Life Process - Transportation

Life Processes
An organism, either unicellular or multicellular performs some physiological activities for its survival. These
processes which are essential for sustaining life are known as life process.
Some main life processes are:
1. Nutrition
2. Respiration
3. Transportation
4. Excretion
5. Control and coordination
6. Reproduction and growth.
I. NUTRITION:
Nutrition (also called nourishment or aliment) is a process of intake and utilization of food we are taking to
exhibit various physiological processes.
MODES OF NUTRITION:
Plants may be able to obtain raw materials and prepare their own organic food or can be dependent on others
(dead or living) for the same. They are respectively known as autotrophic (autos = self, trophien = to nourish)
and heterotrophic (heteros - other, trophien - to nourish).
1. Autotrophic Nutrition
Autotrophs synthesize organic materials from inorganic materials. Some organisms derive their energy for this
process from sunlight and are called photoautotroph.
Example: Green plants
Other organisms use chemical energy and are called chemoautotrophs.
Example: Nitrifying bacteria. Photoautotrophs are the primary producers in food chains.
2. Heterotrophic Nutrition
Heterotrophs eat ready - made complex organic food. From this they
obtain energy for metabolism, atoms and molecules to build new
protoplasm or repair worn - out parts, and ions, co-enzymes and
vitamins vital for chemical processes. There are four types of
heterotrophic nutrition - saprophytic, parasitic, symbiotic and
insectivorous.
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a) Saprohytic Nutrition (sapros - rotten phyton - plant):
X- Biology/ Life processes 2
Saprotrophs are decomposers and liberate energy for their own use by breaking down complex organic
matter from the dead bodies of other organisms. At the same time this process releases vital chemical
elements into the soil which are absorbed by autotrophs. Thus saprotrophs aid the recycling of materials
from dead organisms to living ones. Fungal and bacterial saprotrophs are referred to as saprophyte, while
animal saprotrophs are called saprozoites.
b) Parasitic
Parasites are organisms that live in or on other living organisms (called the host) generally receiving shelter
and deriving nutrients from it. The parasites may cause harm to the host plant.
Cuscata is a total stem parasite. They absorb food

material from host by parasitic root called
haustoria.
c) Insectivorous Plants
Insectivorous plants are autotrophic but obtain organic matter and animal nitrogen from insects, however not
bigger than the size of a grasshopper.
There are about 450 species of insectivorous plants.
i. Drosera or Sundew
ii. Dionea or Venus Fly Trap
Digestive
Gland
Winged
petiole
Dionea or Venus Fly Trap
When an insect happens to alight on the surface of the lamina, the spines are touched and stimulated. The two
lobes of lamina snap together. The marginal spines get interlocked and insects is trapped. The digestive glands
secrete juice and digest the insects and absorbed. The leaf now opens and remains of insects fall down.
iii. Nepenthes or Pitcher Plant
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Nepenthes or Pitcher Plant
The pitcher attracts insects due to its gaudy colour and nectar. The insects roam into neck of pitcher in search
of more nectar. The lid closes and digestive glands digest the insects.
iv. Utricularia or Bladder Wort
Utricularia or Bladder Wort
The external glands secrete digestive juice. When insects alights, valve opens and insect passes in the bladder.
It gets digested inside.
v. Chemosynthesis
Chemoautotrophs are (organisms) bacteria using CO2 as a carbon source and energy derived from the
oxidation of inorganic materials such as iron, sulphur, ammonia and nitrite. Chemosynthesis is thus a process
of carbohydrate synthesis, in which organisms use chemical reactions to obtain energy from inorganic
compounds. These bacteria are particularly important in nitrogen fixation, nitrification and denitrification.
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vi. Holozoic: Organism which consumes solid food are known to have holozoic mode of nutrition. E.g.
Human, pig, monkey etc.
I. Autotrophic Nutrition
Introduction to autotrophic nutrition:
Autotrophic nutrition or autotrophism (auto = self, tropism = feeding) is the synthesis of organic
compounds from inorganic sources. This type of nutrition takes place by photosynthesis in plants, and
chemosynthesis in certain bacteria. Autotrophic organisms use an inorganic form of carbon, e.g. carbon
dioxide, to make up complex organic compounds (glucose), with energy from two sources:
(1) Light - when using light, the process is photosynthesis, as practiced by all green plants.
(2) Chemicals - When using chemicals, the process is chemosynthesis, as practiced by certain bacteria.
Types of Autotrophic Nutrition
There are two types of Autotrophic Nutrition
1. Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis is the process used by all green plants, blue-green algae (Cyanophyta) and
certain bacteria. It is the synthesis of organic compounds primarily sugars from carbon dioxide and water (or
other hydrogen [electron] donors) using sunlight as the source of energy and chlorophyll (or some other
closely related pigment) for trapping the light energy.
Photosynthesis can be summarized by the following equation:
The photosynthetic process has been shown to be divided into two major phases:
a. Light Stage (Light-Dependent Reactions): This stage represents the conversion of radiant energy to
chemical energy in the form of ATP
b. Dark Stage (Light-Independent Reactions): This stage represents the enzymatic synthesis of carbohydrate
intermediates and other compounds by the utilization of the ATP produced during the Light Stage.
Photosynthesis has major three important events:
a) Trapping of sunlight by chlorophyll.

