Chapter 7

Electric Submersible Pumps

W.J. Powers, TRW Reda Pump Div.

Introduction
The electric submersible pump (ESP), sometimes called submergible, is perhaps the most versatile of the major oil-production artificial lift methods. This chapter provides the reader with a broad understanding of the key factors in selection, installation, and operation of electric submersible pumps. ESP topics covered include the ESP system; applications; ESP system components; selection data and methods; handling, installation, and operation; and troubleshooting. ESPs usually do not require storage enclosures, foundation pads, or guard fences. An ESP can be operated in a deviated or directionally drilled well, although the recommended operating position is in a straight section of the well. Because the ESP can be up to 200 ft long, operation in a bend or dogleg could seriously impact unit run-life and performance by causing hot spots where the motor rests against the casing. The ESP can operate in a horizontal position. In this case, run-life will be determined by the protectors ability to isolate well fluid from the motor. ESPs are currently operated in wells with bottomhole temperatures (BHTs) up to 350F. Operation at elevated ambient temperatures requires special components in the motor and power cables capable of sustained operation at high ambient temperature. ESPs have efficiently lifted fluids in wells deeper than 12,000 ft. The pumps can be operated in casing as small as 4.5 in. OD. Many studies indicate that ESPs are the most efficient lift method and the most economical on a cost per lifted barrel basis. System efficiency ranges from 18 to 68 %, depending on fluid volume, net lift, and pump tn= The major disadvantage of the ESP is that it has a narrow producing rate range compared with other artificial lift forms. It does handle free gas well, but the impact of large volumes of gas can be destructive to the pump. Run life can be adversely affected by a poor quality electric power supply, but this is not limited to the ESP.

ESP System
The ESP system comprises a downhole pump, electric power cable, and surface controls. In a typical application, the downhole pump is suspended on a tubing string hung on the wellhead and is submerged in the well fluid (see Fig. 7.1). The pump is close-coupled to a submersible electric motor that receives power through the power cable and surface controls. The ESP has the broadest producing range of any artificial lift method. The standard 60-Hz producing range of the ESP extends from a low of 100 B/D of total fluid up to 90,000 B/D. Variable-speed drives can extend the producing range beyond these rates. Although most operators tend to associate ESPs with high volume lift rates, the average ESP produces less than 1,000 B/D of total fluid in continuous operation. ESPs are used to produce a variety of fluids and the gas, chemicals, and contaminants commonly found in these fluids. Currently ESPs are operated economically in virtually every known oil field environment. The WOR is, in general, not significant in assessing an application. Relatively high gas/fluid ratios can be handled using tapered design pumps and a special gas separator pump intake. Aggressive fluids (those containing HzS, CO?, or similar corrosives) can be produced with special materials and coatings. Sand and similar abrasive contaminants can be produced with acceptable pump life by using specially modified pumps and operation procedures.

Applications
The ESP historically has been applied in lifting water or low oil-cut wells that perform similar to water wells. However, within this seemingly narrow segment there are many types of installations and equipment configumtions. This section covers typical installation, booster and injection, bottom intake/discharge, cavern storage/ shrouded configuration, and offshore platforms.

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These and other accessory products and system components are discussed in detail later. Booster and Injection Fig. 7.2 displays a booster application. In this application, a standard pump-protector motor unit is used to lift fluid from a flowline or other source and simultaneously provide injection pressure for a waterflood, pipeline, or other purpose. In a booster application, the unit is set in a short piece of casing, usually near the surface. This configuration can be used for water injection, power fluid, fluid transfer, water disposal, or as a tailgate booster. Injection applications usually lift fluids from an aquifer at normal depths and inject the produced water into a producing zone in the same well or a second well. Injection systems can provide pressure greater than 3,000 psi. The production rate of the pump can be designed to closely match the injectivity characteristics of a reservoir during lillup. Bottom Intake and Bottom Discharge Fig. 7.3 displays a bottom intake configuration. In bottom intake applications, the well fluid enters the pump through a stinger landed in a permanent packer. The pump and motor sections are inverted from typical positions. The well fluid is produced up the annulus instead of the conventional tubing string. This configuration is used where casing clearance limits production volume because of tubing friction loss or pump diameter interference. Because the bottom intake pump can be suspended by small-diameter, high-tensile-strength tubing, output and efficiency are significantly improved. Fig. 7.4 shows a bottom discharge configuration. The bottom discharge pump typically is used to inject water from a shallow aquifer into a deeper producing zone. This eliminates surface flowlines and pumping equipment completely. In this configuration, the pump and motor sections are inverted from a typical position. The pump produces the fluid through a tubing stinger landed in a permanent packer in the injection zone. Thus, the injection pressure is the sum of the interzonal hydrostatic head and the output pressure of the pump. Shrouded Configuration/Cavern Storage Fig. 7.5 displays a standard downhole unit that has been fitted with a shroud. Depending on the exact configuration, a shroud can serve two purposes: (1) direct fluid past the motor for cooling and (2) allow free gas to separate from the fluid before entering the pump intake. This configuration is useful in low-volume, highgas/fluid-ratio wells where drawdown is critical. A shroud allows the pump to be set below the perforations or producing formation. Other examples are cavern or platform leg storage where a unit is suspended in the fluid on tubing and the shroud provides the necessary motor cooling-fluid flow. Offshore Platforms Both drilling and production platforms include ESP equipment. Typical applications are mud mixing, washdown, fire protection, sump pumps, water supply, and off-loading crude oil from storage. The major reason for the use of ESPs in these applications is its space savings when compared with conventional pump products.

Fig. 7.1-Typical

submergible

pump application.

