[TUTORIAL] All About Grammars & Tenses

Sentences
Sentences are made of two parts: the subject and the predicate. The subject is the person or thing that acts or is described in the sentence. The predicate, on the other hand, is that action or description. Complete sentences need both the subject and the predicate.

Clauses
Sentences can be broken down into clauses. For example: The boy is going to the school, and he is going to eat there. This is a complete sentence composed of two clauses. There are mainly two types of clauses: independent clauses and subordinate clauses. Independent clauses act as complete sentences, while subordinate clauses cannot stand alone and need another clause to complete their meaning. For example: Independent clause example: The boy went to the school. Subordinate clause example: After the boy went to the school

Phrases
A group of two or more grammatically linked words that do not have subject and predicate is a phrase. Example of a complete sentence: The girl is at home, and tomorrow she is going to the amusement park. Example of a clause: The girl is at home Example of a phrase: The girl You can see that the girl is a phrase located in the first clause of the complete sentence above. Phrases act like parts of speech inside clauses. That is, they can act as nouns, adjectives, adverbs and so on.

Parts of Speech
A word is a part of speech only when it is used in a sentence. The function the word serves in a sentence is what makes it whatever part of speech it is. For example, the word run can be used as more than one part of speech:. Sammy hit a home run. Run is a noun, direct object of hit.

You mustnt run near the swimming pool. Run is a verb, part of the verb phrase must (not) run. Traditional grammar classifies words based on eight parts of speech: the noun, the pronoun, the adjective, the verb, the adverb, the preposition, the conjunction, and the interjection. We are going to cover them individually below.

Nouns
A noun is a word used to describe a person, place, thing, event, idea, and so on. Nouns represent one of the main elements of sentences, along with verbs, adjectives, prepositions and articles. Nouns usually function as subjects or objects within sentences, although they can also act as adjectives and adverbs. Here is a list with the different types of nouns: 1. Proper nouns Used to describe a unique person or thing, proper nouns always start with a capital letter. Examples include Mary, India, and Manchester United. 2. Common nouns Common nouns are used to describe persons or things in general. Examples include girl, country, and team 3. Concrete nouns Nouns that can be perceived through the five senses are called concrete nouns. Examples include ball, rainbow and melody. 4. Abstract nouns Nouns that cannot be perceived through the five senses are called abstract nouns. Examples include love, courage, and childhood. 5. Countable nouns Countable nouns can be counted. They also have both a singular and a plural form. Examples include toys, children and books. 6. Non-countable nouns These nouns (usually) can not be counted, and they dont have a plural form. Examples include sympathy, laughter and oxygen. 7. Collective nouns Collective nouns are used to describe groups of things. Examples include flock, committee and murder.

Plural Form of Nouns

The English language has both regular and irregular plural forms of nouns. The most common case is when you need to add -s to the noun. For example one car and two cars. The other two cases of the regular plural form are: 1. nouns that end with s, x, ch or sh, where you add -es (e.g., one box, two boxes) 2. nouns that end with consonant + y, where you change the y with i and add -es (e.g., one enemy, two enemies) On the irregular plural form of nouns there are basically eight cases: 1. nouns that end with -o, where you add -es (e.g., one potato, two potatoes) 2. nouns ending with -is, where you change -is to -es (e.g., one crisis, two crises) 3. nouns ending with -f, where you change -f to -v and add -es (e.g., one wolf, two wolves) 4. nouns ending with -fe, where you change -f to -v and add -s (e.g., one life, two lives) 5. nouns ending with -us, where you change -us to -i (e.g., one fungus, two fungi) 6. nouns that contain -oo, change -oo to -ee (e.g., one foot, two feet) 7. nouns that end with -on, where you change -on with -a (e.g., phenomenon, phenomena) 8. nouns that dont change (e.g., sheep, offspring, series) It might appear overwhelming, but after using these nouns a couple of times you will be able to memorize their plural form easily.

Pronouns
Pronouns are used to replace nouns within sentences, making them less repetitive and mechanic. For example, saying Mary didnt go to school because Mary was sick doesnt sound very good. Instead, if you say Mary didnt go to school because she was sick it will make the sentence flow better. There are several types of pronouns, below you will find the most common ones: 1. Subjective personal pronouns. As the name implies, subjective pronouns act as subjects within sentences. They are: I, you, he, she, we, they, and it. Example: I am going to the bank while he is going to the market. 2. Objective personal pronouns. These pronouns act as the object of verbs within sentences. They are: me, you, him, her, us, them and it. Example: The ball was going to hit me in the face. 3. Possessive personal pronouns. These pronouns are used to indicate possession, and they are placed after the object in question (as opposed to possessive adjectives like my and your, which are placed before the object). They are: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs and its. Example of possessive adjective: This is my car. Example of possessive pronoun: This car is mine.

4. Reflexive pronouns. This special class of pronouns is used when the object is the same as the subject on the sentence. They are myself, yourself, himself, herself, ourselves, themselves and itself. Example: I managed to cut myself in the kitchen. 5. Interrogative pronouns. As you probably guessed these pronouns are used to ask questions. They are what, which, who, whom and whose. Example: What are the odds? 6. Demonstrative pronouns. These pronouns are used to indicate a noun and distinguish it from other entities. Notice that demonstrative pronouns replace the noun (while demonstrative determiners modify them). They are: this, that, these, those. Example of a demonstrative determiner: This house is ugly. Example of a demonstrative pronoun: This is the right one. 7. Indefinite pronouns. As the name implies, indefinite pronouns do not refer to a specific thing, place or person. There are many of them, including anyone, anywhere, everyone, none, someone and so on. Example: Everyone is going to the party.

