they get less efficient. The space available to fit valves in the cylinder (the circumference) grows by diameter to the first power, but the gas flow through the valves grows by diameter squared.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
52
October 2011
Deactivated End Horsepower

(9.59 )P(SG )(R Pin + R Pout )3 (A BORE )3 (S RPM )3 DHP = 2 10 15 (Z )(T )(N )(A VLV PKT )
Where: DHP P SG RPin RPout ABORE S RPM Z T N AVLV PKT = = = = = = = = = = = = Deactivated end horsepower Pressure, psia Gas specific gravity Valve resistance factor, in-stroke Valve resistance factor, out-stroke Cylinder main bore cross-sectional area, sq. in. Stroke, in. Speed, revolutions per minute Compressibility factor Temperature Number of valve pockets feeding deactivated end Valve pocket area, sq. in.
Ref: Hartwick, Power Requirements and Associated Effects of Reciprocating Compressor Ends Deactivated by Internal Bypassing, December 1974 , ASME Technical Paper 75-DGP-9 www.arielcorp.com
This is the equation for deactivated end horsepower (parasitic horsepower). Note the following: 1. DHP is directly related to pressure and specific gravity. 2. Pressure is most typically suction pressure. 3. DHP has the effect of creating heat and raising the temperature.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
53
October 2011
Deactivated End P-V Diagram
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This is a sample P-V diagram of a deactivated end.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
54
October 2011
Deactivated End Temperature

3 2 1
Photo courtesy of Energy Imaging 580-388-4385
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This is an infrared photo of three compressor cylinders on one side of a six throw compressor. Each cylinder is unloaded differently. Cylinder #1 is not unloaded. Cylinder #2 has a head end fixed clearance pocket open. Cylinder #3 has the head end deactivated using finger type suction valve unloaders.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
55
October 2011
Indicated Horsepower
Adiabatic HP + Suction Valve Loss HP + Discharge Valve Loss HP Indicated HP
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This is the definition of indicated horsepower. It is the sum of the horsepower developed directly from the pressure-volume diagram.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
56
October 2011
Brake Horsepower
Indicated HP + Friction HP Brake HP
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This is the definition of brake horsepower. Brake horsepower is the horsepower required at the face of the crosshead in the case of an integral-engine compressor, or at the driver coupling connection in the case of a separable compressor (provided the friction HP component includes allowance for the friction losses inside the crankcase).
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
57
October 2011
Brake Horsepower
BHP = IHP M.E.
Where: BHP = Brake horsepower IHP = Indicated horsepower M.E. = Mechanical efficiency Typically 92% to 97%
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This is another way to express brake horsepower, or BHP. The numbers used for mechanical efficiency vary with the OEM.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
58
October 2011
Brake Horsepower
BHP = IHP + FFHP M.E.
Where: BHP = Brake horsepower IHP = Indicated horsepower M.E. = Mechanical efficiency, associated with the cylinders only, typically 0.95 FFHP = Frame friction HP, constant number to account for friction in the frame
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This is yet another way to express brake horsepower (BHP). The friction component has been divided into separate cylinder and frame (or crankcase) components. The mechanical efficiency factor is intended to cover the friction in the cylinders. The frame friction factor is typically a constant number used to account for the friction in the frame or crankcase. OEMs may vary FFHP with speed or speed squared. This is an approach most typically associated with separable compressors.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
59
October 2011
Compression Efficiency
EFF = AHP AHP M.E. = BHP (AHP + SVLHP + DVLHP)
Compression efficiency Adiabatic horsepower Brake horsepower Mechanical efficiency Suction valve loss horsepower Discharge valve loss horsepower
Where: EFF = AHP = BHP = M.E. = SVLHP = DVLHP =
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This is an expression for compression efficiency.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
60
October 2011
High RC
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This compares compression efficiency between high and low compression ratio P-V diagrams. Which is more efficient? Why?
Greg Phillippi
Lo RC
Ariel Corporation
61
October 2011
Compression Efficiency, %
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
Std
Compression ratio
Standard design 12.5 inch bore, 1100 fpm
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This is a very typical plot of compression efficiency versus compression ratio. Note how compression efficiency drops off with decreasing compression ratio.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
62
October 2011
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
Low Rc
Compression ratio
Low ratio design 12.5 inch bore, 1100 fpm
www.arielcorp.com
This is a very typical plot of compression efficiency versus compression ratio for a cylinder designed for low compression ratio applications.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
63
October 2011
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
Large
Compression ratio
Standard design 26.5 inch bore, 1100 fpm
www.arielcorp.com
This is a very typical plot of compression efficiency versus compression ratio for a large (26.5 inches) bore cylinder.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
64
October 2011
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
Large Std Low Rc
Compression ratio
www.arielcorp.com
This chart plots all three of the previous slides on one chart. Note the differences.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
65
October 2011
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
Std H2 Std Nat Gas
Compression ratio
www.arielcorp.com
This is a plot of compression efficiency versus compression ratio for a cylinder compressing natural gas and another hydrogen. Shows the effect of gas composition on efficiency. If the gas is very light (very low mole weight - like hydrogen) - forget about efficiency!
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
66
October 2011
Compression Efficiency: BHP per MMSCFD