Typical Installation A typical ESP installation is shown in Fig. 7.1. The ESP systems major surface and downhole equipment is shown. In this installation, the available surface power is transformed to the downhole power requirements by three single-phase transformers. The transformed power is supplied by a power cable to a switchboard and then through a junction box and wellhead/tubing support. The power cable is run in with the production tubing string and is banded to the tubing to prevent mechanical damage during installation and removal. The power cable is spliced to a motor flat cable, which is banded to the exterior of the pump-protector motor unit. The centrifugal pump is located at the top of the downhole unit. The pump is hung on the tubing string by the discharge head. Below the pump is a standard intake, which provides for fluid entry to the pump. The center component is the protector. The protector both equalizes external and internal pressure and isolates the motor from the well fluid. The lowest component is the motor, which drives the centrifugal pump. Note that the downhole unit is landed above the perforations. This is necessary so that fluid entering the well flows past the motor. This flow cools the motor, which is otherwise likely to overheat and fail.

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Fig. 7.2-Booster

service

application.

Fig. 7.3-Bottom

intake application

ESP System Components

Motor The ESP systems prime mover is the submersible motor (see Fig. 7.6). The motor is a two-pole, three-phase, squirrel-cage induction type. Motors run at a nominal speed of 3,500 revimin in 60-Hz operation. Motors are filled with a highly refined mineral oil that provides dielectric strength, bearing lubrication, and thermal conductivity. The standard motor thrust bearing is a fixedpad Kingsbury type. Its purpose is to support the thrust load of the motor rotors. Other types are used in hightemperature applications above 250F. Heat generated by motor operation is transferred to the well fluid as it flows past the motor housing. A minimum fluid velocity of 1 fi/sec is recommended to provide adequate cooling. Because the motor relies on the flow of well fluid for cooling, a standard ESP should never be set at or below the well perforations or producing zone unless the motor is shrouded (Fig. 7.5). Motors are manufactured in four different diameters (series) 3.75,4.56, 5.40, and 7.38 in. Thus, motors can be used in casing as small as 4.5 in. Sixty-Hz horsepower capabilities range from a low of 7.5 hp in 3.7%in. series to a high of 1,000 hp in the 7.38-in. series. Motor construction may be a single section or

several tandems bolted together to reach a specific horsepower. Motors are selected on the basis of the maximum OD that can be run easily in a given casing size. The standard motor housing material is heavy-wall, seamless, low-carbon steel tubing. The motor-shaft material is carbon steel. The rotors are supported by sleeve bearings made of Nitmlloy and bronze. The squirrel cage rotor is made of one or more sections depending on motor horsepower and length. The motor stator is wound as a single unit in a fixed housing length.

The ESP is a multistage centrifugal type pump (Fig. 7.7). The type of stage used determines the design volume rate of fluid production. The number of stages determines the total design head generated and the motor horsepower required. The materials used in manufacturing an impeller are Ni-Resist, Ryton, and bronze. Diffusers are universally manufactured of Ni-Resist. The standard shaft material is K-Monel@. Optional, high-strength shaft materials (Inconel@ and Hastalloy@) are used in deep-setting applications where conventional shaft material horsepower limits are exceeded. Bolt-on design makes it possible to vary the capacity and total head of a pump by using

Fig. 7.4-Bottom

discharge

application.

Fig. IS-Shrouded

application.

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PUMP STAGE

IMPELLER Motor Heed Showing Power Cable Connection

THRUST BEARING

ROTOR SEARING

Center Tandem Motor

Fig. 7.6-Motor.

Fig. 7.7-Pump

with standard

intake.

more than one pump section. However, large-capacity pumps typically have integral heads and bases. The nominal OD of a pump will range from 3.38 to 11.25 in.

Protector The protectors primary purpose is to isolate the motor oil from the well fluid while balancing bottomhole pressure (BHP) and the motors internal pressure. There are two types of protector design-the positive seal (Fig. 7.8) and the labyrinth path (Fig. 7.9). The positive seal design relies on an elastic, fluid-barrier bag to allow for the thermal expansion of motor fluid in operation, and yet still isolate the well fluid from the motor oil. The labyrinth path design uses differential specific gravity of the well fluid and motor oil to prevent the well fluid from entering the motor. This is accomplished by allowing the well fluid and motor oil to communicate through tube paths connecting segregated chambers. The protector performs four basic functions. The protector (1) connects the pump to the motor by connecting both the housing and drive shafts, (2) houses a thrust bearing to absorb pump shaft axial thrust, (3) isolates motor oil from well fluid while allowing wellbore-motor pressure equalization, and (4) allows thermal expansion of motor oil resulting from operating heat rise and thermal contraction of the motor oil after shutdown.

Pump Intake Two types of intakes are used to allow fluid to enter the pump. These are the standard intake shown in Fig. 7.7 and the gas separator intake shown in Figs. 7.10 and 7.11. A gas separator intake is used when the gas/liquid ratio (GLR) is greater than can be handled by the pump. If the gas remains in solution, the pump will perform normally. However, once the GLR exceeds a value of about 0.1, the pump may produce less head than normal. As the GLR increases above 0.1 and free gas increases, the pump will eventually gas lock, which usually drastically reduces fluid production and in extreme cases can damage the pump. There are two types of gas separator intakes-the static type (Fig. 7.10) and the rotary type (Fig. 7.11). The static type induces gas separation by reversing the fluid flow direction. At the fluid entry ports, the reversal of fluid flow direction creates lower pressure that allows the gas to separate. The separated gas moves up the annulus and vents at the wellhead. The fluid, which still contains some gas, enters the separator and moves downward into the stand tube. The fluid is picked up by the rotating pickup impeller. The impeller creates a vortex, which forces dense, gas-free fluid to the outside and causes gas to break out and move up the shaft. This provides the first stage of the pump with a higher density of fluid than if the gas broke out in the pump.