Adjectives
An adjective is a word that describes a noun. There are two kinds: attributive and predicative. An adjective is used attributively when it stands next to a noun and describes it. For example: The black cat climbed a tree. Notice that the verb participle forms can be used as adjectives: The man felt a paralyzing fear. Flavored oatmeal tastes better than plain oatmeal. The usual place of the adjective in English is in front of the noun. You can have a whole string of adjectives if you like: The tall thin evil-looking cowboy roped the short, fat, inoffensive calf. Sometimes, for rhetorical or poetic effect, the adjective can come after the noun: Sarah Plain and Tall (book title) This is the forest primeval. An adjective is used predicatively when a verb separates it from the noun or pronoun it describes: The umpire was wrong. The crowd was furious. She seems tired today. This soup tastes bad. The dogs coat feels smooth. The verbs that can be completed by predicate adjectives are called being verbs or copulative verbs. They include all the forms of to be and sensing verbs like seem, feel,

and taste. Adjective Classifications * * * * * * qualitative: good, bad, happy, blue, French possessive: my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their relative and interrogative: which, what, whatever, etc. numeral: one, two, second, single, etc. indefinite: some, any, much, few, every, etc. demonstrative: this, that, the, a (an), such

The demonstrative adjectives the and a (an) are so important in English that they have a special name: articles. They are discussed separately below.

Articles
The words a, an, and the are generally called articles and sometimes classed as a separate part of speech. In function, however, they can be grouped with the demonstrative adjectives that are used to point things out rather than describe them. Definite Article The is called the definite article because it points out a particular object or class. This is the book I was talking about. The dodo bird is extinct. Indefinite Article A is called the indefinite article because it points out an object, but not any particular specimen. a book, a dog, a lawn mower The indefinite article has two forms: A is used before words beginning with a consonant sound or an aspirated h: a car, a lamb, a hope, a habit, a hotel An is used before words beginning with a vowel sound: an ape, an image, an untruth, an honorable man

Verbs
English has three kinds of Verbs: transitive, intransitive, and incomplete. 1. Transitive Verbs A verb is transitive when the action is carried across to a receiver: The farmer grows potatoes. Elvis sang ballads. The receiver is called the direct object. It answers the question What? or Whom? after the verb. Grows what? Potatoes. Sang what? Ballads. 2. Intransitive Verbs A verb is intransitive when the action stays with the verb. It is not carried across to a

receiver: Corn grows. Elvis sang. Adding a prepositional phrase to modify the verb does not change the fact that the action remains with the subject: Corn grows in the fields. Elvis sang all over the world. Both transitive and intransitive verbs are action verbs. 3. Incomplete Verbs There are three types of incomplete verbs: i. being verbs also called linking or copulative verbs to be, seem, become, taste, smell, sound, feel Tip: Some of these verbs can also be used transitively. If in doubt, substitute a form of to be for the verb. If the sentence still makes sense, the verb is being used as a copulative verb: He feels depressed. He is depressed. He feels the wall. He is the wall. ii. auxiliary verbs also called helping verbs be, have, shall, will, do, and may. He could have gone earlier. iii. semi-auxiliary verbs must, can, ought, dare, need. You must not go. You dare not go.

Verbs Voice
English verbs are said to have two voices: active and passive. Active Voice: the subject of the sentence performs the action: His son catches fly balls. Creative children often dream in class. Note: Verbs in the active voice may be either transitive or intransitive. Passive Voice: the subject receives the action: The The The The ball was caught by the first baseman. duty is performed by the new recruits. dough was beaten by the mixer. mailman was bitten by the dog.

Only transitive verbs can be used in the passive voice. What would be the direct object of the verb in the active voice becomes the subject of the verb in the passive voice: Active voice: The dog bit the mailman. bit is a transitive verb. The receiver/direct object is mailman. Passive voice: The mailman was bitten by the dog. bit is now in the passive voice. The receiver has become the subject of the verb. A passive verb in either present or past tense will always have two parts: some form of the verb to be (am, is, are, was, were), and a past participle (verb form ending in -ed, en, or any form used with have when forming a perfect tense). Note: The mere presence of the verb to be does not indicate that a verb is in the passive voice. The test of a verb in the passive voice is the two-part question: Is the subject performing the action of the verb or is the subject receiving the action of the verb? If the subject is receiving the action, then the verb is in passive voice. Sometimes the passive voice is the best way to express a thought. Used carelessly, however, passive voice can produce a ponderous, inexact writing style.

