CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background Reinforced concrete is one of the most common construction materials.

By its nature concrete is placed under many differing environmental conditions. In summer, concrete is often placed at warm temperature. In winter, concrete is often placed at cool temperature. By far, most research on concrete has been done under controlled laboratory condition (230c).Lower and higher temperature directly affects the concrete strength. Concrete this is placed at low temperature develops higher ultimate strength, greater durability and is less subject to thermal cracking (ACI 306R-88). And concrete this is placed at hot temperature, leads to rapid hydration and this results in an increased rate of slump which leads to expedited setting and to a lower long term strength of concrete(ACI 305R-91). A better understanding of effect of casting temperature on reinforced concrete would no doubt aid in the development of concrete structure under various environmental condition especially temperature to predict the bond strength of reinforced concrete structures. In previous, large amount of researches were held over bond strength between concrete and non-corroded or simple steel reinforcement. But corrosion of the reinforcing steel is widely accepted as the primary cause of premature deterioration in reinforcement concrete structure. High quality reinforced concrete is obtained under the following condition: correct cure time, correct positioning of steel reinforcement, appropriate water / cement ratio and correct use of aggregate (Goni, 1990 and Cao, 1990). If these conditions are met then corrosion of the reinforcement steel is generally negligible because the high pH in concrete renders the steel passive film (Kobayashi, 1990 and Boah, 1991). As the diffusion rate of oxygen and water from atmosphere is low, the passive film is relatively stable and reinforcement steel does not generally corroded (Raupach, 1991 and Kobayashi,1996). When CO2 from the atmosphere diffuses into the concrete and lower the pH . If the pH falls sufficiently, steel may no longer be passive and general corrosion starts (Kahyaoglu, 2002). Northerly corrosion can be caused by chlorides ions. In case of corrosion formation of an oxide ion due to oxidation of the iron atom in solid solution is a well known example of electrochemical corrosion. During the process of corrosion, weight of material decreases as depth of corrosion layer increases. This in turn reduces the steel ductility and strength. The products of corrosion occupy roughly 3 to 6 times the original volume of steel, which exert tensile force within the concrete causing the concrete to crack and spall of the surface of the steel. The magnitude of the reinforcement corrosion layer have a significant effect on flexure strength, deformation behavior, ductility, bond strength and mode of failure of reinforced concrete structure (Shetty and Vekataramana, 2011). At high levels of corrosion (>20%) there is a significant reduction in initial stiffness though at lower levels the initial stiffness in similar to the un-corroded behavior until sliding is initiated.( Kivell, et.al,2011) Corrosion in reinforced concrete structure poses a real problem with serious consequences. These include the degradation of the serviceability of a structure and structural performance and its safety, all of which involve costly repairs.
1

The objectives of this study are to investigate the bond strength of reinforced concrete under varying casting temperature. For this, reinforced concrete has been prepared using various casting temperature. Research focusing the bond strength found that simple and low level of corroded reinforced concrete has a beneficial effect on bond in 12mm deformed and plain bars. Also comparative study has been made among the mathematical relationship produced by various researchers. 1.2 Objectives The objectives of this study are to investigate the effect of casting temperature on bond strength of with and without corrosion of reinforcement. The followings are specific objectives of the study: To observe the effect of casting temperature on compressive strength and splitting tensile strength. To verify the bond-slip relationship of reinforcing bar under different casting temperatures. To compare deform and plain rebar performance on bond strength. To find out the bond strength under different corrosion level (%). 1.3 Methodology To achieve the objectives of this project, the work has been divided into the following steps: Review of literature Material specification Material properties Trial test of temperature Specimen preparation Slump test Compressive strength test Splitting tensile strength test Accelerated corrosion test Pull-out test & Observation of these test result 1.4 Scope of the Work This study has been carried out by three casting temperature 150,300 and450 C. For these temperature total No. of 120 cylindrical concrete specimens have been constructed. Among these specimens No. of 72 specimens have been constructed as a reinforced concrete specimen for the purpose of pull test and rests have been constructed for compressive and splitting tensile strength test. Into these pull out test specimen two type of rebar (12mm deform and plain) have been used and between these one half have been corroded by electrochemical process. The present study is conducted based on casting temperature only. Other parameters such as pH of water, salinity of water, curing temperature have some effect on the strength of concrete. But due to the scarcity of those parameters, this study has been conducted without considering their effects. And due to
2

the accuracy of construction process extra five pull out specimens have been made for one pull out specimen. Finally, uncertainties associated with the data would carry over to the results obtained and thus, discussions and conclusion are made accordingly. 1.5 Organization of the Thesis Chapter I provide background of this study, statement of the problems, rationale, objectives along with scope and limitations and methodology of this program. Chapter II focuses on the available literature related to the thesis topic that would help to understand the thesis. Brief discussions on several techniques and parameters, used to describe the bond strength of corroded and un-corroded reinforcement of cylindrical concrete under different casting temperature, and were also reviewed in this chapter to conduct the study. Chapter III describes the detailed methodology adopted to accomplish this study. Accelerated corrosion, pullout specimen features of the study area were also reviewed in this chapter. Also, the procedure for analyzing the results is explained in this chapter. Chapter IV reveals the results and findings of the study including graphs and tables and their interpretations. Chapter V presents the summary of the thesis, the conclusions of the study and the recommendations provided for further extensions of the work.