b) Photolysis of water: In this stage water molecule is dissociated into H2 and O2 gas in the presence of
sunlight.
c) Carbon dioxide is reduced to carbohydrate (glucose).
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Thylakoid
E:
Fig.: Site of Photosynthesis: A. Green leaf, B: T.S. of leaf, C: Single Palisade Cell, D:
Single Chloroplast,
E: Thylakoid
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2. Chemosynthesis: Chemosynthesis (Chemo means chemical and synthesis means creating) is the process by
which certain microbes create energy by mediating chemical reactions. This involves the synthesis of organic
compounds from carbon dioxide and water but the energy instead of coming from light (as in photosynthesis )
is supplied by oxidising simple inorganic compounds found in the environment, such as sulphur, hydrogen
sulphide, ammonia, nitrites and iron (II). Chemosynthetic microbes provide the foundation for biological
colonization of vents. They live on or below the seafloor, and even within the bodies of other vent animals as
symbionts.
II. Heterotrophic Mode of Nutrition:
1. Nutrition in Amoeba:
Nutrition in amoeba is holozoic. Thus, solid food particles are ingested which are then acted upon by enzymes
and digested. It is an omnivore, feeding on both plants and animals. Its diet includes bacteria, microscopic
plants like the diatoms, minute algae, and microscopic animals like other protozoa, nematodes and even dead
organic matter.
Since it is a unicellular organism, amoeba does not have any specialized structure or organ for the process of
nutrition. It takes place through the general body surface with the help of pseudopodia.
Mechanism of Nutrition
1. Ingestion: The food is ingested at the point where it comes in touch with the cell surface with the help of
pseudopodia. Pseudopodia engulf the food into the cytoplasm. The process of ingestion takes about two
minutes.
2. Digestion in Amoeba: Digestion in amoeba is intracellular taking place within the cell. The food taken in, is
remains in a food vacuole or gastric vacuole formed by the cell membrane and small part of the cytoplasm.
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The vacuoles are transported deeper into the cells by cytoplasmic movements. Here they fuse with lysosomes
that contain enzymes. Two enzymes amylase and proteinase have been reported. Thus, amoeba can digest
sugars, cellulose and proteins. Fats, however, remain undigested.
The contents of the vacuole become lighter and the outline of the vacuole becomes indefinite indicating that
the digestion is complete.
3. Absorption
Since the food on digestion is converted into liquid diffusible form, it is readily absorbed by the cytoplasm.
The vacuole becomes progressively smaller as the food is absorbed by diffusion.
4. Assimilation
All the parts of the cell get the nutrients by the cyclic movement of the cytoplasm called the cyclosis. These
nutrients are used to build new protoplasm. In this manner the food is assimilated.
5. Egestion The egestion takes place by exocytosis. There is no particular point from which the egestion
takes place. As the amoeba moves forward, the undigested matter is shifted to the back and eliminated as food
pellets through a temporary opening formed at any nearest point on the plasma lemma.
2. Nutrition in Human Beings:
The human digestive system is a complex series of organs and glands that processes food. In order to use the
food we eat, our body has to break the food down into smaller molecules that it can process; it also has to
excrete waste.
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Most of the digestive organs (like the stomach and intestines) are tube-like and contain the food as it makes its
way through the body. The digestive system is essentially a long, twisting tube that runs from the mouth to the
anus, plus a few other organs (like the liver and pancreas) that produce or store digestive chemicals.
The Digestive Process:
1. Mouth: The digestive process begins in the mouth. Food is partly broken down by the process of chewing
and by the chemical action of salivary enzymes (these enzymes are produced by the salivary glands and
break down starches into smaller molecules) i.e. salivary amylase or ptyalin enzyme. Only carbohydrates
are digested in mouth and complex carbohydrates are converted into maltose.