Verbs Mood
English verbs have four moods: indicative, imperative, subjunctive, and infinitive. Mood is the form of the verb that shows the mode or manner in which a thought is expressed. 1. Indicative Mood: expresses an assertion, denial, or question: Little Rock is the capital of Arkansas. Ostriches cannot fly. Have you finished your homework? 2. Imperative Mood: expresses command, prohibition, entreaty, or advice: Dont smoke in this building. Be careful! Dont drown that puppy! 3. Subjunctive Mood: expresses doubt or something contrary to fact. Modern English speakers use indicative mood most of the time, resorting to a kind of mixed subjunctive that makes use of helping verbs:

If I should see him, I will tell him. Americans are more likely to say: If I see him, I will tell him. The verb may can be used to express a wish: May you have many more birthdays. May you live long and prosper. The verb were can also indicate the use of the subjunctive: If I were you, I wouldnt keep driving on those tires. If he were governor, wed be in better fiscal shape. 4. Infinitive Mood: expresses an action or state without reference to any subject. It can be the source of sentence fragments when the writer mistakenly thinks the infinitive form is a fully-functioning verb. When we speak of the English infinitive, we usually mean the basic form of the verb with to in front of it: to go, to sing, to walk, to speak. Verbs said to be in the infinitive mood can include participle forms ending in -ed and ing. Verbs in the infinitive mood are not being used as verbs, but as other parts of speech: To err is human; to forgive, divine. Here, to err and to forgive are used as nouns. He is a man to be admired. Here, to be admired is an adjective, the equivalent of admirable. It describes the noun man. He came to see you. Here, to see you is used as an adverb to tell why he came.

Verbs Tense
Modern English has six tenses, each of which has a corresponding continuous tense. The first three tenses, present, past, and future, present few problems. Only third person singular in the present tense differs in form: Present tense of regular (weak) verbs: Today I walk. Today he walks. Yesterday I walked. Tomorrow I shall/will walk.

The dwindling class of irregular (strong) verbs must be learned individually. Today I go. Today he goes. Yesterday I went. Tomorrow I shall/will go. The other three tenses, perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect, are formed with the helping verbs have, has, and had. perfect: used to express an event that has just finished, and to describe an event which, although in the past, has effects that continue into the present. Queen Elizabeth has reigned for 56 years. pluperfect (past perfect): used to express an event that took place before another action, also in the past. I had driven all the way to Oklahoma when I realized my mistake. future perfect: used to express an event that will have taken place at some time in the future. As of February 26, I shall have been in this job six years. For complete conjugation tables of weak and strong English verbs, see the Wikipedia article.

Adverbs
Adverbs are used to describe or modify a verb, adjective, clause, or another adverb. Basically, they modify everything except nouns and pronouns (which are modified by adjectives). Example of an adverb modifying a verb: He was running fast. (fast modifies running) Example of an adverb modifying an adjective: She took a very small piece of the cake. (very modifies small) Example of an adverb modifying a sentence: Strangely, the man left the room. (strangely modifies the whole sentence) Usually adverbs answer to the questions When? (adverbs of time), Where? (adverbs of place), and How? (adverbs of manner). Adverbs can also be used to connect clauses and sentences (in this case they are called

conjunctive adverbs). For example: It was dark. Therefore, we needed the torch. (therefore connects the two sentences)

Prepositions
Prepositions are used to link nouns and pronouns to other words within a sentence. The words linked to are called objects. Usually prepositions show a spatial or temporal relationship between the noun and the object, like in the example below: The cat is under the table. Cat is the noun. Under is the preposition. Table is the object. Here is a list with the most common prepositions: about, above, after, among, around, along, at, before, behind, beneath, beside, between, by, down, from, in, into, like, near, of, off, on, out, over, through, to, up, upon, under, and with. Notice that you can also have a prepositional phrase, which is formed by the preposition and its object. A preposition phrase can function as adverb, adjective or noun. For example: The dog was running under the rain. The prepositional phrase under the rain acts as an adverb, specifying where the dog was running.

Conjunctions
A conjunction joins words and groups of words. There are two classes of conjunction: co-ordinate or coordinating and subordinate or subordinating. Co-ordinate conjunctions: and, but, eitheror, neithernor. Subordinate conjunctions: that, as, after, before, since, when, where, unless, if. Mother and Father are driving me to New Orleans. (and is a coordinate conjunction joining words of equal significance in the sentence. I painted the walls but Jack painted the woodwork. (but is a coordinate conjunction

joining clauses of equal significance in the sentence. Either clause could stand alone as a sentence.) Since you cant get away, well go without you. (Since is a subordinate conjunction joining a less important thought to a more important thought. The main clause, well go without you, can stand alone as a complete thought. The subordinate clause, Since you cant get away, is an incomplete thought. It is dependent upon the main clause for meaning.) Note: The relative pronouns who, whom, which, and that are used in the same way that subordinate conjunctions are. The difference is that the relative pronouns serve three purposes at once: 1) they stand for a noun in the main clause 2) they connect the clauses 3) they serve as a subject or object word in the subordinate clause: He is the man who invented the hula hoop. (who stands for man and is the subject of invented) Charles is the boy whom the other children tease. (whom stands for boy and is the object of tease) Give me the piece of string that is waxed. (that stands for string and is the subject of is waxed) There goes the horse which won the Derby. (which refers to horse and is the subject of won) The possessive adjective whose can also be used to join clauses: Thats the bird whose plumage I admire. (whose refers to bird and describes plumage)

Interjections
Interjection comes from from a Latin word that means throw between. Its a word or phrase that is thrown into a sentence to express an emotion: Goodness, how youve grown! Darn, I forgot my lunch! Alas, will he never return? All the impolite expressions that we call expletives are interjections. Strictly speaking, an interjection is not a part of speech. It serves no grammatical function but is rather a noisy utterance like the cry of an animal (F.J. Rahtz). Interjections express feeling or emotion, not thought and have been called the miserable refuge of the speechless.