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THRUST BEARING

Fig. 7.8-Positive

seal protector

Fig. 7.9-Labyrinth

path protector.

Fig. 7.10~-Static

type gas separator

The rotary gas separator in Fig. 7.11 includes a rotary inducer-centrifuge to separate the gas and produced liquids. The well fluid enters the intake ports and moves into the inducer. The inducer increases the fluid pressure discharging into the centrifuge. The centrifuge forces the denser fluid to the outside. Gas rises from the center of the centrifuge through the flow divider into the crossover section where gas vents to the annulus and fluid is directed into the first stage of the pump. Power Cable Electric power is supplied to the downhole motor by a special submersible cable. There are two cable configurations: flat (or parallel) and round (Fig. 7.12). Round construction is used except where casing clearance requires the lower profile of flat construction. The standard range of conductor sizes is l/O to 6 AWG (American wire gauge). This range meets virtually all motor amperage requirements. Almost all conductors are copper. Mechanical protection is provided by armor made from galvanized steel or, in extremely corrosive environments, Moneln. Unarmored cable is used in lowtemperature (< 180F) wells with a static BHP of less than 1,500 psi. Cable is constructed with three individual conductors-one for each power phase. Each conductor is

enclosed by insulation and sheathing material. The thickness and composition of the insulation and sheathing determines the conductors resistance to current leakage, its maximum temperature capability, and its resistance to permeation by well fluid and gas. Electric power cable is rated to operate up to 400F at 1,500 psi. Round cable is also manufactured with an I-wire. The I-wire serves as an electrical link between a downhole instrument and surface reading/processing equipment. Motor Flat Cable The motor flat cable is the lowest section of the power cable string. The motor flat cable has a lower profile than standard flat power cable so that it can run the length of the pump and protector in limited clearance situations (Fig. 7.1). The motor flat cable is manufactured \yith a special terminal called a pothead. The function of the pothead is to allow entry of electric power into the motor while sealing the connection from well fluid entry. Switchboard The switchboard is basically a motor control device (Fig. 7.13). Voltage capability ranges from 600 to 4,900 V on standard switchboards. All enclosures are NEMA-3R

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. ..

Fig. 7.1 l--Rotary

gas separator.

(Natl. Electrical Manufacturers Assn.), which is suitable for virtually all outdoor applications. The switchboards range in complexity from a simple motor starter/disconnect switch to an extremely sophisticated monitoring/control device. There are two major construction types-electromechanical and solid state. Electromechanical construction switchboards provide overcurrentioverload protection through three magnetic inverse time-delay contact relays with pushbutton, manual reset. Undercurrent protection is provided by silicone-controlled rectifier (SCR) relays. These features provide protection against downhole equipment damage caused by conditions such as pumpoff, gas lock, tubing leaks, and shutoff operation. The solid state switchboards incorporate the highly sophisticated Redalert motor controller. The purpose of the motor controller is to protect the downhole unit by sensing abnormal power service and shutting down the power supply if current exceeds or drops below preset limits. This is accomplished by monitoring each phase of the input power cable to the downhole motor. The monitoring function applies to both overload and underload conditions. When a fault condition occurs, the controller shuts down the unit. It can be programmed to automatically restart the downhole motor following a user-selected time delay if the fault condition is caused by an underload. The programmed time delay can be from 1 minute up to 20 hours. Overload condition shutdown must be restarted manually, but this should be done only after the fault condition has been identified and corrected. A valuable switchboard option is the recording ammeter. Its function is to record, on a circular strip chart, the input amperage to the downhole motor. The ammeter chart record shows whether the downhole unit is performing as designed or whether abnormal operating conditions exist, Abnormal conditions can result when a wells inflow performance is not matched correctly with pump capability or when electric power is of poor quality. Abnormal conditions that are indicated on the ammeter chart record are primary line voltage fluctuations, low amps, high amps, and erratic amps. Specific examples of typical problems encountered and the associated ammeter chart pattern are discussed later. Transformer The ESP system involves three different transformer configurations. These are three single-phase transformers (Fig. 7.14), one three-phase standard transformer, and one three-phase autotransformer. Transformers generally are required because primary line voltage does not meet the downhole motor voltage requirement. Oil-immersed self-cooled (OISC) transformers are used in land-based applications. Dry type transformers are sometimes used in offshore applications that exclude oil-filled transformers. Wellhead The ESP wellhead or tubing support is used as a limited pressure seal (Fig. 7.15). The wellhead provides a pressure tight pack-off around the tubing and power cable. High-pressure wellheads, up to 3,000 psi, use an

Fig. 7.12~Round

and parallel

power cable.

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Fig. 7.14-Single-phase transformer.

electrical power feed to prevent gas migration through the cable. Wellheads are manufactured to fit standard casing sizes from 4.5 to 10% in. Junction Box A junction box connects the power cable from the switchboard to the well power cable (Fig. 7.16). The junction box is necessary to vent to the atmosphere any gas that may migrate up the power cable from the well. This prevents accumulation of gas in the switchboard that can result in an explosive and unsafe operating condition. A junction box is required on all ESP installations. Accessory Options The following covers two major accessory options-the pressure-sensing instrument and the variable-speed drive. Pressure-Sensing Instrument (PSI). The PSI provides the operator with precise downhole pressure and temperature data. The PSI has two components: (1) a

PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

Fig. 7.16-Junction box.

