Introduction

NON CONVETIONAL AND RENAWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY

To meet the future energy demands and to give quality and pollution free supply to the growing and todays environment conscious population, the present world attention is to go in for natural, clean and renewable energy sources. These energy sources capture their energy from ongoing natural process, such as geothermal heat flows, sunshine, wind flowing water and biological process. Most renewable form of energy, other than geothermal and tidal power ultimately comes from the sun. Some forms of energy such as rainfall and wind power are considered short term energy storage, whereas the energy in biomass is accumulated over a period of months, as in straw, and through many years as in wood. Fossil fuels two are theoretically renewable but on a very long time-scale and if continued to exploited at present rate in these resources may deplete in the future therefore, in reality renewable energy is the energy from a source that is replaced rapidly by a natural process and is not subjected to depletion in a human time scale Renewable energy resources may be used directly, such as solar ovens, geothermal heating, and water and windmills or indirectly by transforming to other more convenient form of energy such as electric generation through wind turbine or photo voltaic cells or production of fuels (Ethanol etc) from biomass. 1.1 Various Form Of Non-Conventional Sources Are:Solar Energy Bio Energy Hydro Energy Geothermal Energy Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Wind Energy
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1.2.1 SOLAR ENERGY Energy from the sun is called solar energy. The Suns energy comes from nuclear fusion reaction that takes place deep in the sun. Hydrogen nucleolus fuses into helium nucleus. The energy from these reactions flow out from the sun and escape into space. Solar energy is sometimes called radiant energy. These are different kinds of radiant energy emitted by sun. The most important are light infrared rays. Ultra violet rays, and X- Rays. The sun is a large sphere of very hot gases. Its diameter is 1.39x106KM. While that of the earth is 1.27x104 KM. The mean distance between the two is 1.5x108KM. The beam radiation received from the sun on the earth is reflected in to space, another 15% is absorbed by the earth atmosphere and the rest is absorbed by the earths surface. This absorbed radiation consists of light and infrared radiation without which the earth would be barren. All life on the earth depends on solar energy. Green plants make food by means of photosynthesis. Light is essential in this process to take place. This light usually comes from sun. Animal get their food from plants or by eating other animals that feed on plants. Plants and animals also need some heat to stay alive. Thus plants are store houses of solar energy. The solar energy that falls on India in one minute is enough to supply the energy needs of our country for one day. Man has made very little use of this enormous amount of solar energy that reaches the earth.

1.2.1.1 Solar Constant:The sun is a large sphere of very hot gases, the heat being generated by various kinds of fusion reactions. Its diameter is 1.39x106 KM. While that of the earth is 1.27x104 KM. The mean distance between the two is 1.50x108 KM. Although the sun is large, it subtends an angle of only 32 minutes at the earths surface. This is because it is also a very large distance. Thus the beam radiation received from the sun on the earth is almost parallel. The brightness of the sun varies from its centre to its edge However for engineering calculations, it is customary to assume that the brightness all over the solar disc in uniform. As viewed from the earth, the radiation coming from the sun appears to be essentially equivalent to that coming from a back surface at 5762ok. The rate at which solar energy arrives at the top of the atmosphere is called solar constant
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ISC. This is the amount of energy received in unit time on a unit area perpendicular to the suns direction at the mean distance of the earth from the sun. Because of the suns distance and activity vary throughout the year, the rate of arrival of solar constant is thus an average from which the actual values vary up to 3 percent in either direction. The National Aeronautics and Space Administrations (NASA) standard value the solar constant, expressed in three common units, is as follows: (i) 1.353 kilowatts per square meter (ii) 116.5 Langleys per hour (1 largely being equal to 1cal/cm2 of solar radiation received In one day) (iii) 429.2 Btu per Shrift. per hour. The distance between the earth and the sun varies a little through the year. Because of this variation, the extra terrestrial flux also varies. Then earth is closest to the sun in the summer and farthest away in the winter. This variation in the intensity of solar radiation (I) that reaches the earth. This can be approximated by the equation:I 360(n-2) -------- = 1+ 0.033 Cos ------------ISC 365 360 x n = 1 + 0.033. Cos -------------365 1.2.1.2 Solar Radiation at the Earths Surface:The solar radiation that penetrates the earths atmosphere and reaches the surface differs in both amount and character from the radiation at the top of the atmosphere. In the first place, Part of the radiation is reflected back into the space, especially by clouds. Furthermore, the radiation entering the atmosphere is partly absorbed by molecules in the air. Oxygen and Ozone(o3), formed from oxygen, absorb nearly all the Ultraviolet radiation, and water vapour and carbon dioxide absorb some of the energy in the infrared range. In addition, part of the solar radiation is scattered (i.e. its direction has been changed) by droplets in clouds by atmosphere molecules, and by dust particles.
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1.2.1.3 Solar Radiation at the Earths surface:Solar Radiation that has not been absorbed or scattered and reaches the ground directly from the sun is called Direct Radiation or Beam Radiation. Diffuse radiation is that Solar Radiation received from the sun after its direction has been changed by reflection and scattering by the atmosphere. Because of the Solar Radiation is scattered in all directions in the atmosphere, diffuses radiation comes to the earth from all parts of the sky. The sum of the beam and diffuse radiation flux is referred to as total or global radiation.

1.2.1.4 Instruments for measuring solar radiation and sun shine:Solar Radiation flux is usually measured with the help of a pyranometer or a Pyrheliometer, sunshine recorder is used for measuring sunshine. A. Pyranometer:A pyranometer is an instrument which measures either global or diffuse Radiation over a hemispherical field of view. A sketch of the instrument as installed for the measurement of global radiation. Basically the pyranometer consists of a black surface which heats up when exposed to solar radiation. Its temperature increases until its rate of heat gain by solar radiation equals its rate of heat loss by convection, conduction and radiation. The hot Junctions of a thermopile are attached to the black surface. The cold Junctions are located in such a way that they do not receive the radiation. As a result, an e.m.f. is generated. This e.m.f which is usually in the range of 0 to 10MV can be read, recorded or Integrated over a period of time and is a measure of the global radiation. 1.2.1.5 Solar Energy Utilization Basic ideas about the pre-historic way of Using solar energy:Energy is a common Mans daily commodity: The world energy consumption in 1975 was 8002 million tons of coal equivalents and is expected to shoot up to 27,400 million tons of coal equivalents in the year 2000. It is becoming scarce day by day even then its demand is on the increase. The increased population has led to depletion of energy. The process of mankind has influenced the subsequent exploitation of new sources of energy from time to time. The utilization of coal, the development of hydro electricity, the discovery
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of oil and gas and the advents of nuclear energy are significantly mile stones in human history. Each new source brought about a preformed change in the life style of the people. Each new source supplemented the other. The size of the balance of fossil fuels will be over within a hundred years. Hence it is essential to tap the other sources of energy to supplement the existing energy demands of all non-conventional energy sources, solar energy holds the greatest promise as it is abundant, renewable and pollution free. Its collection, storage on conversion is also easy. Hence worldwide attention is now focused on various methods of utilization of solar energy. All life on the earth depends on solar energy. Green plants make food by means of photosynthesis. Light is essential from in this process to take place. This light usually comes from sun. Animals get their food from plants are store houses of solar energy. The solar energy that falls on India in one minute is enough to supply the energy needs of our country for one day. Man has made very little use of this enormous amount of solar energy. That reaches the earth he has used solar energy indirectly, for many thousands of years. Wind mills which are driven by wind that result from infrared solar energy.

1.2.1.6 Solar Energy applications: Heating and cooling of residential building. Solar water heating. Solar drying of agricultural and animal products. Salt production by evaporation of seawater. Solar cookers. Solar engines for water pumping. Solar Refrigeration. Solar electric power generation. Solar photo voltaic cells, which can be used for electricity.

1.2.1.7 Solar Collectors:A solar collector is a device for collecting solar radiation and transfers the energy to fluid passing in contact with it. Utilization of solar energy requires solar collectors. These are generally of two types. (i) Non- concentrating (or) flat plate solar collector.
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(ii) Concentrating (focusing) type solar collector. The solar energy collector, with its associated absorber, is the essential component of any system for the conversion of solar radiation in to more usable form (e.g. heat or electricity). In the non-concentrating type, the collector area is the same as the absorber area. On the other hand, in concentrating collectors, the area intercepting the solar radiation is greater. By means or concentrating than with the non-

collectors, much higher temperatures can be obtained

concentrating type. Concentrating collectors may be used to generate medium pressure steam. They use many different arrangements of mirrors and lenses to concentrate the suns rays on the boiler. This type shows better efficiency than the flat plate type. For best efficiency, collectors should be mounted to face the sun as it moves through the sky.

(i) Flat plate collectors (non-concentrating) Where temperatures below about 90 are adequate as they are for space and

service water heating flat plate collectors, which are of the non-concentrating type, are particularly convenient. They are made in rectangular panels from about 1.7 to 2.9 sq. m in area, and are relatively simple to construct and erect. Flat plates can collect and absorb both direct and diffuse solar radiation; they are consequently partially effective even on cloudy days when there is no direct radiation. Flat plate solar collectors may be divided into two main classifications based on the type of heat transfer fluid used.

Liquid heating Flat Plate Collector Liquid heating flat plate collectors are used for heating water and nonfreezing aqueous solutions. There are many flat-plate collector designs, but most are based on the principle shown in fig 2.4. It is the plate and tube type collector. It basically consists of a flat surface with high absorptive for solar radiation called the absorbing surface. Typically a metal plate, usually of copper, steel or aluminium material with tubing of copper in thermal contact with the plates is the most commonly used materials. The absorber plate is usually made from a metal sheet 1 to 2 mm in thickness, while the tubes, which are also of metal, and range in diameter from 1 to 1.5cm. They are soldered, brazed or clamped to the bottom of the absorber plate with the pitch ranging from 5 to 15 Cm, in some designs; the
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tubes are also in line and integral with the absorber plate. The primary function of the absorber is to absorb maximum radiation reaching it through the glazing, to lose maximum heat upward to the atmosphere and down ward through the back of the container and to transfer the retained heat to the working fluid. Black painted absorbers are preferred because they are considerably cheaper and good absorbers of radiation. Heat is transferred from the absorber plate to a point of use by circulation of fluid (usually water) across the solar heated surface. Thermal insulation of 5 to 10cm. Thickness is usually placed behind the absorber plate to prevent the heat losses from the rear surface. Insulation materials are generally mineral wool or glass wool or fibres glass. The front covers are generally glass that is transparent to incoming solar radiation and opaque to the infra-red re-radiation from the absorber. The glass covers act as a convection shield to reduce the losses from the absorber plate beneath. The glass thickness of 3 and 4 mm are commonly used. The usual practice is to have 2 covers with specific ranging from 1.5 to 3cm. Advantages of second glass which is added above the first one are: Losses due to air convection are further reduced. This is important in windy areas. Radiation losses in the infra-red spectrum are reduced by a further 25%, because half of the 50% which is emitted out wards from the first glass plate is back radiated. (ii) Concentrating (focusing) type solar collector:Focusing collector or concentrating type solar collector is a device to collect solar energy with high intensity of solar radiation on the energy absorbing surface. Such collectors generally use optical system in the form of reflectors or refractors. A focusing collector is a special form of flat-plate collector modified by introducing a reflecting or refracting surface between the Solar Radiation and the absorber. In these collectors radiation falling on a relatively large area is focused on to a receiver or absorber of considerably smaller area. As a result of the energy concentration, fluids can be heated to temperatures of 5000 or more.