If youve ever stood lunch duty on a high school campus, you know just how vapid conversation can be when larded with meaningless interjections.

IF-Clause / Conditional Sentence

1. The Zero Conditional (Type 0) The zero conditional is a structure used for talking about general truths, or scientific facts -- things which always happen under certain conditions. A zero conditional sentence consists of two clauses, an "if" clause and a main clause (note that most zero conditional sentences will mean the same thing if "when" is used instead of "if"). For example: If the "if" clause comes first, a comma is usually used. If the "if" clause comes second, there is no need for a comma. The simple present tense is the tense use in both clauses. Examples: If you cross an international date line, the time changes. Phosphorus burns if you expose it to air.

2. First Conditional (Type I) The first conditional (also called conditional type 1) is a structure used for talking about possibilities in the present or in the future.Type 1: if + present + future. Example: If I have the money, I will buy this car. If it's sunny, we'll go to the park. Peter will be sad if Susan leaves. If you cook dinner, I'll wash the dishes. Among other variations the structure if + present + present is also possible. It is used when the results are habitual or automatic. Example: If a commodity is in short, supply prices tend to rise.

3. Second Conditional (Type II) The second conditional (also called conditional type 2) is a structure used for talking about unreal situations in the present or in the future.Type 2: if + past + conditional Example: If I had the money, I would buy this car. (Since I do not have the money I cannot buy any new car). The action in type 2 is characterized by unreality. If I were you, I would drive more carefully in the rain. If dogs had wings, they would be able to fly. Paula would be sad if Jan left.

4. Third Conditional (Type III) The third conditional (also called conditional type 3) is a structure used for talking about unreal situations in the past. In other words, it is used to talk about things which DID NOT HAPPEN in the past. Type 3: if + past perfect + perfect conditional Full form : If I had studied harder, I probably would have passed the exam. Contracted form :If I'd studied harder, I probably would've passed the exam. Example: If I had had the money, I would have bought this Audi. (But I did not have it, and so did not buy). If you had driven more carefully, you would not have had an accident. (You had an accident because you didn't drive carefully enough.) If we had played a little better, we could have won the game.(We didn't play well, so we lost the game.) The action in type 3 is characterized by impossibility. While type 1 and type 2 focus on the present or future, the time in type 3 is the past and signifies a completed action in the past. The condition, therefore, cannot be fulfilled because the action in the if-clause did not happen.

5. Wish Sentences The verb wish expresses a desire for a situation that does not exist right now in the present. A wish is a desire to change a real situation into an unreal one. The unreal situation is expressed in the simple past. For example: I wish I lived in a house. I live in an apartment. Wish sentences often express regret about a situation that you would like to change e.g. A:Can you help me? B: No, I'm sorry. I wish I could, but I have an appointment. In order to express future actions that you want to happen , you use would e.g. I wish the bus would come. I'm cold. I wish you'd have a car to take me to the beach. I wish I were thin. I wish I hadn't said that. (If fact, I said it)

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Gerunds
A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. The term verbal indicates that a gerund, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since a gerund functions as a noun, it occupies some positions in a sentence that a noun ordinarily would, for example: subject, direct object, subject complement, and object of preposition. Gerund as subject: * Traveling might satisfy your desire for new experiences. (Traveling is the gerund.)

* The study abroad program might satisfy your desire for new experiences. (The gerund has been removed.) Gerund as direct object: * They do not appreciate my singing. (The gerund is singing.) * They do not appreciate my assistance. (The gerund has been removed) Gerund as subject complement: * My cat's favorite activity is sleeping. (The gerund is sleeping.) * My cat's favorite food is salmon. (The gerund has been removed.) Gerund as object of preposition: * The police arrested him for speeding. (The gerund is speeding.) * The police arrested him for criminal activity. (The gerund has been removed.) A Gerund Phrase is a group of words consisting of a gerund and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the gerund, such as: The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence. Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than what we're trying to do. Finding (gerund) a needle (direct object of action expressed in gerund) in a haystack (prepositional phrase as adverb) The gerund phrase functions as the direct object of the verb appreciate. I hope that you appreciate my offering you this opportunity. my (possessive pronoun adjective form, modifying the gerund) offering (gerund) you (indirect object of action expressed in gerund) this opportunity (direct object of action expressed in gerund) The gerund phrase functions as the subject complement. Newt's favorite tactic has been lying to his constituents. lying to (gerund) his constituents (direct object of action expressed in gerund) The gerund phrase functions as the object of the preposition for. You might get in trouble for faking an illness to avoid work. faking (gerund) an illness (direct object of action expressed in gerund) to avoid work (infinitive phrase as adverb)

The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence. Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy. Being (gerund) the boss (subject complement for Jeff, via state of being expressed in gerund)

Punctuation A gerund virtually never requires any punctuation with it.

Points to remember: 1. A gerund is a verbal ending in -ing that is used as a noun. 2. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s). 3. Gerunds and gerund phrases virtually never require punctuation.