70 60 50
BHP/MM
40 30 20 10 0 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
Std Low Rc Large
Compression ratio
www.arielcorp.com
This plot shows how BHP per MMSCFD changes with compression ratio for three different cylinder designs - standard, low ratio and large. Notice how the numeric difference stays approximately the same over the complete range of compression ratio. Also notice how the large cylinder has the highest BHP/MM and the low ratio the lowest.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
67
October 2011
Compression Efficiency: BHP per MMSCFD

% Increase in BHP per MM
60 40 20 0 -20 -40 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
Low Rc Large Std
Compression ratio
www.arielcorp.com
This plot shows the percentage difference in BHP per MMSCFD using the standard cylinder design as the base. Notice that on a percentage basis the large cylinder is significantly worse and the low ratio better.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
68
October 2011
Increased Discharge Pressure
Increased PD with PS constant
www.arielcorp.com
This shows the effect on the P-V diagram of increasing discharge pressure with everything else remaining constant. Note that volumetric efficiency decreases and discharge VLHP decreases.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
69
October 2011
Decreased Discharge Pressure
Decreased PD with PS constant
www.arielcorp.com
This shows the effect of decreasing the discharge pressure. Note that volumetric efficiency increases.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
70
October 2011
Increased Suction Pressure
Increased PS with PD constant
www.arielcorp.com
This shows the effect of increasing suction pressure with discharge pressure remaining constant.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
71
October 2011
Increased Suction Pressure
Increased PS with PD constant
CAPACITY INCREASE
www.arielcorp.com
This shows the effect of increasing suction pressure with discharge pressure remaining constant. Capacity increases! Always!
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
72
October 2011
HP vs. Suction Pressure

Pd is constant
Power
Each line represents additional fixed clearance added.
Suction Pressure
www.arielcorp.com
This plot shows how compressor horsepower varies as suction pressure varies with a constant discharge pressure.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
73
October 2011
Capacity vs. Suction Pressure

Pd is constant
PD is fixed.
Capacity
Suction Pressure
www.arielcorp.com
This plot shows how compressor horsepower varies as suction pressure varies with a constant discharge pressure.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
74
October 2011
HP per MMSCFD vs. Suction Pressure