Complex Carbohydrate Maltose
Ptyali
n
2. Esophagus - After being chewed and swallowed, the food enters the esophagus. The esophagus is a long
tube that runs from the mouth to the stomach. It uses rhythmic, wave-like muscle movements (called
peristalsis) to force food from the throat into the stomach. This muscle movement gives us the ability to
eat or drink even when we're upside-down. It provides only passage for food, no digestion take place in
this region.
3. In the stomach - The stomach is a large, sack-like organ that churns the food and bathes it in a very
strong acid (gastric acid). Food in the stomach that is partly digested and mixed with stomach acids is
called chime.
4. In the small intestine - After being digested in the stomach, food enters the duodenum, the first part of
the small intestine. It then enters the jejunum and then the ileum (the final part of the small intestine). In
the small intestine, bile (produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder), pancreatic enzymes, and
other digestive enzymes produced by the inner wall of the small intestine help in the breakdown of food.
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5. In the large intestine - After passing through the small intestine, food passes into the large intestine. In
the large intestine, some of the water and electrolytes (chemicals like sodium) are removed from the food.
Many microbes (bacteria like Bacteroides, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella) in
the large intestine help in the digestion process. The first part of the large intestine is called the cecum (the
appendix is connected to the cecum). Food then travels upward in the ascending colon. The food travels
across the abdomen in the transverse colon, goes back down the other side of the body in the descending
colon, and then through the sigmoid colon.
6. The end of the process - Solid waste is then stored in the rectum until it is excreted via the anus.
II. Respiration
In physiology, respiration (often confused with breathing) is defined as the transport of oxygen from the
outside air to the cells within tissues, and the transport of carbon dioxide in the opposite direction. This is in
contrast to the biochemical definition of respiration, which refers to cellular respiration: the metabolic process
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by which an organism obtains energy by reacting oxygen with glucose to give water, carbon dioxide and ATP
(energy). Or in other words it can be defined as oxidation of food.
Chemically, cellular respiration is considered an exothermic redox reaction. The overall reaction is broken into
many smaller ones when it occurs in the body, most of which are redox reactions themselves. Although
technically, cellular respiration is a combustion reaction, it clearly does not resemble one when it occurs in a
living cell. This difference is due to the fact that it occurs in many separate steps. While the overall reaction is
combustion, no single reaction that comprises it is a combustion reaction.
Types of Respiration:
1. Aerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration requires oxygen in order to generate energy (ATP). Carbohydrates are the main source of
energy while fats and proteins can be used to generate energy during the limited supply of carbohydrate. In
aerobic respiration first step is glycolysis, during which pyruvic acid or pyruvate is formed which is a 3-carbon
compound. Pyruvate enters the mitochondrion in order to be fully oxidized by the Krebs cycle. The product of
this process is energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), by substrate NADH.
C6H12O6 (aq) + 6 O2 (g) 6 CO2 (g) + 6 H2O (l) + energy
Simplified reaction:
G = -2880 kJ per mole of C6H12O6
The negative G indicates that the reaction can occur spontaneously.
Glycolysis Krebs Cycle
Or, Glucose Pyruvic acid CO2 + H2O + Energy
Aerobic metabolism is up to 15 times more efficient than anaerobic metabolism (which yields 2 molecules
ATP per 1 molecule glucose). The post glycolytic reactions take place in the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells,
and in the cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells.
2. Anaerobic Respiration:
a) Oxidation of carbohydrates or food in the absence of oxygen is called anaerobic respiration. It