Infinitives
An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb (in its simplest "stem" form) and functioning as a noun, adjective, or adverb. The term verbal indicates that an infinitive, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, the infinitive may function as a subject, direct object, subject complement, adjective, or adverb in a sentence. Although an infinitive is easy to locate because of the to + verb form, deciding what function it has in a sentence can sometimes be confusing. * * * * * To wait seemed foolish when decisive action was required. (subject) Everyone wanted to go. (direct object) His ambition is to fly. (subject complement) He lacked the strength to resist. (adjective) We must study to learn. (adverb)

Be sure not to confuse an infinitivea verbal consisting of to plus a verbwith a prepositional phrase beginning with to, which consists of to plus a noun or pronoun and any modifiers. * Infinitives: to fly, to draw, to become, to enter, to stand, to catch, to belong * Prepositional Phrases: to him, to the committee, to my house, to the mountains, to us, to this address An Infinitive Phrase is a group of words consisting of an infinitive and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the actor(s), direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the infinitive, such as: We intended to leave early.

The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb intended. to leave (infinitive) early (adverb) I have a paper to write before class. The infinitive phrase functions as an adjective modifying paper. to write (infinitive) before class (prepositional phrase as adverb) Phil agreed to give me a ride. The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb agreed. to give (infinitive) me (indirect object of action expressed in infinitive) a ride (direct object of action expressed in infinitive) They asked me to bring some food. The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb asked. me (actor or "subject" of infinitive phrase) to bring (infinitive) some food (direct object of action expressed in infinitive) Everyone wanted Carol to be the captain of the team. The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb wanted. Carol (actor or "subject" of infinitive phrase) to be (infinitive) the captain (subject complement for Carol, via state of being expressed in infinitive) of the team (prepositional phrase as adjective) Actors: In these last two examples the actor of the infinitive phrase could be roughly characterized as the "subject" of the action or state expressed in the infinitive. It is somewhat misleading to use the word subject, however, since an infinitive phrase is not a full clause with a subject and a finite verb. Also notice that when it is a pronoun, the actor appears in the objective case (me, not I, in the fourth example). Certain verbs, when they take an infinitive direct object, require an actor for the infinitive phrase; others can't have an actor. Punctuation: If the infinitive is used as an adverb and is the beginning phrase in a sentence, it should be set off with a comma; otherwise, no punctuation is needed for an infinitive phrase. * To buy a basket of flowers, John had to spend his last dollar. * To improve your writing, you must consider your purpose and audience. Points to remember 1. An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb; it may be used as a noun, adjective, or adverb. 2. An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive plus modifier(s), object(s), complement(s), and/or actor(s). 3. An infinitive phrase requires a comma only if it is used as an adverb at the beginning of a sentence.

Split infinitives Split infinitives occur when additional words are included between to and the verb in an infinitive. Many readers find a single adverb splitting the infinitive to be acceptable, but this practice should be avoided in formal writing. Examples: * I like to on a nice day walk in the woods. * (unacceptable) On a nice day, I like to walk in the woods. (revised) * I needed to quickly gather my personal possessions. (acceptable in informal contexts) I needed to gather my personal possessions quickly. (revised for formal contexts)
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Participles
A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective and most often ends in -ing or -ed. The term verbal indicates that a participle, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since they function as adjectives, participles modify nouns or pronouns. There are two types of participles: present participles and past participles. Present participles end in -ing. Past participles end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n, as in the words asked, eaten, saved, dealt, and seen. * * * * The crying baby had a wet diaper. Shaken, he walked away from the wrecked car. The burning log fell off the fire. Smiling, she hugged the panting dog.

A participial phrase is a group of words consisting of a participle and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the participle, such as: Removing his coat, Jack rushed to the river. The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying Jack. Removing (participle) his coat (direct object of action expressed in participle) Delores noticed her cousin walking along the shoreline. The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying cousin. walking (participle) along the shoreline (prepositional phrase as adverb) Children introduced to music early develop strong intellectual skills. The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying children. introduced (to) (participle) music (direct object of action expressed in participle)

early (adverb) Having been a gymnast, Lynn knew the importance of exercise. The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying Lynn. Having been (participle) a gymnast (subject complement for Lynn, via state of being expressed in participle) Placement: In order to prevent confusion, a participial phrase must be placed as close to the noun it modifies as possible, and the noun must be clearly stated. * Carrying a heavy pile of books, his foot caught on a step. * * Carrying a heavy pile of books, he caught his foot on a step. In the first sentence there is no clear indication of who or what is performing the action expressed in the participle carrying. Certainly foot can't be logically understood to function in this way. This situation is an example of a dangling modifier error since the modifier (the participial phrase) is not modifying any specific noun in the sentence and is thus left "dangling." Since a person must be doing the carrying for the sentence to make sense, a noun or pronoun that refers to a person must be in the place immediately after the participial phrase, as in the second sentence. Punctuation: When a participial phrase begins a sentence, a comma should be placed after the phrase. * Arriving at the store, I found that it was closed. * Washing and polishing the car, Frank developed sore muscles. If the participle or participial phrase comes in the middle of a sentence, it should be set off with commas only if the information is not essential to the meaning of the sentence. * Sid, watching an old movie, drifted in and out of sleep. * The church, destroyed by a fire, was never rebuilt. Note that if the participial phrase is essential to the meaning of the sentence, no commas should be used: * The student earning the highest grade point average will receive a special award. * The guy wearing the chicken costume is my cousin. If a participial phrase comes at the end of a sentence, a comma usually precedes the phrase if it modifies an earlier word in the sentence but not if the phrase directly follows the word it modifies. * The local residents often saw Ken wandering through the streets. (The phrase modifies Ken, not residents.) * Tom nervously watched the woman, alarmed by her silence. (The phrase modifies Tom, not woman.) Points to remember 1. A participle is a verbal ending in -ing (present) or -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n (past) that

functions as an adjective, modifying a noun or pronoun. 2. A participial phrase consists of a participle plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s). 3. Participles and participial phrases must be placed as close to the nouns or pronouns they modify as possible, and those nouns or pronouns must be clearly stated. 4. A participial phrase is set off with commas when it: * a) comes at the beginning of a sentence * b) interrupts a sentence as a nonessential element * c) comes at the end of a sentence and is separated from the word it modifies.