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW Before presenting the details of testing program, it is important to review the state of the art regarding concrete, strength parameter of concrete, bond mechanism, corrosion of reinforced concrete and temperature effect on concrete. 2.1 Concrete Concrete is a composite construction material composed primarily of aggregate, cement and water. There are many formulations that have varied properties. The aggregate is generally coarse gravel or crushed rocks such as limestone, or granite, along with a fine aggregate such as sand. The cement, commonly Portland cement, and other cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag cement, serve as a binder for the aggregate. Water is then mixed with this dry composite which enables it to be shaped ( typically poured) and then solidified and hardened into rock-hard strength through a chemical processes known as hydration. Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but much lower tensile strength. There are two types of concrete, namely Lime concrete: Lime concrete consists of lime surki and khoa or stones in the proportion 1:2:5 unless otherwise specified. The khoa or stones should be soaked thoroughly in water before mixing. Limes concrete in used mainly in foundation and in terrace roofing (Aziz, 1995). Cement concrete: Cement concrete is widely used in all important engineering constructions. It consists of cement, sand and brick khoa or stones of required size in the proportions 1:2:4 or 1:3:6 unless otherwise specified (Aziz, 1995). 2.1.1 Ingredient of concrete a) Cement : In the most general sense of the word, cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens independently, and can binder other materials together. Cement used in construction is characterized as hydraulic or non-hydraulic. Hydraulic cements (e.g., Portland cement)) harden because of hydration, chemical reactions that occur independently of the mixture's water content; they can harden even underwater or when constantly exposed to wet weather. The chemical reaction that results when the anhydrous cement powder is mixed with water produces hydrates that are not water-soluble. Nonhydraulic cements (e.g. gypsum plaster) must be kept dry in order to retain their strength. The most important use of cement is the production of mortar and concretethe bonding of natural or artificial aggregates to form a strong building material that is durable in the face of normal environmental effects.

b) Aggregates for concrete: Aggregate is a broad category of coarse particulate material used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates that usually occupy approximately 60 to 75% of volume of concrete. Aggregates are the most mined material in the world. Aggregates are a component of composite materials such as concrete and asphalt concrete; the aggregate serves as reinforcement to add strength to the overall composite material. Aggregate properties significantly affect the workability of plastic concrete and also the durability, strength, thermal properties, and density of hardened concrete. Due to the relatively high hydraulic conductivity value as compared to most soils, aggregates are widely used in drainage applications. 2.1.2 Water/Cement Ratio The strength of concrete at a given age and cured in water at a prescribed temperature is assumed to depend primarily on the water/cement ratio. The water-cement ratio is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of cement used in a concrete mix and has an important influence on the quality of concrete produced. A lower water-cement ratio leads to higher strength and durability, but may make the mix more difficult to place. The linearity of the relation between strength and cement/ water ratio does not extend beyond the cement/water ratio of 2.6 which corresponds to the water/cement ratio of 0.38. In fact, for cement/water ratios larger than 2.6, there exists a different, but still linear, relation with strength (Neville, 2006). The 1997 Uniform Building Code specifies a maximum 0.50 water-to-cement ratio (1:2) when concrete is exposed to freezing and thawing in a moist condition or to de-icing chemicals, and a maximum 0.45 water to cement ratio for concrete in severe. 2.1.3 Curing of Concrete Curing is the name given to procedures used for promoting the hydration of cement, and consists of a control of temperature and of the moisture movement from and into the concrete. The object of curing is to keep concrete saturated, or as nearly saturated as possible, until the originally water-filled space in the fresh cement paste has been filled to desired extent by the products of hydration of cement. In the case of site concrete, active curing stops nearly always long before the maximum possible hydration has taken place. And yet, inadequate curing is responsible for great many durability problems with concrete, especially reinforced concrete (Neville, 2006). 2.1.4 Electrical Properties of Concrete Electrical resistance of concrete also influences progress of corrosion of embedded steel. Electrical properties are also of interest in studies of the properties of both fresh and hardened concrete. Moist concrete behaves essentially as an electrolyte with resistivity of up to about 100 ohm-m; this is within the range of semi-conductors. Air-dried concrete has a resistivity of the order of 104 ohm-m. On the other hand, oven-dry concrete has a resistivity of about 109 ohm-m, which means that such concrete is a good insulator. Any increase in the volume of water and in concentration of ions present in pore water decreases the resistivity of cement paste, and indeed resistivity decreases sharply with an
5