involves incomplete breakdown of food ethanol or lactic acid. Anaerobic respiration occurs in
certain microorganisms such as bacteria and yeast. These microorganisms convert glucose into
ethanol or ethyl alcohol C2H5OH.
Glycolysis
Glucose Pyruvic acid C2H5OH + H2O + Energy
The anaerobic reparation is carried by some microorganisms like yeast is called fermentation.
b) Anaerobic respiration also occurs inside the muscles during vigorous exercise or muscular
activities. The anaerobic respiration in muscles is different from microorganisms. In this case
oxidation of glucose results in the formation of lactic acid.
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Glycolysis Lack of O2
Glucose Pyruvic acid Lactic acid
Lactic acid is a carboxylic acid with the chemical formula C3H6O3.
Difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration
AEROBIC RESPIRATION ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
1. It occurs in the presence of oxygen 1. It occurs in the absence of oxygen.
2. Glucose is completely broken down to 2. Glucose is incompletely oxidized to

release carbon dioxide and water. release ethanol or lactic acid.
3. It produces 36-38 ATPs per glucose 3. It produces 2 ATPs per glucose

molecule. molecule
4. It takes place in cytoplasm and 4. It takes place in cytoplasm only.

mitochondria.
5. It takes longer time to release energy. 5. It is fast process as compared to aerobic

respiration.
6. E.g., all higher animals and plants. 6. E.g., Yeast, bacteria, human muscle
cells etc.
The Respiratory System in Human beings
Human respiratory system consists of:
1. Nostrils and Nasal chamber: Human respiratory system begins from a pair of external nostrils
situated at the lower end of the nose. Air enters through nostrils and reaches into a pair of nasal
cavities. The dust particles are trapped in the mucus secreted by mucus cells. It also contains small
hairs which help to resist the entrance of duct and other solid particles. Nasal cavity has a lining of
olfactory epithelium which acts as smell organ.
2. Pharynx: It is a short vertical tube located in the head at the back of buccal cavity. It is the common
opening of mouth and nasal chamber. The pharynx provides passage into trachea or wind pipe through
a slit-like aperture, called glottis. The glottis always remains open except during swallowing. The
glottis has a leaf- like cartilaginous flap called epiglottis which closes the glottis during swallowing and
food enters only in the food pipe. Entry of food into the respiratory tract can be fatal.
3. Trachea: It is also known as wind pipe. It is thin- walled tube that extends downward through neck and
divides into two major bronchi. Each enters into the lungs and further bifurcated into many
bronchioles. It contains rings of cartilage which protects the trachea from collapsing when there is no
air present in it.
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4. Lungs: Human has 2 lungs. Left lung is slighter small as it provides space for heart. It provides large
surface area for exchange of gases. It is present in the thoracic cavity on the sides of heart. The thoracic
cavity is separated from the abdominal cavity by a muscular partition called diaphragm. Outermost
covering of lungs is called pleura.
In lungs major bronchi further divided into secondary bronchi and further into smaller bronchioles.
Each bronchiole divides into alveolar ducts which enter the alveolar sacs or alveoli. The alveoli have a
thin wall and surrounded by a network of blood capillaries. It is the site for exchange of gases.
5. The voice box: Also known as larynx or Adams apple. In males it is prominent as compared to
females. Larynx has two vocal cords. Vibrations in vocal cords results in the production of sound
which is converted into speech with the help of buccal cavity, tongue and lips.
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Mechanism of Breathing:
Lungs help in inhale or exhale the air. The intake of fresh air into the lungs is called
inspiration or inhalation and elimination of carbon dioxide is called expiration or
exhalation.
1. Inhalation: Inhalation is intake of fresh air from outside into the alveoli of the
lungs. In occurs by expansion of lungs which is brought about by enlargement of
thoracic cavity. Inhalation involves following steps:
a. The diaphragm helps in inhalation as it lowers down and becomes flat. During
inhalation, the diaphragm contracts, thus enlarging the volume of the thoracic cavity.
This reduces intra-thoracic pressure: In other words, enlarging the cavity creates
suction that draws air into the lung, or lungs.
b. Expansion of lungs reduces the pressure of air inside so that the fresh air is pushed
from outside into the lungs passing through nostrils, trachea and bronchi.
c. On reaching the lungs, the fresh air is distributed by the bronchi, bronchioles
and alveolar ducts to the alveoli.
d. The alveoli are richly supplied by network of blood capillaries.
e. Fresh air has a rich supply of oxygen which goes into the blood passing through
thin membranes of alveoli and blood capillaries. As a result the blood in the
capillaries becomes loaded with oxygen and expels carbon dioxide into the
alveoli for exhalation by the process of diffusion.
2. Exhalation: Elimination of carbon dioxide is called exhalation. During exhalation

diaphragm relaxes so that it move upward and making it convex. As diaphragm
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relaxes it results in the reduction of size of thoracic cavity and lungs also contract.
Contraction of lungs raises the air pressure so that carbon dioxide moves out.
Exchange of Gases in Tissues:

Alveoli are the site of exchange of gases as it richly supply with blood capillaries.
When inhalation takes place O2 moves from higher concentration to lower
concentration due to the process of diffusion. The blood has more concentration of
CO2 as compared to alveoli. Thus, CO2 moves from blood to alveoli due to simple
diffusion. This exchange of gases is called external respiration and results in
oxygenation of blood. The oxygenated blood then returns form the lung by
pulmonary veins to the left side of the heart. The heart supplies the oxygenated
blood to the body tissues.
The living cells perform oxidation of food to release energy. This is the process of
aerobic respiration, which utilizes O2 and releases CO2. This process is called cellular
respiration. Thus cell consume O2 and release CO2.The concentration of O2 is more in
blood and less in cell, so O2 moves from blood to the tissues by the physical process
of diffusion. Similarly, CO2 concentration is more in tissues and less in the blood. So,
the CO2 moves form tissues to the blood. The oxygenated blood now becomes
deoxygenated.
Exchange of Gases in the Plants:
In order to carry on photosynthesis, green plants

need a supply of carbon dioxide and a means of
disposing of oxygen. In order to carry on cellular
respiration, plant cells need oxygen and a means
of disposing of carbon dioxide (just as animal
cells do). Unlike animals, plants have no
specialized organs for gas exchange.
a. Leaves
The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the

leaf (as well as the loss of water vapor in
transpiration) occurs through pores called
stomata (singular = stoma). Normally stomata
open when the light strikes the leaf in the morning
and close during the night.
b. Roots and Stem
Woody stems and mature roots are sheathed in

layers of dead cork cells impregnated with suberin
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a waxy, waterproof (and airproof) substance. So cork is as impervious to oxygen and

carbon dioxide as it is to water.
However, the cork of both mature roots and woody stems has small pores called
lenticels. These enable oxygen to reach the intercellular spaces of the interior tissues
and carbon dioxide to be released to the atmosphere.
III. TRANSPORTATION
The transport system in animals is called the circulatory system. The materials are transported from one part of
the body to another by a mass flow system which is the circulatory system.
Transportation in animals:

The higher animals require more nutrients and oxygen at a faster rate. They also produce more wastes
that have to be removed from the cells in less time.
Materials to be transported include digested food, respiratory gases, hormones, excretory products, etc.
The digested food includes sugars like glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and their derivatives. Blood
which is the vascular tissue in man is over 90% water. Thus, only the water-soluble substances are
transported through this fluid. For the transport of fatty substances, body uses another fluid called the
lymph.
Thus, there are two circulatory systems:
Blood circulatory system
Lymphatic circulatory system
Function of blood circulatory system:
1. Blood acts as a fluid connective tissue. The blood plays a vital rolein the body and is often called the
river of life.
2. Blood plasma helps in transportation of food, oxygen, carbon dioxide, waste products, hormones etc. It
also helps in regulation of body temperature and pH of the body.
3. RBCs help in transportation of oxygen as it contains haemoglobin which binds with oxygen as
oxyhaemoglobin.
4. WBCs help to defend the body against the attacks of microorganisms and as soldiers of our body. They
collect the pathogens and engulf it to digest this process is called phagocytosis.
5. Blood platelets helps in blood clotting or coagulation to check the excessive loss of blood from an
injury caused to the body. At the site of injury, the platelets release a number of platelet factors and an
enzyme thromboplastin which cause the coagulation of blood and clot formation to prevent excessive
bleeding.
Mammalian Heart:
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The human heart is a muscular, cone-shaped, hollow organ about the size of a fist (about 12cm in
length and 9cm in breadth). The heart is situated in between the lungs in the thoracic cavity. The heart
is tilted slightly such that its apex is towards the left side.
The major part of the heart is made up of muscles and is called myocardium. The inner lining of the
heart is called the endothelium. The heart is covered by a membrane called pericardium. The
pericardium encloses the pericardial cavity that protects the heart from mechanical injury and checks
its overstretching or overfilling with blood.
The human heart is four-chambered. The upper chambers are called the atria or the auricles and the
lower two chambers are called the ventricles.
The two atria are separated by the interatrial septum. The two ventricles are separated from each other
by the interventricular septum. The ventricles have more muscular walls than the auricles.
The right side of the heart is concerned with deoxygenated blood and the left side of the heart with the
oxygenated blood.
The right auricle opens into the lower right ventricle. This opening is guarded by auriculo-ventricular
valve (auriculoventricular valve). This valve is called the tricuspid valve as it has three flaps.
The left auricle opens into the lower left ventricle. This opening is guarded by the bicuspid (having
two flaps) or the mitral valve. The tricuspid and the bicuspid valves prevent backflow of blood into the
auricles from the ventricles when the latter pump the blood into the blood vessels. The pumping action
of heart takes place in a rhythmic pattern
The left auricle receives oxygenated blood from the left and right pulmonary veins coming from the
left and right lung respectively.
Therefore, the right side of the heart is concerned with the deoxygenated blood and the left side of the
heart is concerned with the oxygenated blood. Further, the auricles are the receiving chambers and the
ventricles are the pumping chambers.
Fig. Human Heart
Working of Mammalian Heart:
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The heart pumps the blood to all the parts of the body. It pumps out over 7,000 litres of blood daily. To pump
the blood cardiac muscles helps in contraction and relaxation. Cardiac muscle cells are striated, have
contractile protein and branched. The heart contracts more than 2-5 billion times in a life time. To pump out
blood, the heart chambers undergo alternate contraction called systole and relaxation termed as diastole.
1. The right auricle receives two large veins: superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. The superior vena
cava brings deoxygenated blood form the head and upper region of the body. The inferior vena cava
returns the deoxygenated blood form the lower region of the body.
2. The right auricle opens into the right ventricle through a wide passage, the A-V aperture
(auriculoventricular). This opening is guarded by a one-way valve called tricuspid valve..
3. From upper left corner of the right ventricle blood is then transported ot the lungs for oxygenation
through pulmonary artery.
4. When blood reaches to lungs carbon dioxide is diffused outside and oxygen is diffused and get mixed
with blood in alveoli (unit of lungs). The oxygenated blood is then received by the left auricle through
pulmonary vein.
5. The left auricle opens below into left ventricle through another A-V aperture, which is guarded by a
valve called bicuspid valve.
6. Left ventricle then gives off blood into aorta which is a largest artery in human being which carries and
transported the blood in all body parts.
Blood Vessels
S.No. Arteries Veins
1 Arteries carry blood away from the heart for Veins bring blood from the body back to the
distribution to the body. heart.
2 They contain oxygenated blood, except the They contain deoxygenated blood, except the
pulmonary arteries. pulmonary veins.
3 They are deep seated They are superficial
4 Their blood has high pressure. Their blood has low pressure.
5 Their wall is thick and elastic. Their wall is thin and less elastic.
6 They become empty after the death of the They contain blood even after the death of the
animal. animal.
Double Circulation
a) Pulmonary Circulation: The heart receives blood in the auricles and pumps out blood from
the ventricles. Form the right ventricles blood enters the lungs through pulmonary artery which
break up into capillaries around the lung alveoli. Here, the blood takes up oxygen and becomes
oxygenated. From lungs oxygenated blood enters in the left auricle via pulmonary veins. This
course of the blood from the right ventricle to the left auricle of the heart via lungs is called
pulmonary circulation.
b) Systemic Circulation: The left ventricle pumps the oxygenated blood into the great artery
called aorta. It gives off arteries of all the organs of the body except lungs. These arteries break
up into capillaries in their organs. Here the blood becomes deoxygenated by giving oxygen to
the tissue cells. The deoxygenated blood form the capillaries are brought to the right auricle by
superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. This course of the blood form the left ventricle to the
right auricle of the heart via body tissue is called systemic circulation.
Lymph
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Lymph is another type of fluid connective tissue. It is characterized by the absence of RBC. Hence, it has
plasma containing only WBC. Some of the plasma proteins found in blood, are absent in the lymph.
Lymph flows only inside definite vessels called lymph vessels or lacteals. In certain places of the body,
lymph vessels aggregate to form lymph nodules.
It is also known as tissue fluid or interstitial fluid. It functions as a mediating fluid, allowing exchange
of materials between blood and tissue cells.
Lymph carries digested and absorbed fat from intestine and drains excess fluid from extra cellular
space back into the blood.
It destroys the microorganisms and foreign particles in the lymphatic nodes.
Transportation in plants
Transport in plants is a process by which water, mineral salts as well as food are distributed throughout the
plant body. Such transport in plants occurring through the conducting or vascular tissues of plants is called
translocation. In vascular plants, the vascular tissues involved in the transport in plants are highly specialized
tissues called xylem and phloem.
Transport in Plants through Xylem