Question Tag
A question tag or tag question is a grammatical structure in which a declarative statement or an imperative is turned into a question by adding an interrogative fragment (the "tag"). The term "question tag" is generally preferred by British grammarians, while their American counterparts prefer "tag question".

Forms and uses In most languages, tag questions are more common in colloquial spoken usage than in formal written usage. They can be an indicator of politeness, emphasis, or irony. They may suggest confidence or lack of confidence; they may be confrontational or tentative. In legal settings, tag questions can be found in leading question. Some examples showing the wide variety of structure possible in English are: * * * * * * * * * * * Open the window, will you? She doesn't really want those apples, does she? You'd better stop now, hadn't you? So you thought it would be a good idea to reprogram the computer, did you? It's quite an achievement, isn't it, to win a Nobel prize! Oh I must, must I? I just adore Beethoven, don't you? I'm coming with you, all right? You've been there, right? Easier said than done, eh? You went there, no?

Auxiliary The English tag question is made up of an auxiliary verb and a pronoun. The auxiliary has to agree with the tense, aspect and modality of the verb in the preceding sentence. If the verb is in the perfect tense, for example, the tag question uses has or have; if the verb is in a present progressive form, the tag is formed with am, are, is; if the verb is in a tense which does not normally use an auxiliary, like the present simple, the auxiliary is taken from the emphatic do form; and if the sentence has a modal auxiliary, this is echoed in the tag: * He's read this book, hasn't he? * He read this book, didn't he?

* * * * *

He's reading this book, isn't he? He reads a lot of books, doesn't he? He'll read this book, won't he? He should read this book, shouldn't he? He can read this book, can't he?

A special case occurs when the main verb is to be in a simple tense. Here the tag question repeats the main verb, not an auxiliary: * This is a book, isn't it? (Not doesn't it?, as the normal rules for present simple would suggest.) If the main verb is to have, either solution is possible: * He has a book, hasn't he? * He has a book, doesn't he?

Negation English tag questions may contain a negation, but need not. When there is no special emphasis, the rule of thumb often applies that a positive sentence has a negative tag and vice versa: * She is French, isn't she? * She's not French, is she? These are sometimes called "balanced tag questions". However, it has been estimated that in normal conversation, as many as 40%-50%[2] of tags break this rule. "Unbalanced tag questions" (positive to positive or negative to negative) may be used for ironic or confrontational effects: * Do listen, will you? * Oh, I'm lazy, am I? * Jack: I refuse to spend Sunday at your mother's house! Jill: Oh you do, do you? We'll see about that! * Jack: I just won't go back! Jill: Oh you won't, won't you? Patterns of negation can show regional variations. In North East Scotland, for example, positive to positive is used when no special effect is desired: * This pizza's fine, is it? (standard English: This pizza's delicious, isn't it?) Note the following variations in the negation when the auxiliary is the I form of the copula: * England (and America, Australia, etc.): Clever, aren't I? * Scotland/Northern Ireland: Clever, amn't I? * nonstandard dialects: Clever, ain't I?

Intonation English tag questions can have a rising or a falling intonation pattern. This is contrasted with Polish, French or German, for example, where all tags rise. As a rule, the English rising pattern is used when soliciting information or motivating an action, that is, when some sort of response is required. Since normal English yes/no questions have rising patterns (e.g. Are you coming?), these tags make a grammatical statement into a real question: * You're coming, aren't you? * Do listen, will you? * Let's have a beer, shall we? The falling pattern is used to underline a statement. The statement itself ends with a falling pattern, and the tag sounds like an echo, strengthening the pattern. Most English tag questions have this falling pattern. * He doesn't know what he's doing, does he? * This is really boring, isn't it? Sometimes the rising tag goes with the positive to positive pattern to create a confrontational effect: * He was the best in the class, was he? (rising: the speaker is challenging this thesis, or perhaps expressing surprised interest) * He was the best in the class, wasn't he? (falling: the speaker holds this opinion) * Be careful, will you? (rising: expresses irritation) * Take care, won't you? (falling: expresses concern) Sometimes the same words may have different patterns depending on the situation or implication. * * * * You don't remember my name, do you? (rising: expresses surprise) You don't remember my name, do you? (falling: expresses amusement or resignation) Your name's Mary, isn't it? (rising: expresses uncertainty) Your name's Mary, isn't it? (falling: expresses confidence)

It is interesting that as an all-purpose tag the London set-phrase innit (for "isn't it") is only used with falling patterns: * He doesn't know what he's doing, innit? * He was the best in the class, innit? On the other hand, the adverbial tag questions (alright? OK? etc.) are almost always found with rising patterns. An occasional exception is surely.

Emphasis English tag questions are normally stressed on the verb, but the stress is on the pronoun if there is a change of person.