The concentrator shown is a mirror reflector having the shape of a cylindrical parabola. It focuses the sunlight on to its axis where it is absorbed on the surface of the absorber tube and transferred to the fluid flow through it. A concentric

glass cover around the absorber tube helps in reducing the convective and radiative losses to the surroundings. In order that the suns rays should always be focussed on to the absorber tube, the concentrator has to be rotated. This movement is called tracking in the case of cylindrical parabolic concentrators; rotation about a single axis is generally required. Fluid temperatures up to around 300 can be achieved in cylindrical parabolic focussing collector system. The generation of still higher working temperatures is possible by using parabolic reflectors as shown in fig 2.6 which have a point focus. A paraboloidal dish collector brings solar radiation to a focus at a point actually a small central volume. A dish 6.6m diameter has been made from about 200 curved mirror segments forming a paraboloidal surface. The absorber, located at the focus, is a cavity made of zirconium-copper alloy with a black chrome selective coating. The heat-transport fluid flows into and out of the absorber cavity through pipes bonded to the interior. The dish can be turned automatically about two axes so that the sun is always kept in a line with the focus and the base of the paraboloidal dish. Thus, the can be fully tracked at essentially all times.

1.2.1.8 Solar Cooker:In our country energy consumed for cooking shares a major portion of the total energy consumed in a year. In villages 95% of the consumption goes only to cooking. Verity of fuel like coal, kerosene, cooking gas, firewood, dung cakes and agricultural waste are used the energy crisis is affecting everyone. It is affecting the fuel bills for those who use it for heating the houses and cooking their food. The poor of the developing countries who have been using dry wood, picked up from the fields and forests as domestic fuel, have been affected in their own way, due to scarcity of domestic fuel in the rural areas. At present, fire wood and cow dung too precious to allow to be used for burning and cooking. It is very useful to improve the fertility of the soil; it should be used in proper way. The supply of wood is also fast depleting because of the indiscriminate felling of trees in the rural areas and the denudation of forests. There is a rapid deterioration in the supply of these fossil fuels like coal, kerosene or cooking gas. The solution for the above problem is the hardening of solar energy for cooking purpose. The most important is that the solar cooker is a great fuel saver. The department of new conventional energy source has calculated that
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a family using a solar cooker 275 days a year would save 800kgs of fire wood or 65 litres of kerosene. Similarly an industrial Canteen or a Hostel mess using the larger community solar cooker which can cook for 20 to 25 people could save 400kgs of fire wood or 335 litres of kerosene per year.

1.2.1.7 Merits and limitations of a Solar Cooker:Following are the some merits of a solar cooker; No attention is needed during cooking as in other devices. No fuel is required. Negligible maintenance cost. No pollution. Vitamins of the food are not destroyed and food cooked is nutrition and delicious with natural taste. No problem of over flowing of food.

1.2.2 BIO ENERGY

Bio gas is generated through a process of anaerobic digestion of Bio Mass. Bio Mass is organic matter produced by plants, both terrestrial (those grown on land) and aquatic (those grown in water) and their derivatives. It includes forest crops and residues, crops grown especially for their energy content on energy farms and animal manure. Unlike coal, oil and natural gas, which takes Millions of years to form, bio mass can be considered as a renewable energy source because plant life renews and adds to itself energy year. It can also be considered a form of solar energy as the latter is used indirectly to grow these plants by photosynthesis. Bio Mass means organic matter and Photo Chemical approach to harness solar energy means harnessing of solar energy by photo synthesis. Solar energy is stored in the form of chemical energy. Hence Solar energy > Photosynthesis > Bio Mass-> energy generation. Out of several sources of renewable energy like solar, wind, tidal, wave energy, geothermal energy, nuclear energy, energy through bio mass are important features in our Country. Biogas Production Technology contributes in following ways. 1.2.2.1 Advantages of Bio Gas technology

It provides a better and cheaper fuel cooking, lighting and for power generation. It produces good quality, enriched manure to improve soil fertility. It proves an effective and convenient way for sanitary disposal of human excreta, improving the hygienic conditions. It generates social benefits such as reducing burden on forest for meeting cooking fuel by cutting of tree for fuel wood, reduction in the drudgery of women and children etc. Non-Conventional Energy Sources

As a smokeless domestic fuel, it reduces the incidence of eye and lung diseases. It also helps in generation of productive employment

1.2.2.2 Bio Gas and its Compositions

Bio gas contains 55-70% methane and 30-45% carbon dioxide as well as small quantities of (N2, H2, H2S) some gases. It is lighter than the air and has an ignition temperature of approximately 7000C. The temperature of the flame is 8700C. Its calorific value is approximately 4713kcal/m3. The methane content of bio gas produced from different feed stock is given in Table .1. Table I: Content of Methane in Bio-gas produced from different feed stocks S.No. Feed Stock Content of Methane in Biogas in Percentage 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cattle Manure Pig Manure Poultry Manure Farm Yard Manure Grass Leaves Kitchen Waste Human Excreta 54-56 57 55 55 60 58 50-52 60

The bio gas system is most suitable technology to solve the energy problems in rural areas, as it Produces Manure, clean fuel and improves rural sanitation. Its thermal energy Per Unit volume is sufficient to meet domestic energy needs the comparison of bio gas with other fuels is given in table II.

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Table II Comparison of Bio-gas with other fuels S.No Name Of Fuel and Unit 1 2 3 4 Gobar (M3) Kerosene(Lit) Fire wood(Kg) Cow-Dung Cake(Kg) 5 6 7 8 9 Charcoal(Kg) Soft Cake(Kg) Butane(LPG) (Kg) Coal Gas (M3) Electricity (Kwn) 6930 6292 10882 4004 860 Open Chula Open Chula Standard Burner Standard Burner Hot Flate Calorific Value (Kcal) 4713 9122 4700 2092 Standard Burner Pressure Stove Open Chula Open Chula Mode of Burning

1.2.2.3 History of Bio-gas In the field of an aerobic digestion of waste Material India and China are recognized world leaders. This practice is based upon an age-old tradition of composting human, animal and plant wastes to produce and organic fertilizer. In fact bio gas programme has been recognized for making available a clean and efficient fuel for cooking, lighting, engine and the liquid slurry as a fertilizer and soil conditioner all over the World. Since the 1920s there have been sporadic attempts made to recover bio gas from sewage wastes and animal dung. A few bio gas plants for sewage disposal and bio gas recovery were installed in Europe and the U.S.A. in 1920s and 1930s respectively. Although the Chinese have been experimenting with bio gas since the 1950s and China had its first bio gas Plant in 1936, yet it was reported only in the 70s in Sichuan. Mainly, there was a movement to extend the practice and reproduce the digester in a large way throughout the country side. The history of bio gas from cattle dung in India goes back to 1939 when Indian Agricultural Research Institute (ARI) New Delhi, was able to ferment cattle dung to produce Methane. Subsequently Proof N.V.Joshi; at Poona

patented a model of bio gas plant in 1945. Later on Jashbhai, J.Patel evolved a
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simple model called Gramalaxmi and patented it in the year 1951. Mean while, J.J.Patel continued his efforts to simplify his earlier patented. Model, which resulted in the development of two chamber digester with central guide for free up and down movement of steel gas holder. This design was accepted by the Khadi and Villages Industries Commission (KVIC) Bombay, in India during 1962. Subsequently, many Scientists, Engineers, Government, Semi-Government Non-Conventional Energy Sources and different social organisations contributed to the development of bio-gas technology. The Planning Research and Action Division (PRAD) of State Planning Institute, Government of Uttar Pradesh, and Lucknow developed a cheap and convenient model of bio gas in 1957, and called it Janata bio gas plant. After independence the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, was looking the bio-gas programme, related development and extension activities. K.V.I.C and state Governments continued the programme in 1970-1980. The national Project on Bio-gas development was launched in 1980-81 under Ministry of Agriculture. Currently Department of non-conventional energy source(DNES), the Ministry of Power and Non-Conventional energy is also actively involved in supporting research and diffusion of bio gas technology and many institutions and State Agricultural Universities are supporting research technology.
1.2.2.4 Utilization and benefits of Biogas Technology

programme on bio gas

It provides simultaneous dual benefits in terms of fuel for cooking and lighting as well as fertilizer. Bio gas burns efficiently without smoke or smell and eliminate the possibility of eye and lung diseases caused by smoke. It reduces the drudgery of women and children in terms of providing relief from the collection of fire wood and preparation of dung cakes.

The gas can also be used in dual-fuel engines, where up to 80% of the diesel can be replaced with biogas. Besides gas, the digested slurry can be used as natural fertilizer which improves the soil fertility.

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Utilization of waste materials in the plant not only improves the sanitary condition of your village but also prevents deforestation and assures ecological and environmental balance.

Bio gas is a cheap and clean fuel. It burns with a blue flame. Which is smoke-free? When it is burnt in silk mantle lamps, it illuminates better than kerosene in petromax lanterns. Bio gas can replace Petrol and diesel in engines. 1.2.3 HYDRO POWER Hydropower (from hydro meaning water) is energy that comes from the force of moving water. The fall and movement of water is part of a continuous natural cycle called the water cycle. Energy from the sun evaporates water in the Earths oceans and rivers and draws it upward as water vapour. When the water vapour reaches the cooler air in the atmosphere, it condenses and forms clouds. The moisture eventually falls to the Earth as rain or snow, replenishing the water in the oceans and rivers. Gravity drives the water, moving it from high ground to low ground. The force of moving water can be extremely powerful. Hydropower is called a renewable energy source because the water on Earth is continuously replenished by precipitation. As long as the water cycle continues, we wont run out of this energy source. 1.2.3.1 History of Hydropower Hydropower has been used for centuries. The Greeks used water wheels to grind wheat into flour more than 2,000 years ago. In the early 1800s, American and European factories used the water wheel to power machines. The water wheel is a simple machine. The water wheel is located below a source of flowing water. It captures the water in buckets attached to the wheel and the weight of the water causes the wheel to turn. Water wheels convert the potential energy (gravitational energy) of the water into motion. That energy can then be used to grind grain; drive sawmills, or pumps water. In the late 19th century, the force of falling water was used to generate electricity. The first hydroelectric power plant was built at Niagara Falls in 1879.