increase in the water/cement ratio. A decrease in cement content of the concrete also result in an increased resistivity because, at a constant water/cement ratio but a lower cement, there less electrolyte available for the current to pass (Neville, 2006). 2.1.5 Chloride in Concrete Whenever there is chloride in concrete there is an increase risk of embedded of metal. The higher the chloride content, or if subsequently exposed to warm moist condition, the greater risk of corrosion. All constituents of the concrete may contain chlorides and in addition, concrete may be contaminated by chlorides from the external environment. To minimize the chances of deterioration of concrete from harmful chemical salts, the levels of such harmful salts in concrete coming from concrete materials, that is, cement, aggregate water and admixtures as well as by diffusion from the environment should be limited. 2.2 Strength and Its Parameters of Concrete 2.2.1 Workability The strength of concrete of given mix proportion is very seriously affected by the degree of its compaction. A concrete which can be readily compacted is said to be workable, but to say merely that workable determines the ease of placement and the resistance to segregation is too loose a description of this vital property of concrete. The ACI definition of workability, given in ACI 116R-90, is that property of freshly mixed concrete or mortar which determines the ease and homogeneity with which it can be mixed, place, consolidated, and finished. The main factor is the water content of the mix, expressed in kilograms of water per cubic meter of concrete. Measurement of Workability: Unfortunately, there is no acceptable test which will measure directly the workability. Some test method name are given belowa) Slump test b) Compacting factor test c) ASTM flow test d) Remolding test e) Flow test f) Ball penetration test g) Nassers K-test 2.2.2 Compaction Compaction is the process which expels entrapped air from freshly placed concrete and packs the aggregate particles together so as to increase the density of concrete. It increase significantly the ultimate strength of concrete and enhances the bond with reinforcement. It is also increase the abrasion resistance and generally durability of concrete, decrease the permeability and helps to minimize its shrinkage and creep characteristics. Proper compaction also ensure that the formwork is completely filled i,e there are no pockets of
6

honeycombed material- and that the required finish is obtained on vertical surfaces. Improper or larger compaction can cause the segregation of this concrete. 2.2.3 Compressive Strength ASTM C39 test method covers the determination of the unconfined compressive strength of cylindrical concrete specimens. The test method consists of applying a compressive axial load to molded cylinders at a rate which is within a prescribed range until failure occurs. The compressive strength of the specimen is calculated by dividing the maximum load attained during the test by the cross-sectional area of the specimen. The compressive strength is usually obtained experimentally by means of a compressive test. Compressive strength is often measured on universal testing machine. Compressive strength, = Where, F=Load applied [N], A = Area [m2] 2.2.4 Splitting Tensile strength This test method measures the splitting tensile strength of concrete by the application of a diametric compressive force on a cylindrical concrete specimen placed with its axis horizontal between the platens of a testing machine. Except for editorial differences, this method is the same as ASTM C 496. Calculate the splitting tensile strength of specimen as follows: T= Where: T=Splitting tensile strength, kPa P=maximum applied load indicated by the testing machine, kN l=length, m; d= diameter, m 2.2.5 Relation between Compressive Strength and Tensile Strength The compression strength of concrete is its property commonly considered in structural design but for some purposes the tensile strength of interest. Concrete has higher compressive strength than tensile strength. The tensile strength of ordinary concrete ranges from about 7 to 10 percent of the compressive strength (Aziz, 1995).A number of factors affect the relation between the two strengths. The beneficial effect of crushed coarse aggregate on flexure strength but it seems that the properties of fine aggregate also influence the ft / fc. The ratio is furthermore affected by the grading of aggregate (Neville, 2006). 2.2.6 Bond between Concrete and Reinforcement Structural concrete is used with steel reinforcement; the strength of bond between the two materials is of considerable importance with respect to structural behavior, including cracking due to shrinkage and early thermal effect. Bond arises primarily from friction and adhesion between concrete and steel, mechanical interlocking in the case of deformed bar. Bond strength involves the geometry of the reinforcement and of the structure such as the thickness of cover of reinforcement. The presence of rust on the surface of steel, provided
7

the rust is well connected to the underlying steel, improves bond of plain bars and does not impair the bond of deformed reinforcement (Neville, 2006). Arise in temperature reduces the bond strength of concrete: at 200 to 3000C (400 to 5700F) there may be a loss of one half of the bond strength at room temperature. 2.3 Bond Mechanism Bond between reinforcement concrete is necessary to ensure composite action of the two materials. Bond stress is the shear stress transferred from the concrete to the reinforcing bar to change the bar stress from point to point which depends on the development length and change in the bending moment along the member. Bond stress comes from the week chemical bonds between steel and concrete, but with a little increase of applied load on the steel bar this resistance is lost. Once slip occurs, friction contributes to the bond, but with increasing slip bond resistance of the composite member is lower. At this stage, the reinforcing bar generates bursting forces results from the horizontals component of the force acting between the concrete and rib face angle. This force tends to split the surrounding concrete, and the resistance provided by the concrete cover and the confining reinforcement to these busting forces may limit the failure load. 2.3.1 Bond Principle In the bond test , a disc is bonded to prepared testing surface and the disc is pull off after a partial core has been cut around the disc. The pull- off force F, is divided by the cross sectional area of the partial core to obtain the pull off strength, fp fp =4F/d2 , Where d is the diameter of the partial core Failure of Bond:

Figure 2.1: Types of Failure of Bond Test The types of failures that can occur in bond test are illustrated above. Failure in substrate (a) indicates that the bond strength is greater than the tensile strength of substrate. A failure at the interface (b) provides a measure of the tensile bond strength between the overlay and the substrate. A failure of overlay (c) indicates that the bond strength is greater than the tensile strength of the overlay. During this test, it is very important that
8

negligible bending is introducing to the disc by the loading system. Otherwise, low and erratic test results will be obtained. Purposes of Bond Test: The obtained pull-off strength can be used for the following purposes (ASTM C 1583): To evaluate the in place bond strength between a repair overlay and the substrate To evaluate the in place tensile strength of concrete or other materials To evaluate the effect of surface preparation procedures on the tensile strength of substrate before applying a repair material or overly To estimate the in place compressive strength of surface concrete using the following approximate relationship between tensile strength ft (MPa) and compressive strength fc (MPa): ft = 2.3.2 Factors Affecting on the Bond Strength Bond strength is attributed to four factors: 1. Chemical adhesion of the concrete to the steel; 2. Friction at the bar-concrete interface from mill scale, rust, and other surface irregularities; 3. Bearing against the rib faces; and 4. Shear acting along a cylindrical concrete surface between adjacent ribs. 2.3.3 Effect of Bar Profile on Bond Strength The steep face angle Figure 2.2 stated that the bond of deformed bars is developed mainly by the bearing pressure of the bar ribs against the concrete. Pullout tests showed that for bars with steep rib face angle (larger than about 40 degrees with the bar axis) slip occurs only by the compression of the concrete in front of the bar rib, while in bars with flat ribs, i.e., the angle is small, slip occurs with the ribs sliding relative to the concrete as the rib tends to push the concrete away from the bar. This wedging action can be a major cause of longitudinal splitting along the bar. For 45<< 70, the deformations must reverse in direction on each side of the bar (Shetty, et al. 2011).

Figure 2.2: Failure Mechanism at the Ribs of Deformed Bars.

9

2.3.4 Effect of Rebar Geometry and Shape The stress transmission from the load end to the free end was higher in case of plain bars than in case of ribbed bars. Also, it was observed that the stress in ribbed steel bar was higher near the loaded end than in case of plain bars, and this may attributed to the increase of bond resistance due to the ribs action, which is not available. (David, 1941) 2.3.5 Effect of Casting Position and Concrete Confinement on the Bond Strength The load-bond slip relationship for deformed bars is primarily affected by the quality of the concrete on the front of the bar ribs. The quality of the concrete in the region depends on its relative position of casting. Figure 2.3 shows the effect of different casting position on its relative position of casting. Soft and spongy layer of concrete can form under the ribs in case of casting perpendicular to the bar length Figure 2.3. This results in a higher slip (compared to the other casting position) due to the crushing of the weak concrete under the ribs. (Park and Paula, 1975)

Figure 2.3: The Influence of Casting Position on Bond Performance (Park and Paulay 1975) 2.3.6 Effect of Rib Angle, Rib Spacing, and Rib Height Several researches have evaluated the effect of the rib geometry on the bond performance of the steel bar. The effect of the reduction of bond stress in fusionbonded epoxy-coating reinforcement (FBECR); they also evaluated the variation in bond stress with rib face angle for machined bars (Cairns and Abdullah, 1994). Figure 2.4 shows the variation in rib face angle from 30 to 75 degree. with the bond stress and the con'esponding slips. At slips 0.01 and 0.1 mm, the bond stress slightly increases with the increase in the ribface angle. At the failure load (slip 1 mm), the bond stress increases with the increase of rib angle from 30 to 60 degree. This may be attributed to the increase of bearing force due to the increase of bearing area. It should
10

be mentioned that the large increase in the rib face angle can result in an insufficient concrete compaction below the rib and this factor should be taken in to consideration to design the rib face angle.
20 0.01mm slip 1.0mm slip 0.10mm slip Ult. load

Bond strength (N/mm )

16

12

0 30 40 50 60 70 80

Rib Face Angle (Degrees)