Fig. 7.18--5OOKVA variable-speed drive.

a surface downhole transducer/sending unit and readout unit (Fig. 7.17). The downhole transducer/sending unit connects electrically and bolts to the base of the motor. Both pressure and temperature data are transmitted from the transducer/sending unit to the surface readout through the motor windings and the power cable on a DC carrier signal. The transducer receives operating power from the motors neutral winding. This allows the operation of the PSI even when the motor is not running. The major use of the PSI unit is in determining the producing potential of a well. This is accomplished by determining both static and dynamic reservoir pressures. By correlating the change in pressure with a given producing rate, a wells inflow performance can be accurately quantified. This in turn will allow equipment selection, which optimizes well production. Variable-Speed Drive. The variable-speed drive (VSD) is a highly sophisticated switchboard-motor controller (see Fig. 7.18). A VSD performs three distinct functions. It varies the capacity of the ESP by varying the

motor speed, protects downhole components from power transients, and provides soft-start capability. Each of these functions is discussed. A VSD changes the capacity of the ESP by varying the motor speed. By changing the voltage frequency supplied to the motor and thus motor rev/min, the capacity of the pump is changed also in a linear relationship. Thus, well production can be optimized by balancing inflow performance with pump performance. This applies to both long-range reservoir changes as well as shortterm transients such as those associated with high-GOR wells. This may eliminate the need to change the capacity of a pump to match changing well conditions or it may mean longer run life by preventing cycling problems. This capability is also useful in determining the productivity of new wells by documenting pressure and production values over a range of drawdown rates. The change in voltage frequency can be made manually or automatically. The VSD can operate automatically in a closed loop mode with a programmable controller and PSI instrument. The VSD also protects the downhole motor from poorquality electric power. The VSD is relatively insensitive to incoming power balance and regulation while providing closely regulated and balanced output. The VSD will not put power transients out to the downhole motor but it can be shut down or damaged by such transients. Given the choice, most operators prefer to repair surface installation equipment rather than pull and run downhole equipment. Within limits, the VSD upgrades poorquality electric power by rebuilding. The VSD takes a given frequency and voltage AC input, converts the AC to DC, and then rebuilds the DC to an AC

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waveform. The shape of the waveform is a six-step square wave. The soft-start capability of a VSD provides two major benefits. First, it reduces the startup drain on the power system. Second, the strain on the pump shaft is significantly reduced when compared with that of a standam start. This capability is valuable in gassy or sandy wells. In some cases, slowly ramping a pump up to operating speed may avoid pump damage.

Selection Data and Methods

This section covers the data requirements and calculation procedures required for pump selection in a typical ESP application. The single most important factor in selection of an ESP is the input data. The data used in sizing an ESP must be accurate and reliable to ensure that the unit is properly matched to the wells inflow performance. The data requirements for selection of an ESP are categorized as mechanical data, production data, fluid data, and power supply. Mechanical Data The mechanical data include: (1) casing size and weight, (2) tubing size, weight, and thread, (3) well depth-both measured and true vertical, (4) perforations depth-both measured and true vertical, and (5) unusual conditions such as tight spots, doglegs, and deviation from true vertical at desired setting depth. The casing size and weight determine the maximum diameter of the motor, pump, and protector components that will fit in the well. In general, the most efficient installation is obtained when the largest possible diameter pump, in the target flow range, is selected. The depth of the well and the perforations determine the maximum setting depth of the ESP. If the motor is to be set below the perforations, a motor shroud must be used to provide a flow of well fluid past the motor for cooling (Fig. 7.5). Production Data The production data include: (1) current and desired production rate, (2) oil-production rate, (3) waterproduction rate, (4) GOR-free gas and solution gas or gas bubblepoint, (5) static BHP and fluid level, (6) producing BHP and stabilized fluid level, (7) BHT, and (8) system backpressure from flowlines, separator, and wellhead choke. The inflow performance of a well establishes the maximum economical and efficient rate at which it can be produced. Liquid-level data may be used as a substitute for producing pressures and rates in water wells or in low-oil-cut wells with no gas. In these cases, a straight line PI may be used as a reasonable approximation of well capacity. Most oil wells do not exhibit a straight-line PI because of interference caused by gas. The Vogel technique yields a downward-sloping curve that corrects for gas interference. The IPR curve (Fig. 7.19) applies when wellbore pressure in the producing zone drops below the bubblepoint, which results in two-phase flow as the gas breaks out of the fluid. Again, the data obtained for this approach in sizing an ESP must be both accurate and reliable to ensure proper equipment selection.

PRODUCING RATE FRACTION OF MAXIMUM qo/q ,,max

Fig. 7.19~Inflow

performance relationships curve

Fluid Data The fluid data include: (1) oil API gravity, viscosity, pour point, paraffin content, sand, and emulsion tendency; (2) water specific gravity, chemical content, corrosion potential, and scale-forming tendency; (3) gas specific gravity, chemical content, and corrosive potential; and (4) reservoir FVF, bubblepoint pressure, and viscosity/temperature curve. The specific gravity of the produced fluid has a direct impact on the horsepower required to turn a given size pump. Although relatively few applications encounter fluid viscosities high enough to influence pump performance, it is important to be aware that capacity, head, and horsepower correction factors may be required. In wells with a water cut of 65% or higher, the fluid will not require viscosity correction factors (except for emulsions). The PVT data are required when gas is present. A computer program for pump selection (discussed later in this section) contains a subroutine that uses Standings correlations* in approximating the PVT values when actual data are not available. In high-GOR applications, PVT data are very desirable because the three standard correlation estimates-Standing,* Lasater3, and Vasquez and Beggs4-yield large differences in calculated downhole gas volume (see Chap. 22). Electric Power Supply The electric power supply includes: (1) voltage available and frequency, (2) capacity of the service, and (3) quality of service (spikes, sags, etc.).