* I don't like peas, do you? * I like peas, don't you? This is often a rising tag (especially when the tag contains no negation), or the intonation pattern may be the typically English fall-rise

Modal Verbs
In the English language, a modal verb is an auxiliary verb that can be used to change the grammatical mood of a sentence. The key way to identify a modal verb is by its defectiveness (they have neither participles nor infinitives). The modal verbs in English are as follows, paired as present and preterite forms: * * * * * shall and should will and would may and might can and could mote (Archaic) and must

The following are not modal verbs but may be used for a similar purpose: * * * * * * ought to and had better used to dare and need do going to have to

Although historically referring to past time, the preterite forms have come to be used in many cases with no such meaning. Syntax If a verb is preceded by multiple auxiliary verbs including a modal, as in "it could have been eaten," the modal will always appear before the other auxiliary verbs. A verb or auxiliary verb following a modal always appears in its basic form (for example, "could have gone" instead of "could had gone").

Past time use of preterite forms Preterite forms may be used when referring to situations seen from the perspective of an earlier time. For example, would is originally the past tense of will, and it can still be used in that sense. The statement "People think that we will all be driving hovercars by the year 2000", in the context of the 1960s, can be represented in the present by replacing the verbs in italics by the appropriate preterite forms: "In the 1960s, people thought we would all be driving hovercars by the year 2000." Likewise, "I can do that" may become "I could do that when I was younger, but not anymore."

Conditionals The preterite forms can also be used in the apodosis in the conditional mood, such as in counterfactual conditionals: "If they had wanted to do it, they would have done it by now." "If you bought a bus pass, you could catch as many buses as you liked without worrying about the cost of the fares." "If he were more polite, he might be better liked." There is not always an explicit protasis ("if" clause) in this use: "Someone who likes red and hates yellow would probably prefer strawberries to bananas" means the same as "If someone who liked red and hated yellow were offered a choice of fruit, he or she would probably prefer strawberries to bananas." "I could help you with your work" gives a more tentative sense of ability to help than, say, "I can help you with your work" would. The implied protasis could, depending on the context, be along the lines of "If I wanted to".

Shall and will Shall is used in many of the same senses as will, though not all dialects use shall productively, and those that use both shall and will generally draw a distinction (though different dialects tend to draw different distinctions). In standard, perhaps old-fashioned English, shall in the first person, singular or plural, indicates mere futurity, but in other persons shows an order, command or prophecy: "Cinderella, you shall go to the ball!" It is, therefore, impossible to make shall questions in these persons. Shall we? makes sense, shall you? does not. Shall derives from a main verb meaning to owe, and in dialects that use both shall and will, it is often used in instances where an obligation, rather than an intention, is expressed. Shall is also used in legal and engineering language to write firm laws and specifications as in these examples: "Those convicted of violating this law shall be imprisoned for a term of not less than three years nor more than seven years," and "The electronics assembly shall be able to operate within its specifications over a temperature range of 0 degrees Celsius to 70 degrees Celsius."

Should Should is commonly used, even in dialects where shall is not. The negation is "should not" (or the contraction "shouldn't"). Should can describe an ideal behaviour or occurrence and imparts a normative meaning to the sentence; for example, "You should never lie" means roughly, "If you always behaved perfectly, you would never lie"; and "If this works, you should not feel a thing" means roughly, "I hope this will work. If it does, you will not feel a thing." In dialects that use shall commonly, however, this restriction does not apply; for example, a speaker of such a dialect might say, "If I failed that test, I think I should cry," meaning the same thing as, "If I failed that test, I think I would cry." In some dialects, it is common to form the subjunctive mood by using should: "It is important that the law should be passed" (where other dialects would say, "It is

important that the law be passed") or "If it should happen, we are prepared for it" (or "Should it happen, we are prepared for it"; where early Modern English would say, "If it happen, we are prepared for it," and many dialects of today would say, "If it happens, we are prepared for it").

Would The contracted form of would is "'d". The negation is either "would not" or "wouldn't". Would can be used in some forms that are viewed as more formal or polite. For example, "I would like a glass of water" compared with "I want a glass of water"; and "Would you get me a glass of water?" compared with the bare "Get me a glass of water." "Would" can also be used for the imperfect tense. In the sentence "Back then, I would eat early and would walk to school...." "would" signifies not the conditional mood, but rather, repeated past actions of imperfect tense in English, and one must use care when translating to other languages.

May and might May and might do not have common negative contractions (equivalents to shan't, won't, can't, couldn't etc.), although mightn't can occur in asking questions. ("Mightn't I come in if I took my muddy boots off?" as a reply to "Don't come in here! You'll get the floor dirty!") Both forms can be used to express a present time possibility or uncertainty ("That may be."). Might and could can also be used in this sense with no past time meaning. Might and may would carry the same meaning in "John is not in the office today, and he could be sick." May is also used to express irrelevance in spite of certain or likely truth: "He may be taller than I am, but he is certainly not stronger" may mean roughly, "While it is true that he is taller than I am, that does not make a difference, as he is certainly not stronger." (However, it may also mean, "I am not sure whether he is taller than I am, but I am sure that he is not stronger.") This is the meaning in the phrase "Be that as it may." Might can be used in this sense as well. Might can be used in the first person to express that future actions are being considered. "I might go to the mall later" means that the speaker is thinking about going to the mall. May or might can be used in a question to ask for permission. One who is saying "May I use your phone? is asking for permission to use the phone of the person being spoken to. 'Can' or 'could' can be used instead, although formal American English prefers 'may'. In both cases the preterite form is viewed as more hesitant or polite.