Pd is constant
Power per Capacity
Suction Pressure
www.arielcorp.com
This plot shows how compressor horsepower per MMSCFD varies as suction pressure varies with a constant discharge pressure.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
75
October 2011
Effect of Speed
Pressure drop varies with RPM2 70% Speed 49% P
www.arielcorp.com
This depicts the effect of a speed change on the P-V diagram. Note that the width of the diagram does not change - in other words the basic shape of the diagram does not change. The only change is in the valve pressure drop or the valve loss horsepower. Remember that the pressure drop changes with the square of the speed.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
76
October 2011
K-value
www.arielcorp.com
This is a temperature-entropy diagram for carbon dioxide. Entropy is a thermodynamic term used to measure the unavailability of energy. Entropy increases as a system loses heat but remains constant when there is no gain or loss of heat. The compression and expansion segments of the P-V diagram are modeled assuming that they are adiabatic (or isentropic or entropy is a constant).
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
77
October 2011
Temperature-Entropy Diagram
TD PD = TS PS
Temperature
K -1 K
Isentropic or adiabatic compression PD PS
TD
TS
Entropy
www.arielcorp.com
K-value is the adiabatic exponent and defines an adiabatic (or constant entropy) path from one state point to another. For a recip compressor this is from suction pressure and temperature to discharge pressure. Note that k-value is a path function and not a point function - in other words k-value cannot be determined at a point or at a specific pressure and temperature. K-value defines a path. The equations calculates adiabatic discharge temperature and essentially defines k-value. Adiabatic or isentropic (constant entropy) means that no heat is exchanged (goes into or out of the process) during the process - here the process being the compression of a gas from P1 and T1 to P2.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
78
October 2011
K-value
TD PD = TS PS or K=
K -1 K
1 log TD T S 1 log PD P S
www.arielcorp.com
K-value is determined from the adiabatic temperature pressure relationship as shown. Knowing the pressures and temperatures allow the calculation of K.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
79
October 2011
K-value for an Ideal Gas

K= CP MW C P , or CV MW C P 1.986
= = = = K-value Mole weight Specific heat at constant pressure Specific heat at constant volume
Where: K MW CP CP
www.arielcorp.com
If it is assumed that the compressed gas is an ideal gas this expression can be used to calculate the adiabatic exponent. For many gases at low pressures this will suffice and be accurate. For other gases, carbon dioxide and propane being two examples, using this expression may result in errors in K-value and therefore errors in the calculation of capacity and horsepower.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
80
October 2011
Effect of K-value
K = 1.4 Air, nitrogen or hydrogen
K = 1.12 Propane
www.arielcorp.com
These two different P-V diagrams depict the effect of k-value. The greater the k-value, the fatter the P-V diagram.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
81
October 2011
Compressibility (Z)
PV = MRT for ideal gas PV = ZMRT for real gas
Where: P = Pressure V = Volume M = Mass R = Universal gas constant T = Temperature Z = Compressibility factor
www.arielcorp.com
PV = MRT is the perfect gas law. PV = ZMRT uses Z, or compressibility factor, to correct the perfect gas law for real gases. This defines compressibility factor.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
82
October 2011
Effect of ZS
ZS = 0.8
ZS = 1.0
www.arielcorp.com
Shows how suction compressibility factor affects the P-V diagram.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
83
October 2011
Effect of ZD
ZD = 1.0
ZD = 0.8
www.arielcorp.com
Shows how discharge compressibility factor affects the P-V diagram.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
84
October 2011
Adiabatic Discharge Temperature

P TD- Adiabatic = TS D P S
Where: TD-Adiabatic TS PD PS K = = = = =
K 1 K
Adiabatic discharge temperature, deg R Suction temperature, deg R Discharge pressure, psia Suction pressure, psia K-value, adiabatic exponent
www.arielcorp.com
The equation for adiabatic discharge temperature.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
85
October 2011
Actual Discharge Temperature

TD-Actual=
(TD-Adiabatic TS ) + T
Efficiency
Where: TD-Actual = Actual discharge temperature TS = Suction temperature Efficiency = Compression efficiency
www.arielcorp.com
This shows that the inefficiency of the compression process adds to the discharge temperature - in other words all of the energy that goes into the compression process goes into the compressed gas stream. Of course, there is heat removed by the cooling water jackets and heat is rejected to the surrounding environment, so the actual discharge temperature will most likely be somewhere between adiabatic and the actual given by the above.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
86
October 2011
Suction Temperature Pre-heat