Figure 2.4: Variation in Bond Stress with Rib Face Angle (Cairns an Abdullah, 1994) 2.3.7 Performance of Bond under Corroded Bars Corrosion affects the bond strength, the slight formation of the corrosion product of a corroding bar at first increase radial stress between the bar and the concrete and hence increases the fractional component of bond. However, further corrosion will lead to the development of longitudinal cracking and a reduction in the resistance to the bursting forces generated by the bond action. Some suggest that a firmly adherent layer of rust may contribute to an enhancement in bond strength at early stages of corrosion, at more advance stages of corrosion, weak and friable material between bar and concrete will certainly be at least partially responsible for reductions in bond strength (Hassan,2003). 2.4 Corrosion in Reinforcement Concrete Corrosion of reinforcing steel is widely accepted as the primary cause of premature deterioration in the reinforced concrete structures. Corrosion is defined as the destruction or deterioration of a material because of its reaction with environment. In case of corrosion, formation of an oxide of iron due to oxidation of the iron atoms in solid solution is a well known example of electrochemical corrosion, commonly known as rusting. These oxides are loosely attached and spall off from the surface of steel. During the process of corrosion, weight of material decreases as depth of corrosion layer/pits increases. The magnitude of reinforcement corrosion has a significant effect on flexural strength, deformational behavior, ductility, bond strength and mode of failure of reinforced concrete structures. (Shetty, et al.2011). Corrosion of reinforced steel in concrete is the predominant causal factors in the premature degradation of reinforced concrete structures. Practical experience and observations suggest that, although many reinforced concrete structures are seen as badly deteriorated, characterized by mass concrete cracking, they are still structurally sound. The reason for this is attributed to the nature of the problem; the corrosion products exert an expensive stress on concrete the tensile strength of which
11

is usually low. It is also partially due to the fact that the safety factors used in structural design for strength are usually lager than those for serviceability since the paramount importance of structural safety (Zheng, et al.2005) 2.4.1 Condition for Corrosion Corrosion of steel in concrete occurs only when both anodic and cathodic reaction are possible. An anodic reaction requires the depassivation of the steel bar, while oxygen must be available at the surface of the steel bar for a cathodic reaction. For this reaction to be possible there must be conditions that allow a flux of ions and electrons between the anode and cathode. Ions are transported through the environment or electrolyte, while electrons migrate via metallic connection (Smith, 2007). 2.4.2 Electrochemical Process Once the passive layer breaks down then areas of rust will start appearing on the steel surface. The chemical reactions are the same whether corrosion occurs by chloride attack or carbonation. When steel in concrete corrodes it dissolves in the pore water and gives up electrons: The anodic reaction: Fe- > Fe2+ + 2e- ... (2.1) The two electrons (2e-) created in anodic reaction must be consumed elsewhere on the steel surface to preserve electrical neutrality. In other words, it is not possible for large amounts of electrical charge to build up at one place on the steel; another chemical reaction must consume the electrons. This is the reaction that must consume water and oxygens: The cathode reaction: 2e- + H2O +1/2O2 -> 2OH- .. (2.2) This is illustrated in Figure 2.5. You will notice that hydroxyl ions (2OH-) are generated in the cathodic reaction. These ions increase the local alkanity and will therefore strength the passive layer, warding off the effect of carbonation and chloride ions at the cathode. Note that water and oxygen are needed at cathode for corrosion to occur. The anodic and cathodic reaction (2.1 and 2.2) is only the first steps in the process of creating rust. However, this pair of reactions is critical to the understanding of corrosion and is widely quoted in any discussion on corrosion prevention steel in concrete.

Figure 2.5: The Anodic and Cathodic Reactions

12

If the iron were just to dissolve in the pore water (the ferrous ion Fe2+ in equation 2.1 is soluble) we would not see cracking of concrete. Several more stages must occur for rust to form. This can be expressed in several ways; one is shown below where ferrous hydroxide becomes ferric hydroxide and then hydrated ferric oxide or rust: Fe2+ + 2OH- ->Fe (OH)2 ......(2.3) Ferrous hydroxide 4Fe (OH) 2 + O2+ 2H2O ->4Fe (OH)3 ...(2.4) Ferric hydroxide 2Fe (OH) 3 -> Fe2O3.H2O+2H2O (2.5) Hydrated ferric oxide (rust) The full corrosion process is illustrated in Figure 2.5 .Anhydrate ferric oxide has a volume of about twice that of steel it replaced when fully dense. When it becomes hydrated it swells even more and becomes porous. This means that the volume increase at the steel/concrete interface in two to ten times. This leads to cracking that we observe as the usual consequence of corrosion of steel in concrete and red/ brown brittke, flaky rust in the bar and the rust strains seen at cracks in the concrete. 2.4.3 Physical Effects of Corrosion With increasing corrosion the tensile stress in the concrete will reach a critical value and crack will be developed. During this process the volume of the corrosion products at initial cracking of concrete will occupy three volumes, namely the porous zone near the reinforcement, expansion of concrete due to rust pressure, and the space of the corroded steel.
Chloride ingress Rebar corrosion Loss of rebar cross-section Volumetric expansion Loss of concrete