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TABLE

7.1-PUMP

SELECTION Maximum BHP Rating For Pump Shaft 94 94 94 94 125 44 94 94 94 94 125 125 125 125 125 125 256 256 160 160 256 256 256 256 256 375 375 375 375 637 375 637 637 637 637 637 637 1000

TABLE

(60 Hz, 3,500

rpm)

Series 338 3.38A400

Pump Type AN550 AN900 A1200 A1500 DN280 0400 DN450 D550 D700 D950 DNlOOO DN1300 D1350 DN1750 D2000 DN3000 DN4000 EN1250 El450 EN3600 G2000 GN2500 G2700 G3100 GN4000 GN5200 G5600 GN7000 GNlOOOO HN13000 IN7500 IN10000 JN16000 JN21000 M520 M675 N1050 N1500 P2000

Capacity Range Recommended Limits (BID) 280 425 660 875 1100 100 280 320 375 500 600 760 975 950 1200 1400 2100 3400 950 1050 2600 1500 2000 2100 2200 4200 4500 5500 8000 9200 6000 8000 12800 16000 12000 19000 24000 35000 53600 to 700 to 1100 to 1575 to 1900 to 450 to 550 to 575 to 650 to 900 to 1150 to 1250 to 1650 to 1800 to 2050 to 2450 to 3700 to 5000 to 1600 to 1800 to 4500 to 2500 to 3100 to 3400 to 3700 (m3/D) 45 to 80 68 to 111 105 to 175 139 to 250 175 to 302 16to72 45 to 87 51 to 91 60 to 103 80 to 143 95 to 183 121 to 199 155 to 262 151 to 286 191 to 326 223 to 390 334 to 588 540 to 795 151 to 254 167 to 286 445 to 715 238 to 397 318 to 493 334 to 541 350 to 568 666 715 874 1272 1463 954 1272 2035 2544 1908 3021 3816 5564 8521 to 1049 to 1153 to 1351 to 1908 to 2607 to 1510 to 1948 to 3100 to 3795 to 3816 to 5167 to 7552 to 9380 to 15240

to 500

400

4.00

450

4.62

540

5.13

562 650 675 862 950 1000 1125

5.62 6.62 6.75 8.62 9.50 10.00 11.25

to to to to to to to to to to to to to

to 6600

7250 8500 12000 16400 9500 12250 19500 25000 24000 32500 47500 59000 95800

The power data are important because they partially determine transformer and switchboard requirements. Frequency influences pump rotation speed, capacity, and head. Once the required data have been gathered and analyzed, the next ESP selection step is to determine the wells production capacity at a given pump-setting depth. This involves analysis of the inflow performance data as well as desired production rate. Two key factors that must be considered are the minimum pump intake pressure (net positive suction head), which the well will permit without pumpoff or gas lock, and the producing rate, which draws the fluid level down to an optimal level. The next selection step is to determine the total dynamic head (TDH). TDH is the sum of: (1) the true vertical lift distance from the producing fluid level to the surface, (2) friction loss in the tubing string, and (3) discharge pressure head at the wellhead. The design TDH determines the number of stages required in a pump. Selection of a specific pump involves identifying a pump of the largest possible diameter that can be run in the well. The pump should have the target capacity

within its recommended operating range and close to its peak efficiency. The initial pump capacity selection can be made from Table 7.1. The individual pump curve should then be reviewed to determine the optimal producing range and the proximity of the design producing rate to the pumps peak efficiency (see Fig. 7.20 for a typical pump performance curve). It is very important to choose a producing rate that is in the recommended capacity range of the specific pump. When a pump operates outside this range, premature failure can result. Once a pump is chosen, the number of stages required can be calculated using the lift-feet-per-stage data from the performance curve.

z n,=--, L.T
where

ns = number of design stages,

Z = total dynamic head, L, = lift per stage, ft. ft, and

ELECTRIC

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*a

YI

15

1w CdpTlb

125

150

GPM=BID-34.3

Fig. 7.20-Typical

pump performance

curve.

The horsepower required by the pump design then can be calculated. To accomplish this, the horsepower required per stage is read from the specific pump performance curve. The required motor horsepower is determined by multiplying the horsepower required per stage by the number of design stages. The performance curve horsepower data apply only to liquids with a specific gravity of 1.0. For other liquids (other specific gravities), the water horsepower also must be multiplied by the specific gravity of the fluid pumped. Thus we have the following equation for the motor horsepower calculation.

where
Phm

= Phs = ns = 0~ =

motor horsepower, horsepower per stage, number of design stages, and specific gravity of fluid.

Once the design motor horsepower is determined, specific motor selection is based on setting depth, casing size, and motor voltage. Although the cost of the motor is generally unrelated to voltage, overall ESP system cost may be lowered by using higher-voltage motors in deep applications. This lower cost can sometimes occur because a higher voltage can lower the cable conductor size required. A smaller-conductor-size, lower-cost cable can more than offset the increased cost of a highervoltage switchboard. Setting depth is a major variable in motor selection because of starting and voltage drop losses that are a function of the motor amperage and cable conductor size.