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In the following decades, many more hydroelectric plants were built. At its height in the early 1940s, hydropower provided 33 percent of this countrys electricity. By the late 1940s, the best sites for big dams had been developed. Inexpensive fossil fuel plants also entered the picture. At that time, plants burning coal or oil could make electricity more cheaply than hydro plants. Soon they began to underprice the smaller hydroelectric plants. It wasnt until the oil shocks of the 1970s that people showed a renewed interest in hydropower. 1.2.3.1 Hydro Dams Its easier to build a hydropower plant where there is a natural waterfall. Thats why the first hydropower plant was built at Niagara Falls. Dams, which are artificial waterfalls, are the next best way. Dams are built on rivers where the terrain will produce an artificial lake or reservoir above the dam. Today there are about 80,000 dams in the United States, but only three percent (2,400) have power-generating hydro plants. Most dams are built for flood control and irrigation, not electric power generation. How a Hydropower Plant Works A typical hydropower plant is a system with three parts: A power plant where the electricity is produced; A dam that can be opened or closed to control water flow; and A reservoir (artificial lake) where water can be stored. To generate electricity, a dam opens its gates to allow water from the reservoir above to flow down through large tubes called penstocks. At the bottom of the penstocks, the fast-moving water spins the blades of turbines. The turbines are connected to generators to produce electricity. The electricity is then transported via huge transmission lines to a local utility company. 1.2.4 Geothermal Energy Geothermal energy, defined as heat from the Earth, is a statute recognized renewable resource. The first U.S. geothermal power plant, opened at The
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Geysers in California in 1960, continues to operate successfully. The United States, as the worlds largest producer of geothermal electricity, generates an average of 15 billion kilowatt hours of power per year, comparable to burning close to 25 million barrels of oil or 6 million short tons of coal per year.1 Geothermal has a higher capacity factor (a measure of the amount of real time during which a facility is used) than many other power sources. Unlike wind and solar resources, which are more dependent upon weather fluctuations and climate changes, geothermal resources are available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. While the carrier medium for geothermal electricity (water) must be properly managed, the source of geothermal energy, the Earths heat, will be available indefinitely. A geothermal resource assessment shows that nine western states together have the potential to provide over 20 percent of national electricity needs. Although geothermal power plants, concentrated in the West, provide the third largest domestic source of renewable electricity after hydropower and biomass, they currently produce less than one percent of total U.S. electricity.

1.2.4.1 Environmental Issues:Noise Pollution:Normal geothermal power plant operation typically produces less noise than the equivalent produced .near leaves rustling from breeze, according to common sound level standards, and thus is not considered an issue of concern.

Water Use:Geothermal plants use 5 gallons of freshwater per megawatt hour, while binary air-cooled plants use no fresh water. This compares with 361 gallons per megawatt hour used by natural gas facilities.

Water Quality:Geothermal fluids used for electricity are injected back into geothermal reservoirs using wells with thick casing to prevent cross-contamination of brines with groundwater systems. They are not released into surface waterways. At The Geysers facility, 11 million gallons of treated wastewater from Santa Rosa are pumped daily for injection into the geothermal reservoir. Injection reduces surface water pollution and increases geothermal reservoir resilience.
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Land Use:Geothermal power plants can be designed to .blend-in. to their surrounding more so than fossil fired plants, and can be located on multiple-use lands that incorporate farming, skiing, and hunting. Over 30 years, the period of time commonly used to compare the life cycle impacts from different power sources; a geothermal facility uses 404 square meters of land per gaga watt hour, while a coal facility uses 3632 square meters per giga watt hour.

Subsidence: - Subsidence, or the slow, downward sinking of land, may be linked to geothermal reservoir pressure decline. Injection technology, employed at all geothermal sites in the United States, is an effective mitigating technique.

Induced Seismicity: - While earthquake activity, or seismicity, is a natural Phenomenon, geothermal production and injection operations have at times resulted in low-magnitude events known as .micro earthquakes. These events typically cannot be detected by humans, and are often monitored voluntarily by geothermal companies.

Geysers, Fumaroles, and Geothermal Resources: While almost all geothermal resources currently developed for electricity production are located in the vicinity of natural geothermal surface features, much of the undeveloped geothermal resource base may be found deep under the Earth without any corresponding surface thermal manifestations. Geothermal surface features, while useful in identifying resource locations, are not used during geothermal development. U.S. laws and regulations protect and preserve national parks and their significant thermal features.

Impact on Wildlife and Vegetation:Before geothermal construction can begin, an environmental review may be required to categorize potential effects upon plants and animals. Power plants are designed to minimize the potential effect upon wildlife and vegetation, and they are constructed in accordance with a host of state and federal regulations that protect areas set for development.
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1.2.5 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion The oceans cover a little more than 70 percent of the earth surface. This makes it the worlds largest solar energy collector and energy storage system. On an average day, 60 million square kilometres of tropical seas absorb an amount of solar radiation equal in heat content to about 250 billion barrels of oil. If less than one tenth of one percent of this stored solar energy could be converted into electric power, it would supply more than 20 times the total amount of electricity consumed in the United State (263 million inhabitants) on one day. The history of Mankind, have depended upon its ability to conquer the forces of nature, and to utilise these forces to serve its needs. Energy technology is certainly one of the most important factors in the emergence of Mankind as the dominant species of this planet. The invention of the practical steam engine by James Watt brought about development of large factories, steamships and the steam locomotive. First wood was used, then coal. About the same time, the use of coal instigated advances in metallurgy, which brought about large quantities of cheap steel and copper. This period was the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. Petroleum from natural seepage has been used since ancient times for lighting, lubrication and waterproofing. The introduction of drilling for oil greatly increased the supply of oil. The Industrial Revolution switched into high gear. One problem is that the natural seepage is limited and in a few years the elements will be used. The development of nuclear power was touted as the answer to all of Mankinds energy woes. It not turned out that way. The Urals Catastrophe, the Three Mile Island problem and the Chernobyl disaster have brought home forcefully the risk involved. In addition, the elimination of government subsidies for nuclear power plants has made them quite unaffordable. When it went so bad no insure in the world will write disaster insurance for nuclear power plant. The concept of OTEC (Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion) has existed for over a century as fantasised by Jules Verne in 1870 and conceptualised by French physicist, Jacques Arsene dArsonval, in 1881.Despite this an operating OTEC power facility was not developed until the 1920s.

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1.2.5.1 What is OTEC? OTEC, Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion is an energy technology that converts solar radiation to electric power. OTEC systems use the oceans natural thermal gradient, consequently the temperature difference between the warm surface water and the cold deep water below 600 meters by about 20 C, an OTEC system can produce a significant amount of power. The oceans are thus a vast renewable resource, with the potential to help us produce billions of watts of electric power. The cold seawater used in the OTEC process is also rich in nutrients and it can be used to culture both marine organisms and plant life near the shore or on land. The total influx of solar energy into the earth is of thousands of times as great as Mankinds total energy use. All of our coal, oil and natural gas are the result of the capture of solar energy by life of the past. There have been many projects for harnessing solar energy, but most have not been successful because they attempt to capture the energy directly. The problem with this is that huge collectors must be deployed to do this, and resulting in large costs. The idea behind OTEC is the use of all natural collectors, the sea, instead of artificial collector. 1.2.5.2 How does it work in real life? Warm water is collected on the surface of the tropical ocean and pumped by a warm water pump. The water is pumped through the boiler, where some of the water is used to heat the working fluid, usually propane or some similar material. If it is cooler you can use a material with a lower boiling point like ammonia. The propane vapour expands trough a turbine which is coupled to a generator that generating electric power. Cold water from the bottom is pumped through the condensers, where the vapour returns to the liquid state. The fluid is pumped back into the boiler. Some small fraction of the power from the turbine is used to pump the water through the system and to power other internal operations, but most of it is available as net power.

1.2.6 Wind energy:Winds are caused because of two factors. (1) The absorption of solar energy on the earths surface and in the atmosphere. (2) The rotation of the earth about its axis and its motion around the sun. Because of these

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Factors, alternate heating and cooling cycles occur, differences in pressure are obtained, And the air is caused to move. The potential of Wind energy as a source of power is large. This can be judged from the fact that energy available in the wind over the earths surface Is estimated to be 1.6x107 K.W Besides the energy available is free and clean. 1.2.6.1 Nature of wind: Change in velocity and direction of wind near the surface, about 100 mm above the ground is more important as for as wind energy conversion is concerned. In this region, the wind pattern is further influenced by several local factors. Land and sea breeze are examples for local wind speed increases with height because of decrease in boundary layer effect. Traditionally, the velocity has been measured at a standard height of 10 mm where it is found to be 20 to 25 percent greater than that close to the surface of earth. At the height of 6 mm it may be 30 to 60 percent higher because of the reduction in the dragged effect of the earth surface. 1.2.6.2 Wind Characteristics The earths atmosphere can be modelled as a gigantic heat engine it extracts energy from one reservoir (the sun ) and the delivers heat to another reservoir at a low temperature(space).in the process ,work is done on the gases in the atmosphere and upon the earth atmosphere boundary .there will be region where the air pressure is temporarily higher or lower than average .this differences in air pressure causes atmospheric gases or wind to flow from region of higher pressure to that of lower pressure .these region are typically 100 km in diameter. Solar radiation, evaporation of water, cloud to cover, and surface roughness all play important roles in the determining the condition of atmosphere. The study of interaction between these effects is a complex subject called metrology, which is covered by many excellent textbook .therefore only a brief introduction to that part of meteorology concerning the flow of wind will be given in this text.

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1.2.6.3 Meteorology of wind The basic driving force of air movement is a difference in air pressure between two regions. This air pressure is described by several physical laws. One of these is Boyles law, which states that the product of pressure and volume of gas at a constant temperature must be constant, or P1V1=P2V2 Another law is Charles law, which state that, for constant pressure, the volume of gas varies directly with absolutes temperatures. V1T1=V2T2 If a graph of volume versus temperature is made from measurement, it will be noticed that a zero volume state is predicted at -273.15calcius or 0 Calvin The laws of Charles or Boyle can be combined into the ideal gas law PV = nRT In this equation, R is the universal gas constant, T is the temperature in Calvin, V is the volume of gas in meter cube, n is the no of kilo moles of gas, and p is the pressure in Pascal (N/m2).at standard condition, zero degree centigrade an one atmosphere, one kilo mole of gas occupies 22.414 m3 and universal gas constant is 8314.5j.where J represent a joule one a Newton meter of energy. One kilo mole is amount of substance containing same no of molecules as there atoms in 12 kg of the pure carbons nuclide 12 c .in dry air,78.09 % of the molecules are nitrogen,20.95% are oxygen,0.93% are argon, and the other 0.03% are a mixture of CO2,kr ,XE,HE,H2.this composition gives and averages molecules mass of 208.97,so the mass of I kilo mole of dry air is 28.97 kg.foe all ordinary purposes ,dry airs behaves like and ideal gas. The density of gas is the mass m of one kilo mole divided by volume V of that kilo mole. P= mV

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Atmosphere pressure has also been given by the height of mercury in an evaluated tube. This height is 29.92 inches or 760 millimetre of mercury for a standard atmosphere .these number is may be useful in using instrument or reading literature of the pre SI era .it may be worth nothing her that several definition of standard condition are in use .the chemist uses 0C as standard temperature while engineer have often used 68F (20oC) or 77F(25oC)as standard temperature .we shall not debit the respective merits of various choices, but note that some physical constant dependent on the definition chosen ,so that one must exercise care in looking for numbers in published tables .in this text, standard condition will always be 0oC and 101.3KPa. Within the atmosphere, there will be large regions of alternately high and low pressure .there region are formed by complex mechanism ,which are still not fully understood .solar radiation, surface cooling, humidity and rotation of earth all play important roles. 1.2.6.4 POWER AND WIND The air in motion is called as a wind .The wind posses energy by virtue of its motion .Any device capable of slowing the mass of air moving, like a sail or propeller can extract part of energy and convert it into useful work. Three factors determine the output from the wind energy converter. The factors are: -The wind speed. -The cross section area of rotor, swept by the wind and -The overall conversion efficiency of the rotor transmission system including the gear box and electric generators. No devices, however well design, can extract all of the wind energy because the wind had to be brought to a halt and this would prevent the passage of more air through rotor. The power in the wind can be computed by using the concept of kinetics. The wind mill works on principle converting a kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy. We know that,