Xylem translocate mainly water and mineral salts (as well as some organic nitrogen and hormones)
from the roots to the aerial parts of the plants.
Water moves from high to low potential down a gradient through plant. Such gradient is maintained by
solar energy and transpiration.
Water enters plant through root hairs, travels across root cortex to the xylem and ascends in the xylem
to the leaves by the process of osmosis (movement of water molecule form higher concentration of the
water to the lower concentration of the water). Soil particles have more water concentration as
compared to the adjacent cell of the root hair which leads to create osmotic pressure and water enters in
the cell of root hair. The next adjacent cell has less water concentration as compared to the last cell so
water is transported to adjacent cell. In this manner water reaches to all the parts of the plant.
Water is brought to the leaves in the xylem vessels and can escape easily through their cellulose walls
to the mesophyll cells of leaves.
The cohesion tension theory is the most important theory explaining the ascent of sap during the
transport in plants.
Transpiration helps in the absorption and upward movement of water and minerals dissolved in it from
roots to the leaves. It also helps in temperature regulation. The effect of root pressure in transport of
water is more important at night. During the day when the stomata are open, the transpiration pull
becomes the major driving force in the movement of water in the xylem.
Transport in Plants through Phloem

Phloem deals with the transport of food (glucose), various organic and inorganic solutes, mainly from
the leaves or storage organs to other parts of the plant.
About 90% of the total solute carried in the phloem during the transport in plants is the carbohydrate
sucrose that can be converted to monosaccharaides glucose and fructose.
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This sort of transport in plants occurs through the sieve tubes. Food transported by phloem is due to the
concentration gradient of food molecule in leaves to other parts of the plant. The theory of osmotic
pressure is also applicable here.
IV. Excretory System
Excretion is a physiological process in which removal of nitrogenous waste as urine and as a