Mixing effect during the suction event Heat transfer in the suction gas passage
www.arielcorp.com
There can be an effect during the compression process where the suction gas temperature is pre-heated. In other words the temperature of the gas at the instant the compression event begins is greater than that measured in the suction pulsation bottle or even than that measured in the suction gas passage. It is the temperature (and pressure) of the gas when compression starts that determines the capacity and has an effect on horsepower.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
87
October 2011
Multi-stage: What?
Cylinders piped in series to reduce the
compression ratio across each cylinder
Stage 1
Stage 2
www.arielcorp.com
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
88
October 2011
Multi-stage: What?
An intercooler is installed between stages
to cool the gas prior to compressing it in the next stage:
Stage 1
Stage 2
www.arielcorp.com
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
89
October 2011
Multi-stage: Why?
Assume PS = 50 psia, PD = 500 psia, TS =
60 F, one stage of compression
Compression ratio = 10 Adiabatic TD = 425 F, too high!!
www.arielcorp.com
A gas discharge temperature of 425 deg F is much too high for the sealing materials that are commonly used in todays reciprocating compressors. A typical discharge temperature limit is about 300 deg F.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
90
October 2011
Multi-stage: Why?
Assume PS = 50 psia, PD = 500 psia, TS =
60 F, two stages of compression
Compression ratio per stage = 3.16 Adiabatic TD = 218 F
www.arielcorp.com
Breaking the compression ratio across two stages significantly reduces the discharge temperature.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
91
October 2011
Capacity Balance
4.5 4.0
Capacity, MMSCFD
11 1ST Stage, 6.25 2ND Stage Ps=55, Pd=650
0% 38% 75%
3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 160
0%
38% 75%
180
200
220
240
260
Interstage Pressure, psig

www.arielcorp.com
The next couple of charts show how the pressure between compression stages is determined.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
92
October 2011
Capacity Balance
4.5 4.0
Capacity, MMSCFD
11 1ST Stage, 6.25 2ND Stage Q=3.6 Tdis CRL 1st 254 2nd 258 Ps=55, Pd=650
0% 38% 75%
15,600 16,200
3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 160
0%
38% 75%
180
199
200
220
240
260
www.arielcorp.com
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
93
October 2011
Capacity Balance
4.5 4.0
Capacity, MMSCFD
0% 38% 75%
12,700 16,900
3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 160

170
0%
38% 75%
180
200
220
240
260
www.arielcorp.com
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
94
October 2011
Capacity Balance
4.5 4.0
Capacity, MMSCFD
0% 38% 75%
16,900 15,900
3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 160
0%
38% 75%
180
200
212
220
240
260

www.arielcorp.com
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
95
October 2011
Rod Load
Reciprocating compressor frames are
limited in operating range by rod load
Rod load is a force that generates a stress in many parts of the compressor frame assembly
Results from differential pressure across

the compressor piston
www.arielcorp.com
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
96
October 2011
Tension Rod Load
PD PS PD
www.arielcorp.com
A tension rod load is created when discharge pressure is acting on the crank end of the piston and suction pressure on the head end.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
97
October 2011
Tension Rod Load

TRL = (PD PS ) AHE (PD ) AROD
Where: TRL = PD = PS = AHE = AROD = Tension rod load, lbf Discharge pressure, psig Suction pressure, psig Area, head end, in2 Area, rod, in2
www.arielcorp.com
This is the equation used to calculate tension rod load (TRL).
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
98
October 2011
Compression Rod Load
PS PD PS
www.arielcorp.com
A compression rod load is created when suction pressure is acting on the crank end of the piston and discharge pressure on the head end.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
99
October 2011
Compression Rod Load

CRL = (PD PS ) AHE + (PS ) AROD
Where: CRL PD PS AHE AROD = = = = = Compression rod load, lbf Discharge pressure, psig Suction pressure, psig Area, head end, in2 Area, rod, in2
www.arielcorp.com
This is the equation used to calculate compression rod load (CRL).
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
100
October 2011
Inertia Rod Load