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Power =energy /unit time. Energy, here is the kinetic energy of wind. There for, Energy= (1/2) mv2. Small m is mass in kg of air swept by the rotating blades of wind mills. Now, m=p.A.V Where p=density of air kg /m3, A=sweep area of the rotor blades in m2, V =velocity of incoming wind m/s. Therefore Wind energy=1/2p.A.V3watts The above equation manifests that the maximum wind available (the actual amount will be somewhat less because all the available energy is not extractable) is proportional to the cube of wind speed. It is thus evident that small increases in wind speed cam have market affect on the power in the wind. Also ,the available is proportional to air density(1.255kg/cubic meter at sea level and 1.204 kg /meter cube on land surface).it may vary 10 to 15 percent during the year because of pressure and temperature change. It is also proportional to the intercepted area. This, wind turbine rotors with large swept areas has higher power than a small rotors machine. Since area is normal circular of diameter D, Then area A=D2/4(m2) Therefore, available wind power Pa=1/2PAV3

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Pa=1/8PD2V3 The equation tells us that maximum power a available from wind varies

according to the square of diameter of the intercepted area, normally taken as to be the swept area of the turbine .Thus, the diameter of the rotor plays an important roles in increasing the available wind power .The combine effect of wind speed and rotor diameter variations are shown in above equation. The physical conditions in wind turbine are such that only a fraction of available wind power and can be converted into useful power. The power extract by rotor is equal to the product of the wind speed as it passes through the rotor and pressure drop in the wind .in order to maximize the rotor power, it would be desirable to have both wind speed and pressure drop as large as possible. The fraction of free-flow wind power that can be extracted by a rotor is called the power coefficient .power available is calculated from the density, rotor diameter and free wind speed. According to Betzs law or Betz maxima, the maximum theoretical power coefficient for any rotor type wind is 16/27 or 0.593.

1.2.6.5 HISTORY OF WIND ELECTRICITY GENERATION Denmark was the first country to use the wind for generation of electricity. The Danes were using of 23 meters diameter in1890 to generate electricity. By 1910, several hundred unites with capacity of 5 to 25 KW were in operation in Denmark. About 1925, a commercial wind electric plant using two and three bladed propellers appears on the American market. the most common brands were win charger (200to1200WATT)and Jacobs (1.5 to 3Kw).these were used on farms to charges storages battery which were then used to operates radios, lights ,and small appliances with voltages rating of 12,32,or 110 volts. a good selection of 32 volts DC appliances was developed by industry to met this demands .them rural electric administration(REA)was established by congress in 1936.low interest loans were provide so that the necessary transmission and distribution lines could be constructed to supply framers with electricity. In the early days of the REA, around 1940, electricity could be supplied to the rural customer at accost of three to six cents per KWH. The corresponding cost of
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winds generated electricity was 12 to 30percent KWH when interest, depreciation, and maintenance were included. The lower cost of electricity produced by the centre utility plus the greater reliability lead to the rapid demise of the home wind electric generator. After 1940, the cost of utility generated electricity continued slow decline, dipping under 3percent KWH in early 1970.this was accomplished by their using large and more efficient generation plants. a trend of decreasing cost for electricity while other cost are increasing could not be continued forever, and utility generated electricity started increasing in cost in the early 1980s reaching 1940 cost level around 1976.this was accompanied by many consumer complaints, of course, which were largely unjustified when the long term performance of the utilities in providing low cost, reliable electricity is considered. In addition to home wind electric generation, a number of utilities around the world have built large wind turbines to supply power to their customers. The largest wind turbines built before the late 1970 was a 1250 KW machine built on Grandpas Knob, near Rutland, Vermont, in 1941.the concept for this started in 1934 when an engineer, Palmer c.putnam, began to look at wind electric generators to reduce the cost of electricity to cope cod home. In 1939, putname presented his ideas and the result of his preliminary work to the S.Morgan Smith Company of York, Pennsylvania .they agreed to find a wind energy project and the Smith-Putnam wind turbine experiment was born. The wind machine was too connected into the central Vermont public service corporations network. This utility has some hydro-electric capacity, which makes good combination with wind generation in that water can be saved when the wind is blowing and used later when the wind is not blowing. The Smith-Putnam machine had a tower which was 34 mm height and a rotor 53m in diameter. The rotor had a chord (the distance from the leading to the trailing edge) of 3.45m.each of two blades was made with stainless steel ribs covered by stainless steel skin and weighted 7300kg.the blades pitch (the angle at which the blade passes through the air)was adjustable to maintain a constant rotor speeds as high as 28.7r/min. This rotational speed was maintained in winds
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speeds as high as 32m/s at higher wind speeds, the blades were feather end and machine stopped. The rotor turned an asynchronous generator that produced 1250kw of electrical power at wind speed above 13m/s. between 1941 and 1945 the smith-Putnam machine accumulated about 1100hours of operation. The project was reviewed and was determined be a technical success. The economics did not justify building more machines at that time, however. It appeared that additional smith _Putnam machine could be bought in 1945 for $125 /installed kW. This was too large a difference to justify the stock holders, so the project was stopped and the wind machine was dismantled. The technical results of smith _Putnam wind turbine caused Percy H.Thomas, an engineer with the federal power commission, to spend approximately 10 years in a detailed analysis of wind power electric generation. Thomas used economic data from the smith Putnam machine and concluded that even larger machines were necessary for economic viability. He designed two large machines in the size range 6500 kW 7500 kW. The tower height of the 6500 kW machine was to be 145 m with two rotors each 61 m in diameter .each rotor was to drive dc generator .the dc power was to used to drive a dc to ac synchronous converter which was connected to the power grid. Thomas estimated the capital costs for his machine at$75 per installed kW. This was low enough to be of interest so the federal power commission approached congress for funding a prototype of this machine. It was in 1951 when the Korean War was starting, and congress chose not to fund the prototype. The project was later cancelled. This basically marked the end of American wind power research for over 20 years until fuels supplies became a problem. Other countries continued wind research for a longer period of time .Denmark built their geysers wind turbine in 1957.this machine produced 200 kW in a 15 m/s wind .it was connected to the Danish public power system and produce 400000 kHz per year. The tower was 26mm high and the rotor was 24 mm in a diameter .the generator was located in housing on the top of the tower. The installation cost of this system was approximately $250 per kW. This wind turbine ran until 1968 when it was stopped. Dr Ulrich hotter of Germany built a 100 kW machine
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in 1957 .it reach its rated power output at wind speed of 8 m/s, which is substantially lower than the machines maintained earlier. This machine used light weight, 35 mm diameter fibres glass blades with a simple hollow pipe tower supported by guy wires. The blade pitch would change at higher wind speed to keep the propeller angular velocity constant. Dr Hotter obtained over 4000 hours of full rated power operation over t the next 11 year. A substantial amount for an experimental machine. This allows important contribution to the design of larger wind turbines to be made. Advantages of Wind energy:(1) The wind energy is free, inexhaustible and does not need transportation. (2) Wind mills will be highly desirable and economical to the rural areas which are far from existing grids. (3) Wind power can be used in combination with hydroelectric plants. Such that the water level in the reservoir can be maintained for longer periods. Disadvantage of Wind energy:(1) Wind power is not consistent and steady, which makes the complications in designing the whole plant. (2) The wind is a very hazard one. Special and costly designs and controls are always required.

(3) The cost factor, which has restricted the development of wind power in large scale for feeding to the existing grid. (4) It has low power coefficient. (5) Careful survey is necessary for plant location.