component of sweat and exhalation takes place produced during various metabolic activities in the
body.
Excretory functions
The excretory system removes metabolic and liquid toxic wastes as well as excess water from the
organism, in the form of urine.
The excretory system is a passive biological system that removes excess and unnecessary materials
from an organism, so as to help maintain homeostasis within the organism and prevent damage to the
body.
It is responsible for the elimination of the waste products of metabolism as well as other liquid and
gaseous wastes. As most healthy functioning organs produce metabolic and other wastes, the entire
organism depends on the function of the system; however, only the organs specifically for the
excretion process are considered a part of the excretory system.
As the excretory system involves several functions that are only superficially related, it is not usually
used in more formal classifications of anatomy or function.
Human Excretory System:
The main human excretory system is Kidneys, which consists of a pair of kidney, a pair of ureter, a urinary
bladder and an opening called urethra.
1. Kidneys
The kidneys' primary function is the elimination of waste from the bloodstream by production of urine. They
perform several homeostatic functions such as:
1. Maintain volume of extracellular fluid
2. Maintain ionic balance in extracellular fluid
3. Maintain pH and osmotic concentration of the extracellular fluid.
4. Excrete toxic metabolic by-products such as urea, ammonia, and uric acid.
Contact: 9829151892 & 9785084013
Nephron is a filtration unit of kidney. There are over 1 million nephrons in each kidney, these nephrons act as
filters inside the kidneys. The kidneys filter needed materials and waste, the needed materials go back into the
bloodstream, and unneeded materials becomes urine and is gotten rid of.
In some cases, excess wastes crystallize as kidney stones. They grow and can become a painful irritant that
may require surgery or ultrasound treatments. Some stones are small enough to be forced into the urethra.
Ureter
The ureters are muscular ducts that propel urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. In the human adult,
the ureters are usually 2530 cm (1012 inch) long. The backflow of urine is prevented by valves known as
ureterovesical valves.
Urinary bladder
The urinary bladder is the organ that collects urine excreted by the kidneys prior to disposal by urination. It is a
hollow muscular, and distensible (or elastic) organ, and sits on the pelvic floor. Urine enters the bladder via the
ureters and exits via the urethra.
Embryologically, the bladder is derived from the urogenital sinus, and it is initially continuous with the
allantois. In human males, the base of the bladder lies between the rectum and the pubic symphysis. It is
superior to the prostate, and separated from the rectum by the rectovesical excavation. In females, the bladder
sits inferior to the uterus and anterior to the vagina. It is separated from the uterus by the vesicouterine
excavation. In infants and young children, the urinary bladder is in the abdomen even when empty.
Urethra
In anatomy, the urethra (from Greek - ourethra) is a tube which connects the urinary bladder to the outside of
the body. In humans, the urethra has an excretory function in both sexes to pass urine to the outside,
Urine formation
Within the kidney, blood first passes through the afferent artery to the capillary formation called a glomerulus
and is collected in the Bowman's capsule, which filters the blood from its contentsprimarily food and
wastes. After the filtration process, the blood then returns to collect the food nutrients it needs, while the
wastes pass into the collecting duct, to the renal pelvis, and to the ureter, and are then secreted out of the body
via the urinary bladder.
Contact: 9829151892 & 9785084013

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Life Processes

Some main life processes are:

Other organisms use chemical energy and are called chemoautotrophs.

Cuscata is a total stem parasite. They absorb food

There are about 450 species of insectivorous plants.

Dionea or Venus Fly Trap

Nepenthes or Pitcher Plant

iv. Utricularia or Bladder Wort

Utricularia or Bladder Wort

Introduction to autotrophic nutrition:

Types of Autotrophic Nutrition

There are two types of Autotrophic Nutrition

Photosynthesis can be summarized by the following equation:

Photosynthesis has major three important events:

a) Trapping of sunlight by chlorophyll.

II. Heterotrophic Mode of Nutrition:

2. Nutrition in Human Beings:

The Digestive Process:

C6H12O6 (aq) + 6 O2 (g) 6 CO2 (g) + 6 H2O (l) + energy

G = -2880 kJ per mole of C6H12O6

The negative G indicates that the reaction can occur spontaneously.

Glycolysis Krebs Cycle

Or, Glucose Pyruvic acid CO2 + H2O + Energy

a) Oxidation of carbohydrates or food in the absence of oxygen is called anaerobic respiration. It

Lactic acid is a carboxylic acid with the chemical formula C3H6O3.

Difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration

AEROBIC RESPIRATION ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

1. It occurs in the presence of oxygen 1. It occurs in the absence of oxygen.

2. Glucose is completely broken down to 2. Glucose is incompletely oxidized to

3. It produces 36-38 ATPs per glucose 3. It produces 2 ATPs per glucose

4. It takes place in cytoplasm and 4. It takes place in cytoplasm only.

5. It takes longer time to release energy. 5. It is fast process as compared to aerobic

The Respiratory System in Human beings

Human respiratory system consists of:

d. The alveoli are richly supplied by network of blood capillaries.

2. Exhalation: Elimination of carbon dioxide is called exhalation. During exhalation

Exchange of Gases in Tissues:

Exchange of Gases in the Plants:

In order to carry on photosynthesis, green plants

The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the

b. Roots and Stem

Woody stems and mature roots are sheathed in

a waxy, waterproof (and airproof) substance. So cork is as impervious to oxygen and

Function of blood circulatory system:

Fig. Human Heart

Working of Mammalian Heart:

Transport in Plants through Xylem

Transport in Plants through Phloem

IV. Excretory System

Excretion is a physiological process in which removal of nitrogenous waste as urine and as a

Human Excretory System:

1. Maintain volume of extracellular fluid

2. Maintain ionic balance in extracellular fluid

3. Maintain pH and osmotic concentration of the extracellular fluid.

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