Cracking of concrete cover

Weakening of interfacial

Loss of steel/concrete bond

Reduced load-carrying capacity

Figure 2.6: Effect of Corrosion on Reinforced Concrete Structure

13

The corrosion process and its effect on a reinforced concrete structure are schematic illustrated in Figure 2.6. The result will be a reduced load carrying capacity of the structure primarily due to the reduced steel bar cross-section and the loss of bond between the steel bar and the surrounding concrete (Brown, 1999). 2.4.4 Corrosion Rate The presence of diffusing reactants, including chloride, oxygen and moisture, are fundamental to the rate at which corrosion progesses. Environmental factors such as tempertaure and pH of the concrete will also effect the rate of corrosion. Reactions in various zones of aconcrete member or structure will likely occur at different rates and times, depending upon variations in environmental exposure and electrochemical interaction between the zones. It was stated previously that, as the corrosion process continuous, the volume of corrosion product increases until the tensile strength of the concrete is exceeded and cracking occurs. Such cracking will emanate from the reinforcement to nearest surface, and a direct path is created for further ingress of chloride, oxygen and water to the steel surface. As further amounts of corrosion producets accumulate, the crack will evolve into a delamination or spall, resulting in the effective or actual loss of concrete cover and leaving the steel directly exposed to the source of reactants, the environment (Brown, 1999). 2.4.5 Passive Layer Another important characteristic of concrete is high alkalinity of pore solution, which is comprised of mainly sodium and potassium hydroxides, with a pH ranging from 12.6 to 13.8. At this pH level, a protective (or passive) film is spontaneously formed during the early stages of cement hydration. This passive film may grow to a thickness of the order of 10-3 to 10-1 micro- ohm and contains hydrated iron oxides. The theory of the existence of the passive layer is based only on indirect evidence of anodic polarization measurement. There is still much to be learned concerning this passive film, such as the conditions of its formation, and its chemical and mineralogical composition. It is possible that this passivating film consists of several phases (Smith, 2007). 2.4.6 Restivity of Concrete The restivity of concrete is an important factor in the corrosion process and is determined by the moisture content and pore structure of the conrete and the composition of the water in its pores. The conduction inside concrete occurs mainly through the movement of oins in the pore solution. These ions include,N a+.K+,OH-,SO42-,and Ca++. The value of the electical resistivity of the pore solution in cement paste typically ranges from 25 to 35 -cm. on the other hand, the resistivity of standard aggregates used in concrete ranges from 105 to 1014 -cm, making them giid insulators. Moisture content greatly affects the electrical resistivity of concrete such that the resistivity of air-dried concrete and moist concrete range from 0.6 to 1.2 M-cm and from 2.5 to 4.5 k-cm respectively (Smith, 2007).

14

2.4.7 Influence of Corrosion on Bond Strength Bond is the interaction mechanism that enables force transfer between reinforcing bars and the surrounding concrete (Shetty, et al. 2011). Composite action between concrete and reinforcing steel cannot occur without bond. Influencing bond can lead to a significant decrease in the load caring capacity and stiffness of the structure. As the steel bar corrodes, the increased volume of corrosion products results in a bursting pressure, which causes longitudinal cracks in the specimens. With increase in corrosion level, crack width increases causing the breakdown of adhesion and friction at the steel-concrete interface. At low corrosion levels Exclusive of longitudinal cracking, the corrosion products have a beneficial effect of improving the bond characteristics at the steelconcrete interface. At higher corrosion levels, the steel bars display localized pitting and loss of some of the ribs over the bar length, their by weakening the rib concrete mechanical interlocking force transfer mechanism. It was found that loss of bond to be very critical. The experimental results indicated that after 2% of diameter loss there was loss in bond strength and also there is a reduction in flexural capacity (Shetty, et al. 2011). 2.4.8 Influence of Corrosion of Bar Profile on Bond Strength A study of the relative bond effectiveness of the embedded bars at different stages of corrosion based on the details of the transverse and longitudinal splitting cracks was studied by Amleh & Mirza (1999). The bond strength was observed to decrease rapidly with an increase in the corrosion level, dropping from a 9 percent decrease in the average bond stress for a steel weight loss of 4 percent, to a bond stress decrease of 92 percent for a weight loss of 17.5 percent. The severe loss in bond strength was attributed to deterioration of the bar ribs. It was observed that there is an initial increase in bond which is due to the increased toughness of the reinforcing bar surface with the growth of a firm layer of corrosion (Shetty, et al. 2011). At the initial stages of corrosion, the load-slip curve becomes stiffer, which improved the friction at interface. After that the stiffness reduced consistently as the corrosion level increases. In the case of severe localized corrosion, the bond behavior is influenced by the severely deteriorated reinforcing bar ribs, by the lubricating effect of the flaky corroded metal on the reinforcing bar surface and by the reduced confinement of the reinforcing bar due to the widening of the longitudinal crack resulting from corrosion. 2.5 Effect of Temperature on Concrete Laboratory testing of concrete is usually performed at a controlled temperature, normally constant. As the early testing was done in temperature climates, the standardized temperature chosen was generally in region of 180C to 210C so that much of basic information about the properties of both fresh and hardened concrete is based on the behavior of concrete at these temperatures. In practice, however, concrete is mixed at a wide range of temperature and also remains in service at different temperatures. Indeed the actual range of temperatures has widened considerably with much modern developments take place in very cold regions. In consequence, knowledge of the temperature effects in concrete is of great importance. Physiological effects in both hot and cold conditions should not be ignored. Operatives and supervisors cannot be expected to produce good15