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Literature Review

Due to the growing significance of wind and wave energy conversion, a wealth of pub-lications can be found for the systems considered in this thesis. The present chapter is again divided in two parts. The present state of Savonius turbines is frist considered, before reviewing the literature on Wells turbines. 2.1 Savonius turbine Savonius turbines show inherent drawbacks compared to conventional wind turbines mainly a low efficiency and poor starting characteristics. Therefore, many authors have tried to identify the best principles of operation and to improve the characteristics of Savonius turbines. 2.1.1 Experimental investigations of Savonius turbines Some studies have been carried out in wind tunnels, using controlled conditions. Other consider free-space experiments. Generally, the global performance of a rotor, identical to or derived from the conventional Savonius rotor, is presented in such studies, but without realizing any detailed, quantitative parametric study. Sometimes, some visualizations of the flow in and around the rotor are proposed, but with a poor description of the physical phenomena. Such publications are of very limited scientific or technological interest and are therefore not included here. Beyond issues associated with intellectual properties, this lack of quantitative in-formation is sometimes associated to the complexity of the ow in and around wind turbines. In particular for Savonius turbines, the resulting flow conditions are highly unsteady. Furthermore, boundary layer separation is an essential aspect for the efficiency of the system. As a consequence, detailed aerodynamic studies are rare and often do not allow the prediction of the energetic behavior of the rotor. However, some publications [10, 27, 31, 51] are of higher quality and give a precise description of the aerodynamics of the conventional Savonius rotor, mainly obtained by pressure measurements on the paddles. Further articles describe an extensive experimental study in a windtunnel to evaluate the importance of geometrical parameters on the Savonius
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rotor performance. Through the corresponding rotor power output coefficient versus the tip speed ratio, the influence of each blade geometry parameter is investigated. Such parametric studies already lead to geometrical configurations with a considerable increase in the rotor performance efficiency [30, 39, 54, 128, 142]. The flow in and around a Savonius rotor has also been studied using flow visualization experiments in combination with the measured pressure distributions on the blade surfaces. It is observed that the ow separation regions on the blade surfaces are fairly reduced by the rotation erect (compare Fig. 3.1 and 3.2). Similarly, the flow through the overlap is weakened by the appearance of resisting flow. The former contributes to the torque production of the rotating rotor while the latter acts as a resistance. These phenomena, together with the flow stagnation region on the front side of the rotor, contribute to the power producing mechanism of the Savonius rotor. Significant features observed here are the downward movement of the separation point (Fig. 3.2c) and the relative decrease in the pressure coefficient on the convex side of the advancing blade (Fig. 3.2d). These phenomena can be caused by the occurrence of a Canada-like flow pattern (Fig. 3.2a) on the convex side, which appears clearly at small rotor angles of = 0 to 45. The attached flow on the convex side tends to separate at large rotor angles ( = 90 to 135), which is due to the outward flow motion at the tip of the advancing blade. This flow is induced by the pressure gradient distributed over the concave side of the advancing blade. The injected flow grows into a vortex circulating in the rotating direction of the rotor, which increases in size downstream. It is considered that the attached flow patterns of the rotating rotor contribute to the rotating torque of the rotor, as is expected from the pressure distributions (Fig. 3.2d). On the other hand, a relative decrease in the stagnation torque is expected here in comparison with the non- rotating rotor (Fig. 3.1), since the relative velocity is decreased on the advancing blade and is increased on the returning one. In addition, the stagnation point moves to the center of the blade due to the rotation effect. It can be seen that the pressure coefficients are decreased overall by the effect of circulation produced by the rotor rotation. Such a circulation is a steady phenomenon. In comparison with the
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non-rotating rotor, the flow through the overlap is reduced here by the production of resisting flow. This flow is expected to reduce the pressure recovery effect on the back side of the returning blade, which is supported by the measured pressure distributions near the overlap. 2.1.2 Numerical investigations of Savonius turbines Numerical simulations have also been carried out on this kind of rotors. These studies include static or dynamic modeling. Nevertheless, most results suffer from a too crude description of the rotor. A few of these papers [23, 28, 49] used the discrete vortex method to predict the flow around a pair of coupled Savonius rotors. They suggested that the reason why so few numerical studies had been successful was due to the complexity of the flow pattern about the rotor and to the separation of the flow from the blade surfaces. Usually, wind sites are equipped today with fast-running horizontal axis wind turbines of the airscrew type, associated to a high efficiency. Some articles point out that the choice of a wind turbine must not be based only on high efficiency and proposed a comparative criterion adapted to the comparison of a horizontal axis wind turbine with a vertical axis wind turbine: the L- criterion. This criterion consists in comparing wind turbines which intercept the same front width of wind, by allocating them a same reference value of the maximal mechanical stress on the blades or the paddles. On the basis of this criterion, a quantitative comparison points to a clear advantage of the Savonius rotors, because of their lower angular velocity, and provides some elements for the improvement of their rotor [71]. The results show that the power per unit length provided by the considered Savonius rotor is about four times as high as that provided by a fast-running two bladed airscrew. The American windmill and the Savonius rotor have comparable values of their associated power per unit length. A favorable factor to obtain a high power per unit length is consequently a low angular velocity. In terms of the ease of setting up, and the potential for improvement in efficiency, the Savonius rotor should be preferred to all other considered configurations following [71].Flow elds around rotating Savonius rotors have been also simulated by solving the two-dimensional incompressible Navier-Stokes equations [95]. The results show a good agreement with
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experimental performance for the following points: the torque grows weaker in inverse proportion to the tip speed ratio; a gap between the rotor buckets is effective in increasing maximum power. These calculations have been realized using a static approximation (the rotor is supposed to be vexed whatever the wind direction) and also a dynamic calculation; in this second case, the velocity coefficient was equal to 1.0 (nominal working point in accordance with Fig. 2.6). These calculations are continued until the residual values (variations in certain chosen parameters, e.g., velocity in the wind direction), have all dropped below 103 (criterion for convergence). From our experience, this is a relatively weak and perhaps insufficient criterion. A separate study has been carried out to verify the model accuracy, comparing a static simulation and a dynamic one. To do so, a static simulation of the flow around the conventional Savonius rotor (e=d = 1=6; a = 0; no central shaft) has allowed to determine the pressure distribution on the paddles. Then the static torque has been calculated as a function of the wind velocity angle (Fig. 2.8). These numerical results were compared to experimental data. The simulations give satisfactory results since the differences between the experimental data and the numerical simulations are always below 10%, except for angles around 0 and 180 where an instability of the torque is observed (Fig. 3.3, [68]). In a second step, a dynamic calculation (rotating turbine) has been carried out for the same value of the Reynolds number: Re= 1:56 105, setting the velocity coefficient equal to 1:0. The torque coefficient Cm has been evaluated by calculating the average value of the torque on a whole revolution of the rotor. The results are compared to the ones given with the static calculation. The difference between the two curves generally does not exceed 2% whatever the angle (Fig. 3.4). This is clearly in contradiction with the experimental studies discussed previously (see again Fig. 3.1 and 3.2), and must therefore be considered with caution. The simulated flows have been analyzed by visualizing relative velocity, vorticity, pressure, etc. The behavior of the shed vortices has been observed carefully, and it has been clarified that the shed vortices have a large effect on the resulting flow fields and on the global performance [49, 50, 70].

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2.1.3 Methods to improve Savonius turbine performance Several propositions can be found in the literature to improve the performance of conventional Savonius rotors. 2.1.3.1 Deflector plate Attempts to improve the performance of a S-shaped Savonius rotor by using a defecting plate placed in front of the rotor have been documented. Using a defecting plate placed on the retreating side of the blade it has been observed that the power coefficient can be increased relatively by about 20% [27, 43]. 2.1.3.2 Double and three steps Savonius rotor When considering only the starting torque, it can be seen that, for some directions of the wind velocity, the starting torque of the standard Savonius configuration would be so low that the rotor could not start alone. It is the reason why many authors have chosen to use a double-step (see Fig. 3.6) and three-step Savonius rotor, where the upper and the lower paddle pairs are set at 90 to each other (double step), respectively at 120 for the three step rotor. The double-step and three-step rotors are said to be slightly superior to the corresponding single-step turbine (conventional Savonius rotor) in self-starting, but lower for both torque and power characteristics [38, 68]. 2.1.3.3 Guide vanes In order to decrease the torque variation of the standard Savonius rotor and to improve its starting capability, a new type of Savonius turbine, using three stages with 120 degree bucket phase shift between the adjacent stages with and without guide vanes, has also been investigated [39]. The results indicate that the static torque coefficient of the one stage turbine without guide vanes is periodic with a cycle of 180 degrees (depending on the number of stages) and that its variation is very large. The lower values of static torque are observed in the ranges of = 140 170 and 320 350. Guide vanes can be used to increase the static torque and decrease its fluctuation. But, unlike the static characteristic, the dynamic effect depends on the wind speed, so that the maximum values of Cm and Cp of the
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three-stage rotor are much smaller than those of the one-stage rotor. The guide vanes increase the dynamic torque coefficient for small values (0 < < 0:3), but lead to a decrease in the torque for larger values ( > 0:3). Recently, one study was published concerning the three bucket Savonius rotor unfortunately, the authors rely on an erroneous formulation to compute the rotor power and torque. They consider: Protor = (1=2AV 2 1 )u (3.1) And T = 60Protor=2N (3.2) where V1 is the test-section inlet air velocity and u is the tip peripheral blade velocity. As a consequence the computed power is the power available in the incoming wind and not the mechanical power of the turbine. Consequently, the results are not analyzed further. 2.1.3.4 Twisted-blade Savonius rotor Another investigation aims at exploring the feasibility of a twisted-bladed Savonius rotor for power generation. A twisted blade integrated within a threebladed rotor system has been tested in a low speed wind-tunnel, and its performance has been compared with conventional semi-circular blades (corresponding to a twist angle of 0). Performance analysis has been made on the basis of starting characteristics, static torque and rotational speed. Experimental evidence shows the potential of the twisted blade rotor in terms of smooth running, higher efficiency and self-starting capability as compared to that of the conventional rotor [94, 98]. Semicircular blades correspond to zero twist angle. By increasing this angle, the performance of the Savonius rotor is increased in its performance as shown in Fig. 3.7. It is also shown that a larger twist angle is preferable for a lower wind velocity in order to produce maximum power and better starting characteristics. A twist angle = 15 gives optimum performance at low airspeeds of U = 6:5 m/s in terms of starting acceleration and maximum no load speed. Such blades shows a maximum of Cp = 13:99 at tip speed ratio of = 0:65 (i.e., at U = 8:23 m/s), whereas the semicircular blade = 0 shows a Cp = 11:04 at = 1.

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2.1.3.5 Modified Savonius rotor The conventional Savonius rotor is made from two vertical half-cylinders running around a vertical axis. A modified rotor has also been proposed, which is just a modification of the Savonius rotor, using now three geometrical parameters: the main overlap, the secondary overlap e0, and the angle between the paddles. The characteristic curves of such a rotor (values of the static torque coefficient Cm vs. wind angle) are presented. The results are relatively encouraging, since the new rotor induces maximal values of the static torque much higher than those obtained with the conventional rotor. Nevertheless, it also introduces low and negative values of the torque, with a large angular variation. Overall, the mean value of the torque is increased: Cm = 0:48,i.e., 60% more than for the conventional rotor. Further studies are necessary to renew the analysis. 2.1.4 Summary of Savonius turbine review All the research projects discussed in the present review have tried to understand and improve the performance (torque and efficiency) of the Savonius turbine, considering either the conventional geometry or slight modifications. All the improvements have been tested manually, by means of a tedious trial-and-error analysis. Such studies are going on. All proposed modifications have been summarized and discussed. It can be finally concluded that: There is a renewed interest for Savonius turbines in recent years. Depending on the retained definition, their efficiency can be indeed considered as quite high. Contradictory observations can be found in the literature, both qualitatively and quantitatively. Therefore, the results presented in this review must all be considnered with great caution; Many small modifications and improvements have been proposed in the literature to improve global efficiency or some specic characteristics (e.g., selfstarting conditions) as summarized in Table 3.1;

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Nevertheless, a real optimization of the system has not been realized up to now and would therefore be very interesting. This will be the subject considered in later chapters of this thesis. 2.2 Types of Wind Turbine 2.2.1 WIND TURBINE A wind turbine is a machine that convert the kinetic energy in wind into mechanical energy .if the mechanical energy is used directly by machinery, such as pump or grinding stones, the machine is usually called a windmills .if the mechanical energy is then converted to electricity, the machine is called a wind generators, wind turbine .or wind energy converted (WEC). 2.2.2 TYPES OF WIND TURBINES Wind turbines can be separated into two types based on the axis orientation about which the turbine rotates .turbines rotor that rotates around a horizontal axis are called horizontal axis wind turbines and turbines rotate around a vertical axis are called vertical axis wind turbines. 2.2.3 HORIZONTAL AXIES WIND TURBINES Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAVT) HAVE THE MAIN ROTOR SHAFT AND ELECTRICAL generator at the top of the tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind vane, while large turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servo motor. These machines are simple in principle, but the design of complete system .especially large one that produces electric power economically, is complex. It must have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the blades into a quicker rotation that is more suitable for generation electricity. These turbines rotor cannot move in all directions of the wind. So the turbines have to be provided with some mechanism. These machines need a starting device as they have a very low starting torque. Horizontal-axis wind turbines may be low speed turbines or high speed turbines .low speed horizontal axis wind turbines are used for water pumping and air

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compressing .high speed horizontal axis type is used for many purposes, and is available in many sizes. 2.2.4 ADVANTAGES OF HAWT 1. Stability due to location of blades on the side of the turbines centre of gravity. 2. Ability to swing, which gives the turbines blades the best angles of attack. 3. Ability to pitch the rotor blades in a storm, to minimize damage. 4. Tall tower allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear. 5. Most are self-starting.