Cable selection variables are amperage, voltage drop, annulus clearance, ambient well temperature, and corrosion conditions. The standard maximum voltage drop is limited to 3OV/lOC!fl ft. If voltage drop exceeds this value, a larger conductor size should be used. Round cable normally is used unless tubing collariannulus clearance dictates flat or parallel construction. The maximum operating temperature of a cable in relation to the specific wells ambient temperature determines the specific type of cable. Armor and lead sheathing may be recommended for wells with mechanical or clearance problems or corrosive gas such as Hz S. The surface electrical equipment (switchboard and transformers) selection is based on the required motor horsepower, voltage, amperage, voltage loss, and cable size. The surface voltage is. the sum of the downhole motor no-load voltage plus the voltage losses resulting from cable size and other component losses. Voltage losses associated with transformers range from 2.5 to 6%, depending on the manufacturer. Additional impedance is associated with VSD transformer sizing. Transformers must also be selected on the basis of the primary voltage available and the required hookup method-AA, YA, or YY. The protector selection variables are motor and pump series, motor horsepower, and well temperature. Normally the protector is the same series as the pump and motor. Large horsepower motors (150 hp and larger) may require a larger oil capacity. For large horsepower motors, a positive seal double-bag model or a tandem labyrinth path model is used. An ambient well temperature of 250F or higher generally requires the use of the labyrinth path protector. ESP equipment selection in high-water-cut, low-GOR wells is relatively straightforward. Equipment selection

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Handling, Installation, and Operation

This section provides recommended practice on the handling, installation, and operation of an ESP system. Because both safety and economic run life are dependent on correct procedures, the importance of following the recommended practice cannot be overemphasized.

Fig. 7.21--Shipping boxes positioned at the wellsite.

in high GOR or viscous crude wells, however, can be very complicated. One ESP manufacturer has developed a sophisticated computer program to provide comprehensive analysis of alternative equipment selections in such situations. It can be used to select equipment or to evaluate previously selected equipment. This capability means that, over time, the engineer can evaluate the pump fit as well as changes in conditions. If well inflow performance changes significantly, the sizing of the downhole equipment may need to be checked both to optimize production and to prevent premature failure. The computer program contains analytic models for pump performance, reservoir response, and fluid characteristics. It uses the Chew and Connally5 correlations for live fluid viscosity based on the quantity of gas in solution. Another option uses Orkiszewskis6 twophase vertical flow model to compute pump discharge pressure and horsepower required. Standings? correlations are used to provide surrogate PVT data when actual values are not available.

The downhole components-motor, pump, protector, and intake-are shipped in a metal shipping box (Fig. 7.21). The shipping boxes are painted red on the end that should be placed toward the wellhead when the equipment is delivered to the wellsite. The shipping boxes should be lifted with a spreader chain or bridled with a sling at each end. Severe equipment damage can result from dropping, dragging, or bouncing the boxes. The shipping boxes should never be lifted by the middle of the box only. The cable reel should be lifted by using an axle and a spreader bar (Fig. 7.22). If a fork lift is used, the forks should be long enough to support both reel rims when the reel is picked up from an end. The ends of the cable should be covered or sealed to protect them from the elements. Transformers and switchboards are provided with lifting hooks. To avoid damage, the recommended practice is to lift with a spreader bar to maintain a vertical position. Variable-speed drives are normally skid-mounted with fork lift slots and lifting eyes. Some VSD models are manufactured with pull bars. Additional information on ESP handling and installation procedures is available in API Recommended Practice for Electric Submersible Pump Installations.8 Installation There are three segments to every ESP installation. These are well preparation, site layout, and run-in and startup of equipment. The well-preparation procedure in-

Fig. 7.22-Cable reel lifting procedures.

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volves determining the downhole clearance conditions. Site layout prescribes equipment and rig locations as well as size and capacity. Running equipment in the well and startup procedures define the steps in equipment handling, test procedure, and responsibility of the rig crew and servicemen. Prior to beginning installation of the ESP equipment, the well must be cleared of any tubing, rods, packers, etc., that would prevent the downhole equipment from reaching target setting depth. The casing flange and we11head should be examined for burrs or sharp edges. This is very important in small-diameter casing because cable damage can be caused by burrs or edges catching cable bands. A gauge ring should be run in (particularly in 4.5-in. casing) to below the setting depth of the downhole equipment. If gauging indicates tight spots, a scraper or reamer should be used to remove the obstruction (scale, paraffin, burrs, or partially collapsed casing). This will ensure adequate clearance for the ESP downhole equipment as it is run into the well. The blowout preventer (BOP), if used, should be checked for adequate clearance as well as burrs and sharp edges. Cut-out rams are available for most tubing and cable sizes. They should be installed in the BOP for well control in the event of a kick during equipment installation. The pulling rig should be centered over the well as closely as possible. A guide wheel/cable sheave should be secured safely to the rig mast no higher than 30 to 45 ft above the wellhead. The guide wheel should be at least 54 in. in diameter. The cable reel or spooling truck should be positioned about 100 ft from the wellhead in direct line of sight of the rig operator. One person should be responsible for the cable operation. The responsibilities of this person are to ensure that there is minimum tension on the cable (the cable should be run at the same speed as the tubing), that the cable is kept clear of power tongs during tubing makeup or break, and that no one stands in front of the cable reel/spooler. The cable junction box must be located at least 15 ft from the wellhead (Fig. 7.16). The switchboard must be located a minimum of 50 ft from the wellhead and 35 ft minimum from the junction box. The junction box normally is located 2 to 4 ft above ground level to ensure adequate air circulation and easy access. The junction box must never be located inside a building. The ESP manufacturers field representative checks all equipment before installation. During installation his responsibility is to supervise the pulling and/or running of the downhole equipment. All equipment delivered to the wellsite is checked to determine that all components necessary to complete the installation have arrived and are not damaged. The ESP manufacturers field representative will perform the following checks and procedures. 1. Remove shipping box covers and record all component serial numbers from nameplates (Fig. 7.23). 2. Check casing, wellhead, and packoff material. 3. Check the switchboard for proper fuses, potential transformer setup, and current transformer ratios. 4. Check all couplings for shaft diameter and spline match.