quality concrete if they have been exposed to the elements for long periods without proper protection. 2.5.1 Hot Weather Effect High temperatures can affect concrete at all stages of the production and placing process and most of the effects can have consequences for long-term strength or durability. Some of the problems resulting from high temperatures are listed in Table 2.1. They are a consequence of high temperature increasing the rate of the hydration reaction and the movement of moisture within and from the surface of concrete. In the latter case relative humidity and wind speed also have a significant influence (Newman and Choo, 2003). A higher temperature causes a higher water demand of concrete and increases the temperature of fresh concrete. This results in an increased rate of slump and in a more rapid hydration, which leads to expedited setting and to a lower long term strength of concrete

Figure 2.7: Effect of Temperature on Slump (Left) and Effect of Concrete Temperature on the Amount of Water Required to Produce Concrete with 75 mm Slump (Right) ( ACI 305R-91) Concrete Temperature (0C)

16

Table 2.1: Problems resulting from hot weather at various stages in the concrete production process Stage Effect Production Increased water demand for given workability Increased difficulty in controlling entrained air content Transit Loss of water by evaporation Increased rate of loss of workability Placing, finishing Loss of water by evaporation and curing Increased rate of loss of workability Increased rate of setting Increased tendency to plastic shrinkage cracking Long-term Lower strength Decreased durability Variable appearance

2.5.2 Cold Weather Effect ACI 306 defines cold weather as a period when for more than 3 successive days the mean daily temperature drops below 5C. Concrete this is placed at low temperatures, but which is not allowed to freeze and receives good curing, develops higher ultimate strength, greater durability and is less subject to thermal cracking than similar concrete placed at higher temperatures (ACI 306R-88, 1994). As for the hot weather effects described earlier, cold weather can adversely affect concrete at all stages. Some of the problems are listed in Table 2.2. Table 2.2: Problems resulting from cold weather at various stages in the concrete production process Stage Effect Production Transit Placing, finishing and curing Incorporation of frost-bound material Cooling of mix Formation of ice crystals in concrete Increased thermal gradients/increased tendency to thermal cracking Delayed formwork removal Slower gain in strength Greater chance of formwork stripping damage Bleed water may remain on surface Slower setting Slower gain in strength Freezethaw damage

Long-term

2.5.3 Effect of Temperature on Strength Although the higher rate of hydration leads to higher early strength under hot conditions, this is not reflected in higher long-term strength. This is illustrated in Figure 2.8. The
17

effect on 28-day strength over the typical range of temperatures likely to be encountered in the United Kingdom is not great but in areas such as the Middle East, where fresh concrete temperatures can rise to the upper 30C, there can be a significant reduction in long-term strength. The difficulties of achieving good compaction because of the loss in workability described above, can also lead to reduction of the in-situ concrete strength (Newman and Choo, 2003).

Figure 2.8: Variation of 1-day Strength and 28-day Strength with Curing Temperature) (ACI 305R-91, 1994). 2.6 Empirical Formula for Estimating the Behavior of RC Members Calculation of degree of induced corrosion and equivalent corrosion current density: The effect of corrosion-induced cracking on bond by reducing the bond strength of the interface between concrete and steel is modeled by Lee et al. (2002). In these models, the relationship between the amount of rust and the reduction of bond strength is determined empirically. Thus, these models are of limited validity for the prediction of the influence of corrosion on bond. Other models describe the expansion of the rust, the radial pressures and the transverse stresses on the concrete explicitly (Lundgren, 2007). These models have the potential to establish an analytical relationship between the expansion of rust, cracking and spalling. They can be combined with realistic bond models (Lundgren, 2005), so that the influence of corrosion-induced cracking on the bond capacity can be predicted. However, this modeling framework is computationally demanding, since it requires threedimensional modeling of the mechanical response of the concrete, the bond between reinforcement bar and concrete, and the reinforcement bar itself. The mass of rust produced per unit surface area of the bar due to applied current over a given time can be