2.2.5 LIMITATIONS OF HAWT HAWT have difficulty operating in near ground, turbulent winds because their yaw and blades bearing need smoother, more laminar wind flows. Tall HAWTs are difficult to install, needing very tall and expensive cranes and skilled operators. Offshore tower can be a navigation problem and must be installed in shallows seas. HAWT cannot be floated on barges. Downwind variants suffer from fatigue and structural failure caused by turbulence. For maintenance and repair the turbines has to be brought down to ground level which again needs expensive cranes etc. 2.2.6 VERTICAL AXIES WIND TURBINE Vertical axis wind turbines(VAWTs)have the main rotor shaft running vertically .key advantages of this arrangement are that the generator and gear box can be placed at the bottom, near the ground, So the tower does not need to support it and that the turbines does not need to be pointed into the wind. It is also difficult to mount vertical-axis turbines on towers, only savonius rotor operation with slow spine but not the Darrius Rotor.
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These turbines are self starting devices and they can rotates whatever may be the direction of winds .in this type of wind mill ,all the components like generator ,gearbox ,and turbines component ,are on the ground ,so a very robust and strong basement is not required .but the basement should be strong enough to prevent any vibrations in rotor while rotating. They have relatively high starting torques compared to lift devices because of their high solidity, but have relatively low tip speed ratio and lower power outputs for given rotor size, weight and cost. Vertical axis wind turbines may be low speed types or high speed type. low sped vertical axis wind mills are used to pump water and aerated land .high speed vertical axis windmills include Darrius models .these have long, thin curved outlet plates .which rotates at 3-4 times the wind speed. They have a low starting torque and need a starting device for its operation but they have high tip ratio (T.R.S). They are expensive in comparison to other types mention below and are used for electricity generation and irrigation purpose. The savonius model .which is originated in fine land in 1920s, is an S-shaped blade, which rotates and turns a vertical shaft. Today, these of windmills are varying popular with scientists and advanced technology is being developed. Vertical axis wind turbines based on wind interaction or aerodynamics of design of the rotor is two types .they is: 1. Drag based vertical axis wind turbine. 2. Lift based vertical axis wind turbine. 2.2.7 DRAGED- BASED VERTICAL AXIS WIND TURBINES Dragged based designs are the ones in which the drag force on the blades is predominates .the drag force is the force, which is parallel to the wind stream .the drag on cup is greater when its concaves side faces the wind, which causes the devices to rotates .lift force also plays a small part, the cups crossing the wind experience a small lift because their convex surfaces deflect the wind and a cause pressure reductions. The savonius rotor works on a principle similar to that of the cup anemometer, but it is adopted to use to produce shaft power. it also takes the advantages of lift
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generators of the curved outer surface of its scoops cross the air flow .these are pure drag devices, in which one side of rotor carries blades or sails square to the wind, while the other side produces reduces dragged by shielding or furling the blades .one of the main design of drag based by vertical rotor is savonius rotors. 2.2.8 Lift Based Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Lift based design are the ones on which the lift force on the blades is predominant .The lift force, which needed to bend the flow of the air. It is the force perpendicular to the stream of air. The most popular design of a lift vertical rotor is the darrius rotor. It is described as under. 2.3 VAWT Subtypes 2.3.1 Darrius Wind Turbine It has two or three thin, curved (egg beater) blades with air foil cross section and constant chord length. Both ends of blades due to rotation are pure tension .This blades can thus be made lighter than the propeller type. When rotating, these air foils blades provide a torque, being transmitted to a generator at the central shaft for power generation. They have good efficiency, but produce large torque large torque ripple and cyclic stress on the tower, contribute to poor reliability. Also they generally require some external power source, or an additional savonius rotor, to start turning, because the starting is very low. The torque ripped is reduced by using 3 or more blades which results in a higher solidity for the rotor. Solidity is measured by blades area over the rotor area. Newer darrius type turbines are not held up by guy wires but have an external superstructure connected to the top bearing. This machine was invented originals and patented in 1925 by G.J.M.Darrius a French engineering. In India, at BHEL Hyderabad and N.A.L Bangalore research and development of the Darrius wind energy conversion systems are in progress.

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Figure 2.1: Darrius Type Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Darrius type rotors are lift devices, characterized by curved blades with air foil cross section. They have relatively low solidity and low starting torques, but high tip to wind speeds and speeds and, therefore, relatively high power outputs per given rotor weights and costs. 3.3.2 Savonius Turbines These plans are for the construction of vertical axis wind turbine, modelled after a design by the Finnish engineer S.J. Savonius in 1922. His idea was to mount two half-cylinders on a vertical shaft. It was simple to build, and could accept wind from any direction. However, it was somewhat less efficient than the more common horizontal axis turbine. The reason for the difference has to do with aerodynamics. Horizontal axis turbines have blades that create lift to spin the rotor, whereas the vertical axis design we are using here operates on the basis of dragone side creates more drag in moving air than the other, causing the shaft spin.

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The wind is a free clean and inexhaustible energy source. It has server mankind well for many centuries by propelling ships and driving wind turbines to grind grain and pump water .Interest in wind power lagged ,however, when cheap and plentiful petroleum product became available after world war 2.The high capital costs and uncertainty of the wind place wind power at economic disadvantages .Then in 1973,the Arab nation placed an embargo on petroleum .The days of cheap and plentiful petroleum were drawing to an end .People began to realize the worlds oil supplies would not last forever and that remaining supplies should be conserved for the petro chemical industry. The use of oil as a boiler fuel, for example, would have to be eliminated .Other energy sources besides oil natural gas must be developed. The two energy sources besides petroleum which have been assumed able to supply the long term energy needs of the United State are coal and nuclear energy .Many people think there is enough coal for several centuries at the present rates of consumption, and likewise for nuclear energy after breeder reactor is fully developed. These are proven resources in the sense that the technology is highly developed and large coal and nuclear powered electrical generating plants are in the operation and are delivering substantial blocks of energy to the consumer. Unfortunately, both coal and nuclear create serious environmental problems. Coal requires large scale mining operation, leaving land that is difficult or impossible to restore to usefulness in many cases. The combustion of coal may upset the planets heat balance. The production of carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide may affect the atmosphere and the ability of the planet to produce food of its people. Coal is also valuable petrochemicals feed stock and many consider the burning of Its as a boiler fuel to be foolish .Nuclear energy has several

advantages over coal in that no carbon dioxide or sulphur are produced, mining operation are smaller scale, and it has no other major use besides supplying heat. The major difficulty is the problem of waste disposal, which because of the fears of many winb ll probably never have truly satisfying solution. Because of these problem, wind power and other form of solar power are being s strongly encouraged .Wind power may be come as a major source of energy in spite of slightly higher cost than coal or nuclear power because of the basically non economic or political problems of coal and nuclear power. This is not to say that
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wind power will always be more expensive than coal or nuclear power, because considerable progress is being made in making wind power less expensive. But even without clear cost advantage, wind power may become truly important in the world energy picture. Savonius rotor are drag-type devices with two (or more) scoops that are used in anemometers, the flattener vents, and in some high-reliability lowefficiency power turbines. They are always self-starting if they are at least three scoops. They sometimes have long helical scoops to give a smooth torque. The banes rotor and especially the rahai rotor improve efficiency with blades shaped to produce significant lift as well as drag.

This is the simplest of the modern types of wind turbines, which works like a cup anemometer. This was invented by S.J. Savonius in the year 1920. It has become popular since it requires relatively low velocity winds for operation. It consists of two half cylinder facing opposite directions in such a way as to have almost an S-shaped cross section.

Figure: 2.2 Savonius type vertical Axis Wind Turbine These two semicircular drums are mounted on vertical axis perpendicular to the wind direction with the gap at the axis between the two drums. Irrespective of the
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wind direction the rotor rotates such as to make the convex sides of the buckets head into the wind. However, instead of having two edges together to make an Sshaped they overlap to leave a wide space between the two inner edges, so that each of these edges is near the central axis of the opposite half cylinder. The main action of wind is very simple. The force of wind is greater on the copped faced than on the rounded face. The wind curving around the backside of the cupped face exerts a reduced pressure much as the wind does over the top of an air foil and this helps to achieve rotation .The wide slot between the inner edges of forward moving cupped face thus pushing both in the direction of the rotation. 2.3.3 ADVANTAGES OF VAWT Its simple design makes its fabrication process very economical. Easier to maintain because most of their moving parts are located near the ground. The airfoils or rotor blades a generator below, usually by first connecting to a gearbox. The rotor blades are vertical a yaw device is not needed as the rotor is active for any direction of wind, reducing the need for this bearing and its cost. Vertical turbines have a higher airfoil pitch angle, giving improved aerodynamics while decreasing drag at low and high pressures. Low height useful where laws do not permit structures to be placed high. Smaller VAWTs can be much easier to transports and install. Does not need a free standing tower so is much less expensive and stronger in high winds that are close to the ground. Usually have a lower Tip-Speed ratio so less likely to break in high winds. 2.3.4 LIMITATIONS OF VAWT Most VAWTs produce energy at only 50% of the efficiency of HAWTs in large part because of the additional drag that have as their blades rotate into the wind. This can be overcome by using structures to funnel more and align the wind into the rotor.

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There may be a height limitation to how tall a vertical wind turbine can be built and how much sweep area it can have. Most VAWTs need to be n=installed on a relatively flat piece of land and some sites could be too steep for but are still usable by HAWTs Most VAWTs have low starting torque, and may require starting device to start the operation. VAWT that uses guyed wires to hold it place puts stress on the bottom bearing as all the weight of the rotor is the rotor is on the bearing.

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FORMULATION AND PROBLEM ANALYSIS

This hypothesis is reproduced to show the relationship between the power coefficient (Cp) and the wind speed, which expresses the basic theory of the Savonius wind machine. Principally the power that the rotor can extract from the wind Pw is less than the actual available from the wind power Pa. In order to calculate the performance of this wind machine, its configuration is essentially important. Practically, when the turbine is placed in a wind tunnel with an inlet (1) and an outlet (2) the power that can be extracted from the wind is found by the following methodology: Find the average of wind speed through the rotor area V: Vave = (V1+V2)/2 Where V1 and V2 are the inlet/outlet wind speeds in m/s

Define the mass of the airflows passing through the S-rotor area, A per second in the stream tube by: m = A(V1 + V2 )/2

According to the Kinetic Energy, KE =0.5 MV2 Therefore the power extracted, P =0.5m(V12-V22)

Substituting the mass of air into this formula, the power that the rotor can extract from the wind is: Pw = /4(V12-V22) (V1+V2), when the swept area A = h x (2d-S) = h x D

(m2) Similarly, if the S-rotor generates the electricity, the power that the rotor can extract from the wind is: Pw = E x I (Watts). The available power, Pa from the wind is: Pa =0.5 mV12 when m = AV1, therefore: Pa = 0.V13 The power coefficient Cp is given by:
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Cp =Pw / Pa Therefore: Pw = Cp x Pa = Cp0.V

which is the standard wind equation that is used in this documentation. The input from the wind = A V3 Where E = A V3 Then: Tw = Cp x E = Cp x A V3 VI = Cg x Tw = Cg x Cp x A V3 Where: Cg is the generator efficiency. Cp is the power coefficient. 3.1 Guide to Rotor Dimensions plus Shaft Rotation Evaluation All the preceding calculations are obtained from the following equations , and were placed in tabular form for clarity, contrast and ease of manipulation. To Calculate the Area (A)

As a starting point to generate some values a standard Power Coefficient (Cp) versus Tip Speed Ratio (X) diagram for a Savonius rotor was used (Figure). It can be determined that at X = 0.95 a power of 24.5% is gained. This value is used for the preceding power calculations below. P = Cp AV3 standard wind equation (derived from power coefficient analysis) V = 10 m/s (assuming this is the wind speed); = 1.225 kg/m3 density of air at sea level and 150C; Cp = 0.245 (24.5% from the standard Power Coefficient/Tip Speed Ratio diagram); Power (P) = 200, 100, and 50 Watts. To Calculate the Shaft Rotation () The equation below is used whereby the radius value R (D/2) is manipulated to obtain w. It is assumed that the

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value of X (tip speed ratio) is equal to 1, to eliminate X in the equation below. X = R/V = rotational speed (rads/s); R = radius of rotor (m); V = average wind speed, assume 10 m/s. = V/R, R is varied between 0.2 and 0.55 metres, a reasonable range baring in mind the speed of rotation. To Calculate the height (h) The equation below is used to calculate h: Area (A) = height (h) x diameter (D) 3.2 Rotor Construction The rotor blades are constructed from one 210 litre tighthead plastic polydrum bisected lengthwise. These troughs are mounted between two end plates made from MDF 0.99 metres long x 0.6 metres wide x 20 mm thick. The ends of the drum halves are simply bolted to the MDF pieces with M8 bolts, washers and locking nuts. The main shaft through the centre of the rotor is a inch (12.25 mm) diameter solid mild steel bar which is vertical in alignment. This shaft has an outer collar which is used as a rotor spacer between the bearings, which also adds extra strength. To secure the shaft to the end plates of the rotor, two collars are used. They are a close fit onto the shaft, and are bolted to the MDF with four M10 bolts and locking nuts. To support the rotor shaft three bearings were used, one in each horizontal frame member. A secondary output shaft is perpendicular to the vertical one, and is attached to the automobile alternator. This shaft is made up of two pieces: one solid shaft inch (12.25 mm) diameter which is turned down at one end so that the worm wheel fits onto it; and a hollow tube which fits over the turned bar and the alternator. To support this shaft mechanism one bearing is placed at the left of the frame in the vertical frame member.