3. Check flat cable length, size, and pothead type. 6. Check power transformers for correct primary and secondary voltage rating. 7. Confirm that the pump design setting depth and capacity match the well conditions. 8. Check the power cable and flat cable with instruments and high-voltage megger. Once the equipment, cable, and verification procedures are completed, the assembly and run-in of downhole equipment can begin. The manufacturers field representative directs the assembly and checks equipment as it is being run in. The steps of assembly and checks of equipment can be summarized as follows. 1. Assemble motor, protector, intake, and pump. 2. Fill the motor/protector assembly with motor oil. 3. Mechanically check free rotation of downhole components. 4. Check electrical connection and test the motor, power cable, and flat cable pothead. 5. Correct torque of connecting bolts. 6. Band cable to tubing string. 7. Splice cable or repair damaged cable. 8. Connect power cable to junction box and switchboard. 9. Pack off wellhead. 10. Complete flowline connections and valve position. Once the run-in procedures are completed and final electrical tests completed, the manufacturers representative will complete the electrical connections. The switchboard underload and overload adjustments are set according to the conditions expected for each well. The pump is then started. Fluid pump-up time, load and noload voltage, and amperage on each phase are recorded. Phase rotation should be checked carefully to ensure that the pump is rotating in the correct direction. The quantity of production of oil, gas, and water should be monitored on startup and regularly for the time required to achieve stability. A careful study should be made on a pump installation that does not produce as designed. As much information as possible should be gathered to aid in specific identification of the problem and appropriate remedial action. This will ensure that subsequent installations will provide satisfactory run life.

PETROLEUM

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Fig. 7.24-Normal

ammeter

chart.

Fig. 7.25-Normal

startup chart.

Pulling equipment out of a well involves essentially the reverse process of run-in. The equipment and cable should be handled with the same care as new because they are still valuable. Cable damage and missing bands should be recorded at the depth they occurred to aid in subsequent repair and evaluation. If the equipment failure is judged to be premature, the condition of cable, flat cable, pump rotation, and motor/protector fluid may be useful in determining the cause of the failure.

mounted in the switchboard that records the amperage drawn by the ESP motor (Fig. 7.13). A number of changes in operating conditions can be diagnosed by interpreting ammeter records. The following addresses ammeter chart readingand typical problem situations. Normal Operation A normal chart (Fig. 7.24) is smooth, with amperage at or near motor nameplate amperage draw. Actual operation may be either slightly above or below nameplate amperage. However, as long as the curve is symmetric and consistent over time, operation is considered normal. Normal Startup A normal startup will produce a chart similar to that shown in Fig. 7.25. The startup spike is caused by the inrush surge as the pump comes up to operating speed. The subsequent amperage draw is high but trending toward a normal level. This is principally a result of the fluid level being drawn down to the design TDH, resulting in a high but declining amperage draw. Power Fluctuations Operating ESP amperage will vary inversely with voltage. If system voltage fluctuates, the ESP amperage will fluctuate inversely to maintain a constant load (Fig. 7.26). The most common cause of this type of fluctuation is a periodic heavy load on the primary power system. This load usually occurs when starting up another ESP or other large electric motor. Simultaneous startup of several motors should be avoided to minimize the impact on the primary power system. Ammeter spikes also can occur during a thunderstorm that is accompanied by lightning strikes.

Troubleshooting
This section outlines a recommendation for identification and solution of typical ESP problems. The only way a failure can be analyzed and its cause determined is by data collection. When a problem occurs you simply cannot have too much information. Information that should be routinely compiled on each ESP well includes production data (such as water, oil, and gas), run life, unit starts and stops, dynamic and static fluid level, and pump setting and perforation depth. Information also should be obtained on ammeter charts, well conditions (abrasives, corrosives, HzS etc.), electric power quality (surges, sags, balance, negative sequence voltages, etc.), visual observations of equipment and cable condition on prior pulls, reasons for equipment pull (failure, workover, size change, etc.), and BHT. When an ESP well is first put on production, data should be collected daily for the first week, weekly for the first month, and a minimum of monthly after the first month. Production data during the first month are very important because they will indicate whether the pump is performing as designed. If a downhole pressure instrument is installed, operating BHP is equally important. The major source of information when troubleshooting an ESP installation is the recording ammeter. The recording ammeter is a circular strip-chart accessory

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Fig. 7.26-Startup

spikes chart.

Fig. 7.28-Fluid

pumpoff

chart.

Fig. 7.27-Gas

lock chart

Fig. 7.29-Short

duration

cycling.

Gas Lacking Gas locking occurs as fluid level drawdown approaches the pump intake and intake pressure is lower than the bubblepoint. This situation is shown in Fig. 7.27. This ammeter chart shows a normal startup and amperage decline as the fluid level is drawn down. However, the chart shows erratic fluctuations as gas breaks out near the pump beginning at approximately 6: 15 a.m. As the fluid level continues to draw down, cyclic loading of both free gas and fluid slugs leads to increasingly wider amperage fluctuations, ultimately resulting in shutdown at approximately 7: 15 a.m. because of undercurrent loading.

There are three possible remedies for gas locking. The first is to install a gas separator intake and/or a motor shroud. The second is to lower the setting depth of the pump (but not lower than the perforations unless the motor is shrouded). The third remedy is to reduce the production rate of the pump by using a surface choke (but ensure that the production rate remains within the recommended range for that pump). It is entirely possible that none of these solutions is satisfactory. The pump should be replaced with a pump that does not draw down the fluid level or reduce intake pressure below the bubblepoint.

7-16

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M-6AM. 74bt Q,

Fig. 7.30-Gassy

or emulsion

conditions.

Fig. 7.32-Overload

shutdown

condition.