Inertia rod load is a force developed from the
acceleration and deceleration of a mass, typically the crosshead + crosshead nut + piston/rod assembly
Force = Mass Acceleration
www.arielcorp.com
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
101
October 2011
Gas + Inertia Rod Load

Gas Rod Load
Inertia Rod Load
Gas + Inertia Rod Load
Image courtesy of ACI Services, Inc.
www.arielcorp.com
This is a plot of three different rod loads of a typical double-acting compressor cylinder. The three are: 1. Gas rod load the load generated from just the gas pressure acting on the piston. 2. Inertia rod load the load generated by inertia (F = ma). Note that inertia is maximum at the ends of the stroke (180 and 360) where acceleration is maximum. 3. Gas + inertia rod load a summation of gas rod load and inertia rod load.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
102
October 2011
Crosshead Guide Assembly

Crosshead Guide Piston Rod Crosshead Pin
Connecting Rod Crosshead Balance Nut Crosshead
www.arielcorp.com
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
103
October 2011
Crosshead Assembly
Crosshead Pin Crosshead Bushing Crosshead Balance Nut Connecting Rod
Piston Rod Crosshead

www.arielcorp.com
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
104
October 2011
Non-Reversing Rod Load
No Reversal!
Image courtesy of ACI Services, Inc.
www.arielcorp.com
This chart shows a non-reversing rod load. Note how the gas + inertia rod load never moves into tension it remains in compression during the full 360 degrees of crankshaft rotation.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
105
October 2011
www.arielcorp.com
This is a photo of a crosshead that failed due to non-reversing rod load. Typically the crosshead heats up relative to the slide bore which causes the running clearance to disappear and the crosshead to stick and fail.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
106
October 2011
www.arielcorp.com
This photo shows a crosshead pin with the crosshead and connecting rod bushings stuck to it.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
107
October 2011
Pulsation
www.arielcorp.com
Pulsation is a multi-day short course all unto itself! Here we will just touch on how pulsation might affect the P-V diagram and therefore the compression process. The slide shows a P-V diagram distorted by pulsation.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
108
October 2011
Pulsation P-V Diagram Distortion

Average flange pressure during valve open time RC for capacity
Suction pressure for capacity RC for HP/MM

www.arielcorp.com
Pulsation is a multi-day short course all unto itself! Here we will just touch on how pulsation might affect the P-V diagram and therefore the compression process. The slide shows a P-V diagram distorted by pulsation.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
109
October 2011
Effect of P on V.E.
25 Change in V.E., % 20 15 10 5 0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 Compression Ratio
K = 1.3 ZS = ZD = 1.0 Clearance = 40%
www.arielcorp.com
30% V.E.
50% V.E. 70% V.E.

3%
P
P
2%
1% P
3.0
3.5
4.0
This graph shows how much pulsation can affect volumetric efficiency. Pulsation is represented by percentages of pressure drop.
Greg Phillippi
Ariel Corporation
110

Theory Basic Thermodynamics of Reciprocating Compression

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Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Basic Thermodynamics of Reciprocating Compression

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Ideal and real gas laws

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Gas analysis effects

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Pressure versus Time Diagram Animation

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Discharge valve opens

Suction valve is closed

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Suction valve opens

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Suction valve closes

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Discharge valve opens

Suction valve closes

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Volumetric Efficiency Not Valve Open Time

VALVE OPEN TIME

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Low Volumetric Efficiency

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Change in Capacity for Added 10% Clearance

20% 40% 60% 80%

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

What is ACF & SCF?

SCF - standard cubic feet

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

(0.0509 )(ACFM)(PS )(Z STD ) (TS )(Z S )

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

This equation shows the conversion from MMSCFD to LB per HOUR.

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Ideal Gas Law

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Real Gas Law

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Adiabatic HP per MMSCFD

(0.04283 )(K )(Z S + Z D )(TS ) PD P (K 1) S

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Valve Loss Horsepower

Basic Thermodynamics of Recip Compression

Valve Loss Horsepower