Gap spacing ratio (S/d) The dimensions for mounting the drum halves are given below, where the optimum gap spacing from the small model testing was S/d = 0.2, which has been proven experimentally. Therefore:
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S/d = 0.2, and we know that d = 0.54 metres, h = 0.917 metres S = 0.2 x 0.54 = 0.108 m D = (0.54 + 0.54 0.108) = 0.972 m, and R = 0.972/2 = 0.486 m Since A = D x h, we have: A = 0.972 x 0.917 = 0.891 m2

Therefore, our wind turbine calculations:S/d = 0.2, and we know that d = 0.353metres, h = 0.6metres S = 0.2 x 0.353 = 0.0706 m D = (0.353+ 0.353 0.0706) = 0.6354m, and R = 0.6354/2 = 0.3177 m Since A = D x h, we have: A = 0.6354 x 0.6= 0.38124m2 These values are used in the calculations as produced in the results section.

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Fabrication of Savonious Wind Turbine

4.1 Main component of savonious VAWT The most important component which are used in the construction of vertical axis wind turbines are as follows 1. Blades 2. Two bearings 3. Car alternator 4 Flange Coupling 5 Nylon gears 6 Shafts 7 Bearing Blocks 8 Digital Multimeters 4.1.1 Blades The blades are perhaps the most important part of our wind turbines-they are the engine that drives our generator. These wind turbine blades have a simple aluminium foils. And when finished they will look (and work) a bit like airplane wings. This design is a simple one, based on the factor such as efficiency, strength, cost and availability of materials and easy of construction. Few terms have to be considered before the design. The tip blade is the end thats at the very outer diameter farthest away from the alternator. The front of the blade is the surface that faces towards the wind, its flat and angled a bit. The blades is the surface that faces towards the winds, its flat and angled a bit. The back of the blade is facing away from the winds and its rounded in shape. The root is the inside of the blades, closest to the hub and alternator. The Leading edge of the blades that gets there first (if it were an airplane wings then the leading edge is the front of the wings). The trailing edge is the edge is the edge
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of the blades that gets there last (if it were an airplane wing it would be the back edge of the winds) the pitch of the blades is the angle between the surfaces of the front of the blades .and the plane of the blades rotation. It changes over the length of the blades .the chord of the blades rotation .it changes over the length of blade. The chord of the blades is the width (the distance between the leading edge and the trailing edge) and it gets less (the blades gets narrower) as the diameter gets larger. The thickness of the blades is the thickness at the fattest point in the aluminium foil. The ratio between the speed of the wind and the speed of the blades tips is called tip speed ratio. Morden wind turbines are designed to spin at varying speeds, use of aluminium and composites in their blades has contributed to low rotation inertia, which means that newer winds turbines can accelerate quickly if the winds pick up, keeping the tip speed ratio more nearly constant. Operating closer to their optimal tip speed ratio during energetic gust of wind allows wind turbine to improve energy capture from sudden gust that are typically in urban setting. In contrast , older style wind turbine were design with heavier steel blades , which have higher inertia and rotates at speed govern by ac frequency of the power lines .The higher inertia buffered at the change in rotation speed and thus made power output more stable. The speed and torque at which a wind turbine rotates must be controlled for several reasons. optimize the aerodynamic efficiency of the rotor in light winds. To keep the generator within its speed and torque limits. To keep the rotor and hub within their centripetal force limit. The centripetal force from the spinning rotors increases as the square of rotation speed, which makes the structure sensitive to over speed. To keep the rotor and tower within their strain limits. Because of the power of the wind increases as the cube of the wind speed turbine have to built to survive much higher wind loads(such as gust of wind)than those from which they can practically generate power. Since the blades generate more down winds force (and thus put far greater stress on tower).when

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they are producing torque, most wind turbines ways of reducing torque in high winds. To enable maintenance: because it is dangerous have people working on the wind turbine while it is active, it is sometime necessary to bring a turbine to full stop. To reduce noise: as rule of thumb, the noise from the wind turbine entries with the fifth power of the relative wind speed (as seen from the tip of the blades). In noise sensitive environments, the tip speed can be limited to approximately 60 m /sec (200 ft /sec). The more wind blows, the more power will be produced by wind turbine. But of course the wind does not blow consistently all the time. The term use to describe this is capacity factor, which is simply the amount of power a turbine actually produce over a period of time divided by the amount of power it could have produced if it had run at its full rated capacity over that time period. A more accurate measurement of output is: specific yield, this measure the annual energy output per square meter of area swept by the turbine blades as they rotate. Overall wind turbines capture between 20 to 40 percent of energy in the wind, at the site with average wind speed of 7 m/sec. A typical turbine will produce about 11000 kWh per square meter of area per year. If the turbine has blades that are 40 m long , for a total swept area of 5029 sq. meters, the power output will be about 5.5 million kilo watt hour for the year. An increase in blade length which in turn increases the swept area can have significant effect on the amount of power output from a wind turbine. A wind turbine blade situated on the wind turbine and being configured to rotate about an axis upon impact of a wind flow on the blades: a popularity of active flow modification devices comprising a popularity synthetic jets dispose on the blade at a polarity of location, the active flow modification devices configured to receive active flow instruction and introduce a jet flow to modify wind flow proximate to the blade. And a controller configured for providing the active flow instructions to the active flow modification devices based on a response strategy to modify the jet flow introduced by the active flow modification devices, where in the response strategy is selected from the group consisting of modifying a
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velocity of the synthetic jet, modifying a frequency of the synthetic jet, selective activating the synthetic jet based on the location of the synthetic jet on the blades, an angle of synthetic jet, size of the synthetic jet exit, shape of the synthetic jet exit, and combinations thereof. A method of operating a wind turbine comprising a blade4 rotatable about an axis upon an impact of wind flow on the blade, the method comprising: obtaining a current state of leat one operating condition of the wind turbine and actively modifying the wind flow proximate to the blade in response to the current state of the least one operating condition, wherein said actively modifying the wind flow comprises using a dual bimorph synthetic jet device, and wherein said actively modifying comprises attenuating an aerodynamic noise generated proximate to a tip of the blade by introducing a jet flow proximate to the tip. A wind turbine blades comprising at one active flow modification device disposed on the blades, the at least one active flow modification device receiving active flow instructions from a controller based on operating condition of the wind turbine blades, and introducing in a time-dependent of the wind turbine blades based on a response strategy to modify the jet flow introduction by the at least one active flow modification device, where in the operating condition is selected from the group consisting of a wind flow velocity, A wind flow direction. Turbine rotation speed, a pitch angle, a yaw angle and combinations thereof, there by modifying a loading of the wind turbine blades.

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Fig 3.1- Steps in fabrication of Blade 4.1.2 Bearings A bearing is a device to also constrained relative motion between two parts, typically rotation or linear movement. Bearing ding to their may be classified broadly to the motions they allow according to their principle of operation as well as by the directions of applied loads they can handle. Low friction bearings are often important fie efficiency, to reduce wear and to virtue of its shape, by its material, or by introducing and containing a fluid between surface. TYPES OF BEARINGS sleeve
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Sliding bearings, usually called bushes, bushing, journal bearings,

Bearing, rifle bearing, or plain bearing. Rolling- element bearings such as ball bearings and roller the axle slightly

off- centre bends. Fluid bearings, in which the load is carried by a gas or liquid Magnetic bearings, in which the load is carried by a magnetic field Flexure bearing, in which motion is supported by a load element which

1. Rolling Bearings A rolling-element bearing is a bearing which carries a load by placing round elements between the two pieces. The relative motion of the pieces causes the round the elements to the earliest and best-known rolling- element bearings are sets of logs laid on the ground with a large stone block on top. As the stone is pulled, the logs roll along the ground with title sliding friction. As each log comes out the back, it is moved to the where the block then rolls on to it. A rolling-element rotary bearing used a shaft in much larger hole, and cylinders called rollers tightly fill the space between the shaft and hole. As the shaft turns, each roller acts as the logs in the above example. However, since the bearing is round, the rollers never fall out from under the load. Rolling- element bearing have the advantages of good trade off between cost, size, weight, caring capacity, durability, accuracy, friction, and so on. Other bearing designs are often better on one specific attribute, but worse in most in other attributes, although fluid bearing can sometimes simultaneously outperform on carrying, durability, accuracy, friction, rotation rate and sometimes cost. Only plain bearings have wide use as rolling-elements bearings. Typical rollingelement bearing ranges in size from 10 mm diameter to a few tens of grams to many thousands of tonnes. A particularly common kind of rolling-elements bearing is the ball bearing. The bearing has inner outer races and a set of balls. Each race is a ring with a
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groove where the balls rest. The groove is usually shaped so the ball is a slightly loose fit in the groove. Thus in principle the ball contacts each race at single point. However, a load on an infinitely small point would cause infinitely high contact pressure. In practice small point deforms (flattens) slightly where each race, much as a tire flattens where it touches the road. The race also dents slightly where each ball presses on it. Thus, the contact between ball and race is of finite size and has finite pressure, Note also that the deformed ball and race do not roll entirely smoothly because different part of the ball are moving at different speeds as it rolls.

Fig3.2- Bearing We are using two bearings of inner diameter 10mm, 12mm and outer diameter of 26mm, 32mm respectively. This is available by the name of 6000 and 6201bearings respectively. 4.1.3 Car Alternator A standard car alternator is electromagnetic- meaning that some of the electricity produced by the unit must be used internally a send to the armature through brushes and slip rings to make the magnetic field. Alternators that use electricity to generate the field current are less efficient and more complicated. They are quite easy to regulate, however since the magnetic flux inside can bar changed by adjusting the field power.