Fig. 7.31-Debris

or solids in a well.

Another possible solution is to add a VSD to the existing system. The VSD controls the speed of the pump, which in turn controls the pump capacity. Thus the pump output can be fine-tuned to protect against pumpoff and gas lock while contributing to improved pump life. Fluid Pumpoff Fluid pumpoff occurs typically when an ESP is too large in relation to the inflow capacity of the well. This condition is illustrated in Fig. 7.28. This chart shows a normal startup at 7:00 a.m. and normal operation until approximately 10:00 a.m. Then amperage draw begins to fall

slowly until the underload setting is reached and the pump is shut down about 2:15 p.m. Subsequent automatic restarts at 4:15 p.m. and 8:15 p.m. produce similar results. The remedial actions are much the same as those listed for gas lock and, in addition, a well stimulation treatment may increase the wells productivity closer to a match with the pump. In general, cycling an ESP is not conducive to optimal run life. As a temporary measure, the amount of time delay before automatic restart can be increased if the switchboard is equipped with a Redalert motor controller. This may allow the fluid volume to build up to prevent a high frequency of shutdown occurrence. Nevertheless, the pump and well are not compatible and the pump size should be checked on the next changeout or the well worked over to improve productivity. A form of frequent, short-duration cycling is shown in Fig. 7.29. This shows an extreme pumpoff condition. While the initial reaction is to suspect a badly oversized pump, them may be another cause. If a fluid level sounding, taken immediately after pump shutdown, indicates fluid over the pump, the problem may be a tubing leak or a restricted valve or discharge line. A tubing leak typically is accompanied by a somewhat low discharge pressure and low surface production rate. If shutdown is caused by a plugged valve or discharge line, tubing pressure should be abnormally high. Gassy Conditions-Emulsion A gassy but normal producing well is shown in Fig. 7.30. The continuous amperage fluctuations result from alternating free gas and heavy fluid pumping. Generally this condition results in a reduction of stock-tank barrels in relation to pump design rate. This figure is also typical of an emulsion. The amperage fluctuations are caused by the frequent, temporary blockage of the pump intake. If

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it is an emulsion block, spikes are normally lower or below the normal amperage line. Solids and Debris When debris or solids are found in a well, the amperage will display fluctuations immediately after startup. This condition is shown in Fig. 7.3 1. Typically when solids such as sand, scale, or weighted mud are found in a well, special care must be taken on startup to avoid pump damage. It may be necessary to put backpressure on the well to prevent excess amperage until the kill fluid is removed and/or sand production begins to decline to a safe volume. Overload Shutdown A pump will also automatically shut down in an overload condition. This condition is shown in Fig. 7.32. However, when an overload condition shutdown occurs the unit must not be restarted until the cause of the overload has been identified and corrected. Some motor controller overload-detection circuits contain a built-in time delay, ranging from 1 to 5 seconds at 500% of the set point to 2 to 30 seconds at 200% of the set point. However, they will not automatically restart the unit on an overload condition. A restart attempt in an overload condition can destroy the downhole equipment if the cause of the overload is not identified and corrected first. The most common causes of an overload condition are increased fluid specific gravity, sand, emulsion, scale, electric power supply problems, worn equipment, and lightning damage.

2. Standing, M.B.: A Pressure-Volume-Temperature Correlation for Mixtures of California Oils and Gases. Drill. and Prod. Prac., API (1975) 275. 3. Lasater, J.A.: Bubble Point Pressure Correlation, J. Per. Tech. (May 1958) 65-67; Trans., AIME, 213, 379-81. 4. Vasquez, M. and Beggs, H.D.: Correlations for Fluid Physical Property Predictions, J. Pet. Tech. (June 1980) 968-70. 5. Chew, J. and Connally, C.A. Jr.: A Viscosity Correlation for Gas-Saturated Crude Oil, J. Pet. Tech. (Feb. 1959) 23-25; Trans., AIME, 216. 6. Orkiszewski, J.: Predicting Two-Phase Pressure Drops in Vertical Pipes, J. Pet. Tech. (June 1967) 829-38; Trans., AIME,

240.
7. Standing, M.B.:
Hydrocarbon Volumetric and Phase Behavior of Oil Field Systems, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York

City (1952). 8. API Recommended Practice for Electric Submersible Pump Installation, API RP 11R (March 1980).

General References
API Recommended Practice for the Operation, Maintenance and Trouble Shooting of Electric Submersible Pump Installations, API RP IlS, Dallas (Jan. 1982). Brown, K.E. et al.: The Twhnology of Arfificial Lifr Methods, Petroleum Publishing Co., Tulsa (1980) 2. Martin, J.W. and Vatalaro, F.J.: Testing of Oil Well Power Cables Under Simulated Downhole Conditions. TRW Reda Pump DIV. (1979). Mead, H.N.: Oasis Submersible Lift Operations, paper SPE 5287 presented at the 1975 SPE European Spring Meeting, London, April 14-15. ONeil. R.K.: Engineered Application Submergible pumps, paper SPE 5907 presented at the 1976 SPE Rocky Mountam Regional Meeting, Casper, May 10-l 1. Schultz, H.F.: Extraordinary Application of Electrical Submergible Centrifugal Pump Equipment, paper SPE 4723 presented at the 1973 SPE Production Technology Symposium. Lubbock. Nov. 1-2. Swetnam, J.C and Sackash, M-L: Performance Review of Tapered Submergible Pumps in the Three Bar Field, J. Pet. Tech. (Dec. 1978) 1781-87.

References
1, Vogel, J.V.: Inflow Performance Relationships for Solution-Gas Drive Wells, J. Per. Tech. (Jan. 1968) 83-92; Trans., AIME, 243.