Can and could The negation of can is the single word "cannot", occasionally written as two words "can not" or the contraction "can't". The negation of could is "could not", or "couldn't".

Can is used to express ability. "I can speak English" means "I am able to speak English", or "I know how to speak English". It is also used to express that some state of affairs is possible, without referring to the ability of a person to do something: "There can be a very strong rivalry between siblings" can have the same meaning as "There is sometimes a very strong rivalry between siblings". Cannot and can't can be used to express beliefs about situations: "He cannot have left already; why would he want to get there so early?" expresses with less certainty the same proposition as "He has not left already" does. Both can and could can be used to make requests: "Can you pass me the cheese? means "Please pass me the cheese". Could can be used in the same way, and might be considered more polite. Note that the form could is either preterite (past = was able to) or conditional (would be able to)

Must Must has no corresponding preterite form. The negation is "must not" or "mustn't". An archaic variant is the word mote, as used in the expression "so mote it be". Must and have to are used to express that something is obligatory ("He must leave"). It can be used to express a prohibition such as "You must not smoke in here", or a resolution such as "I mustn't make that mistake again". There is a distinction between must and have to in the negative forms. In the sentence "You must not go", it is being expressed that it is obligatory for the person being spoken to not to go; whereas in the sentence "You do not have to go" it is being expressed that it is not obligatory for the person to go. Have to can be used for an ongoing obligation, such as "he has to be careful". Must and have to are used to express beliefs (the epistemic rather than deontic use), such as "It must be here somewhere" or "It has to be here somewhere", with the same meaning as "I believe that it very likely that it is here somewhere."

Modal Verbs Part 2

Words with a similar function to the modal verbs Have to Have to is used in a similar way to must, as discussed above. Except where Have to is used more with an outside obligation such as You have to wear a seatbelt when driving and must is used more commonly with personal obligations I must go to the dentist.

Ought to and had better Ought to and had better are used to express an ideal behavior or occurrence or suggested obligation, in a similar way to should. The negations are, respectively, ought not to (or rarely, oughtn't to) and had better not. The "had" in "had better" can be contracted, such as "You'd better shut up." In informal American usage, the had in had better is sometimes omitted. Used to Used to is used to express past states that were habitual but which are no longer. For example, "I used to go to college" suggests that the speaker no longer goes to college. Negative constructions exist in expressions such as "She used to not like me", or if the speaker is trying to avoid the split infinitive, "She used not to like me". In some non-standard dialects, used to can follow did not (or didn't), as in "She didn't use to like me". Dare and need Dare and need are not commonly used as auxiliaries nowadays, but formerly they both were. Dare is rare with the exception of "How dare you!". "He dare not do it" is equivalent to "He does not dare to do it", while "It need not happen today" is equivalent to today's "It does not need to happen today" or "It might not happen today." However, in the sentence "I need to lose weight," need is not being used as an auxiliary, as takes the infinitive "to lose" as the head of the verb phrase rather than the bare infinitive "lose" that occurs in a phrase like "I can lose weight". Do As an auxiliary, do is essentially a "dummy"; that is, it does not generally affect the meaning. It is used to form questions and negations when no other auxiliary is present: "I do not (don't) want to do it." This particular use of do, known as do-support, is attested from around 1400. It is also sometimes used for emphasis: "I do understand your concern, but I do not think that will happen." Also, do sometimes acts as a pro-verb: "I enjoy it, I really do [enjoy it], but I am not good at it." (Other auxiliaries do this as well: "I can do it, I really can [do it], it just takes me longer"; but it bears particular note that in the case of do, it is often used as a pro-verb when it would be absent if the verb were present.) Because it does not affect the meaning of its verb, not all grammarians acknowledge do as a modal auxiliary. In a sense, it indicates a lack of modal auxiliary. (Do is also different in that it has a distinct third-person singular form, does, and in that its past tense, did, is used exactly as a past tense, not as a more general remote form).

Double modal In standard English usage, it is grammatically incorrect to use more than one modal verb consecutively, although modals can be used together with modal-like constructions. Thus, 'might have to' is acceptable, but 'might must' is not, even though 'must' and 'have to' can normally be used interchangeably. A greater variety of double modals appears colloquially in some regional or archaic dialects. In Southern American English, for example, phrases such as might could or ought to should are sometimes used in

conversation.[4][5] The double modal may sometimes be redundant, as in "I ought to should do something about it", where ought to and should are synonymous and either one could be removed from the sentence. In other double modals, the two modal verbs convey different meanings, such as "I might could do something about it tomorrow", where might indicates the possibility of doing something and could indicates the ability to do it. Double modals also occur in the closely related Germanic language Scots. An example of the double modal used to could can be heard in country singer Bill Carlisle's 1951 song "Too Old to Cut the Mustard": I used to could jump just like a deer, But now I need a new landing gear. I used to could jump a picket fence, But now I'm lucky if I jump an inch.[6] These kind of double modal phrases are generally not regarded as correct grammar, although other double modals may be used instead. "I might could do something about it" is more often expressed as "I might be able to do something about it", which is considered more grammatical. Similarly used to could is usually expressed as used to be able to. Double modals can also be avoided by replacing one of the modal verbs with an appropriate adverb, such as using probably could or might possibly in place of might could.