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4.1.3.1 Car Alternators as Wind Turbine Generators The use of a vehicle alternator as the wind turbine generator offers the following advantages: They are commonly used in widespread applications such as cars, trucks, buses tractors and other farm and industrial vehicles. Great mechanical strength. Spare parts such as windings, rectifier bridges, voltage regulators, bearings, can easily be found in auto part dealers shops, in almost all towns in the world. Also car maintenance workshops, with mechanics able to perform basic maintenance work in this equipment can be found even in otherwise very isolated and backward locations. Wide operating speed range, from 400 RPM to 8000 RPM, and good current generating capability, reaching 320 A in modern units. Available in a number of standard output voltages: 12, 24, 32 or 48 V. A range of matching heavy duty batteries are also widely available, designed to be directly charged from the car alternator. A range of matching (and rugged) integrated output voltage regulators are available in the market. Some special models offer three phase AC outputs. 9) Low unit and spare parts cost. Easy maintenance. Tolerance to wide operating temperature changes without significant performance degradation. The combination of all these characteristics are particularly interesting when considering the use of car alternators in wind turbine applications in less

developed countries, especially in isolated locations. 4.1.3.2 Car Alternator Characteristics Car alternators can be selected taking into account their general characteristics, their generation vs. rotational speed curve and the wiring alternatives. The general characteristics of a modern car alternator are as follows

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Integrated rectifier with power zanier regulation. Diodes set in aluminium heat sinks for high cooling efficiency. Integrated field regulator for constant voltage self excitation and simplified installation and service. Long duration brushes protected against dust and dirt.

High efficiency integrated blower providing high cooling capacity for extended high load operation. Precisely balanced rotor block for smooth operation and long bearing life. High load ball bearings. Self lubrication with high temperature greases to ensure long ball bearing life. High strength low weight aluminium case. Heavy duty stator winding with high overload capacity. Wide temperature operating range from 40 F to 200 F. Able to operate in both rotating senses. Some models are available in brushless configurations.

Fig 3.3- Car Alternator

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4.1.4 FLANGE COUPLING Flange coupling are made up of aluminium whose flange diameter is 48mm and the thickness is 8mm. The coupling length is 27mm and the external diameter is 28mm. 10mm hole throughout the flange and coupling. In this it is used to couple the blades with shaft.

Fig 3.4 Flange Coupling

4.1.5 GEAR A gear is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs, which mesh with another toothed part in order to transmit torque. Two or more gear working in tandem is called transmission and can produce mechanical advantage. Two meshing gear transmitting rotational motion, smaller gear is rotating faster and the larger gear is rotating less quickly, its torque is proportionally greater. We are using two nylon spur gear with dimension 100mm and 50mm diameter of larger and smaller respectively. We are using nylon gear because it is light in weight, non corrosive in nature and less wear and tear.

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Fig 3.5 Gear 4.1.6 SHAFT It is used to transmit the torque produced by blade of the turbine. The shaft is made up of mild steel. The length of the shaft is 800mm and 12mm in diameter. The diameter has been reduced from 12mm to 10mm by the turning operation through the length of 3 inches. So weight of shaft is decrease.

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Fig 3.6 Shaft

4.1.7 BEARING BLOCKS There are two place where we use the wood. First for the stand purpose of turbine stability. And second one is placing a bearing in wood. The wood used for bearing purpose is teak wood which is light in weight and gives stability to the system. The teak wood dimension which is used for bearing is 4.5x4.5x1.5mm3.

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Fig 3.7 Bearing blocks

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4.1.8 Digital multimeter: A multimeter or multitester, also known as a volt/ohm meter or VOM, is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter may include features as the ability to measure voltage, current and resistance. There are two categories of multimeters, analogue multimeters (for analogue multimeters in British English) and digital multimeters (often abbreviated DMM or DVOM) A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices such as batteries, motor controls, appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems. Scientists originally used galvanometers to measure current. A galvanometer may be wired to measure resistance (given a known voltage source) or voltage (given a fixed resistance). While appropriate for primitive lab use, switching from one setup to another is inconvenient in the field.

Fig 3.8 Digital multimeter

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4.2 FABRICATION OF SAVONIUS VAWT 4.2.1 Wind Turbine Design: Basic Load Considerations Whether we are building wind turbines or helicopters, we have to take the strength, the dynamic behaviour, and the fatigue properties of your materials and the entire assembly into consideration. 4.2.2 Extreme Loads Wind turbines are built to catch the winds kinetic energy. We may therefore wonder why modern wind turbines are not built with a lot of rotor blades. Turbines with many blades or very wide blades, i.e. turbines with a very solid rotor, however, will be subjected to very large forces, when the wind blows at a hurricane speed. Wind turbine manufacturers have to certify that their turbines are built, so that they can withstand extreme winds which occur, say during 10 minutes once every 50 years. To limit the influence of the extreme winds turbine manufacturers therefore generally prefer to build turbines with a few, long, narrow blades. In order to make up for the narrowness of the blades facing the wind, turbines manufacturers prefer to let the turbines rotate relatively quickly. 4.2.3 Fatigue Loads Wind turbines are subject to fluctuating winds and hence fluctuating forces. This is particularly the case if they are located in a very turbulent wind climate. Components which are subjected to repeat bending, such as rotor blades, may eventually develop cracks which ultimately may make the components brake. Metal Fatigue is a well known problem in many industries. Metal is therefore generally not favoured as a material for rotor blades. When designing a wind turbine it is extremely important to calculate in advance how the different components will vibrate, both individually and jointly. It is also important to calculate the forces involved in each bending or stretching of a component.

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4.2.4

Turbine Blades

Turbine designing is one of the most important tasks for the construction of Savonius vertical axis wind turbine because the overall efficiency of the turbine depends on dimension of the wind turbine blade. We have used two bladed designs in this construction of the effective diameter of 636mm. The height of blade used in this construction is 600mm. We have used Aluminium material for the construction of the blades as the aluminium is the lightest metal. The cups of the blades are temporary joined with using small welding.

Fig 4.1 Blade Wind turbines are designed to exploit the wind energy that exists at the location. Aerodynamic modelling is used to determine the optimum tower height, control systems, number of blades, and blade shape. A Savonius wind turbine works in much the same way as an anemometer with cups being pushed around at the same speed as the wind hits them. In this design, the buckets are cut in half length wise to produce four cups/ blades. A piece of standard 12mm diameter of mild steel is cut and inserted and is cut exactly at the centre of the two bearings which are present in the wood on the upper and middle side of the steel frame. Each half is slide over the bearings and handles assembly so that they meet in the centre with one bearing at each end of the each piece of mild steel.

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By holding the exposed end of the steel frame, the mild steel shaft can be rotated freely around it thanks to the bearings fitted to it. It is to this flange are used to tight both shaft and blade.

Fig 4.2 Blade coupled with shaft by coupling Each bucket is cut in half, and a whole saw used to cut out a hole for the broom handle to stick out of at the top of the shaft as pictured above and below. The blade can then be screwed permanently into place. The remaining two blades should be fitted below the first two and rotated by 90 degree so that the finished turbine will be balanced and rotate smoothly. This also doubles the likelihood that a blade will be facing into the wind. A Savonius rotor is provided having first and second blades. Each of the blades includes an outer and an inner edge with respect to a central vertical axis. The outer edge of the blades lies on a circle defining a diameter of the rotor. Each blade includes a substantially linear portion adjacent to the inner edge. Each of the blades also includes a first curved portion which is tangent to the substantially linear portion as well as being tangent to the circle defining the diameter of rotor. Further, each of the blades includes a second curved portion which is tangent to
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the first curved portion and substantially coincident with the diameter of the rotor. Two steel rods have used for the support of blade of the height of 1.2m and the base is used as the wooden block of the dimensions of 30*12*1.2 inch. The steel rods are screwed on the wooden base. Now the vertical shaft which has taken of the diameter of 12mm is mounted into the two bearings for checking whether the vertical shaft rotates freely or not. The vertical shaft rotates freely into these two bearings and it is then removed and the aluminium blade which we have painted as green colour is mounted into the shaft. The dynamometer is placed at the bottom of the vertical shaft by using a small screw which rotates freely, and the two terminals of the dynamometer are connected to the multimeter, now the entire experimental set up is completed. In order to check the output in the multimeter a blower is used for the rotation of the blade and it is observed that maximum of 6 volts of reading is shown into the multimeter which indicates the success of our project.

Fig 4.3 Final prototype

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RESULTS
A series of experiment has been carried out with semicircular and twisted types of savonius turbine in three blades system .In the tested range of air velocity straight blades is found to be less efficiencies as compared to other blades, curved blades are generally of half cylinder type ,hence blades is found 636 diameter performed of the curved blades rotor improves in tested ranges because lesser negative wetted area (convex part of the blades )as compared to straight and aerofoil shaped blades. The twisted blades because of low negative torque characteristics start rotating even in the range of lower velocity and the RPM increase &smoothly with the increase in the velocity. The design principal can be used in future to improve the efficiency of savonius type of wind turbine. Key observations The developed twisted blades in general ,would the following performance Decrease of negative wetted area (exposed convex surface area to the air stream) Reduce the negative torque by twisted of the blades due to air being swept inward and outward directions. The couple produced by the airstream helps smooth running of the rotor with high RPM and high torque. All the above points would make a twisted blades rotor insensitive to wind directions and to have a good self starting ability.

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CONCLUSIONS
The present study, destined to precise the aerodynamic behaviour of Savonius rotors, was realised in two parts. First a bibliography study has identified the main influent geometrical parameters. Then a numerical simulation has estimated this influence and proposed optimal values for these geometrical parameters. The results are incontestably higher values for the power coefficient i.e. the aerodynamic efficiency of the rotor. In the following, it will be obviously necessary to develop a 3-D simulation and to propose other forms of paddles to increase the global efficiency of such a rotor.

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FUTURE SCOPE
India is a developing country and there is shortage of electricity in most of the villages. The entire experimental setup can be extended by using a alternator which can produce the more power output at a cheaper cost as overall cost of construction is low which would be more helpful for the villagers.

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REFRENCE
www.wrapwind.com_download_vawt_23_1400_michaelpercival_01 World Wind Energy Association (February 2009). World Wind Energy Report 2008. Report. http://www.wwindea.org/home/images/ Hannele Holttinen, et al. (September 2006). Design and Operation of Power Systems with Large Amounts of Wind Power, IEA Wind Summary Paper(PDF). Global Wind Power Conference September 18-21, 2006, Adelaide, Australia. http://www.ieawind.org/ A.G.Drachmann, Herons Windmill, Centaurus, 7 (1961), pp. 145-151 Ahmad Y Hassan, Donald Routledge Hill (1986). Islamic Technology: An illustrated history, p.54, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42239-6. Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineer in the Medieval Near East, Scientific American, May 1991, p. 64-69. (Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering) Lee Ranch Data 2002 Retrieved 2008-09-14 Common Affordable and Renewable Electricity Supply for Europe Claverton Energy Conference, Bath, Oct 24th 2008 http://www.kansaswindenergy.org/ Global installed wind power capacity (MW) Global Wind Energy Council 6.2.2008 Wind Energy grows by record 8, 300 MW in 2008. http://www.awea.org/ Wind power installed in Europe by end of 2008 cumulative (PDF). http://www.ewec2009.info/fileadmin/ewec2009_files/documents/Media_room/E uropean_wind_map_2008.pdf/

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