18

determined theoretically using the following expression based on the Faradays law (Ijsseling, 1986): Mth = ..(2.6) Where Mth=theoretical mass of rust per unit surface area of the bar (g/cm2); W=equivalent weight of steel which is taken as the ratio of atomic weight of iron to the valency of iron (27.925g); I app=applied current density (Amp/cm2); T=duration of induced corrosion (sec) F=Faradays constant (96487Amp-sec). The actual mass loss of rust per unit surface area may be determined by gravimetric test in accordance with ASTM G1 (2000) on rebar extracted from the concrete by breaking the specimens after the accelerated corrosion test is completed as Mac = ...(2.7) Where Mac =actual mass of rust per unit area of the bar (g/cm2); W i =initial weight of the bar before corrosion (g) for a given duration of induced corrosion (T); d is the diameter of the rebar (cm); and L=Length of the rebar sample (cm). The degree of induced corrosion also expressed in terms of the percentage weight loss () is calculated as (Ahmad, 2009) : = ..... (2.8) The corrosion rate is calculated using the following equation given in ASTM G1 (Beaudoin et al. 2001): Corrosion rate (mm/ year) = .(2.9) Where K = a constant equal to 8.7 6104 , W=Mass loss in grams, A = actual corroded area of steel bar in cm2 after removal from specimen and visually examining ,T=time of exposure in hours, d=density of steel 7.85 (g/cm3). For the purpose of comparison using Faradays law, the corrosion rate in mm/year obtained from gravimetric measurement is converted to corrosion current density (A/cm2) by assuming uniform corrosion occurred over the steel surface by the following equation (Jones 1996, Trejo & Monteiro 2005): Corrosion rate (mm/ year) = (2.10) Where Icorr = Corrosion current density in A/cm2, a=atomic weight of iron (55.84 amu), n= no. of electrons exchanged in corrosion reaction, i.e. 2 for iron, d=density of steel as above. Comparison of Empirical Models Proposed by the Various Researchers Bhaskar et al. (2010) proposed for bond stress-slip behavior of un-corroded specimens as: =
1

Where 0

S1 (2.11)

Where 1 =0.9 times max ; s1 =corresponding slip (0.3mm). In the above, ultimate bond strength is obtained as (Appa Rao et al. 2009): max =20 x ( fc//d)1/3 ............................................................. (2.12) Where fc =mean compressive strength of concrete, MPa. d = the diameter of the rebar in mm Several researchers have attempted to formulate equations that represent the bond between the reinforcing bars and the concrete. Below is a brief description of a few: Orangun et al. (1977) proposed the following formula:

19

U= 0.083045

[1.2 + 3

+ 50

].(2.13)

Where c = minimum concrete cover, mm and fc is the concrete compressive strength, MPa. Australian Standard 3600, (1994) recommends the following equation:

.....(2.14) Esfahani and Rangan (1998) proposed the following formula. (2.15) Where C is the minimum cover and fct is the tensile strength of concrete taken as 0.55 fc, in MPa. Hadi (2008) proposed the following equation based on his analysis

.. .(2.16) The empirical models used for study of loss of bond strength are as follows: Lee et al. (2002) proposed the bond strength as a function of corrosion level as:

bu

=5.21 e(-0.0561Xp) (2.17)

bu = bond strength; Xp =Corrosion Level (%) Chung et al. (2004) presented the bond strength as a normalized bond strength ratio R as: R = 2.09 Xp(-1.06) For Xp 2% ..(2.18) Where R is the ratio of bond strength at any corrosion level to the original bond strength for un-corroded specimen. The value of original bond strength is obtained from the IS 456-2000. Cabrera (1996) proposed the bond strength for normal Portland cement concrete but as a function of corrosion level was proposed as follows:

bu =23.478 1.313 Xp ...(2.19)

Empirical formulae proposed by Bhargava et.al. (2007) to evaluate the progressive bond degradation between the concrete and the reinforcing steel for the specimens without stirrups is given by: R=1 for Xp 1.5% (-0.117 Xp) R = 1.192 e for Xp 1.5%

20

CHAPTER 3 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME 3.1 Methodology of Research The present study involves the construction, corrosion, and mechanical testing of 72 reinforced concrete cylinder specimens and 48 simple cylindrical concrete specimens for compressive strength test and splitting tensile strength test. These specimens were made based on three casting temperature (150C, 300C and 450C). One-half of 72 reinforced cylindrical concrete specimens were tested by pullout test method for non-corroded steels and rests were tested by pullout test method for corroded steel. Corrosion were initiated and propagated by impressing a direct current to the tensile steel. The results from these tests are used to study the changes in bond strength of corroded and non-corroded reinforced concrete. 3.2 Test Specimens 3.2.1 Pullout Tests Specimens In order to eliminate the bond strength of the reinforced concrete, pull out specimens were constructed. It is possible to obtain a close estimate of the ultimate bond strength of tensile steel using a mathematical model found in literature. The details of the pullout specimens are shown in Figure 3.1

Figure 3.1: Typical Pullout Specimen Each specimen had a pre weighed 12 mm diameter bar embedded in a concrete cylinder having a diameter 100 mm and a height of 200m mm. For each casting temperature, 24 No. of 12 mm dia. reinforced steel bar were used, among them 12 Nos. were deform steel bar and 12 Nos. were plain steel reinforced bar. Total length of each steel bar was 312 mm; 150 mm of total length of steel bar was embedded into the cylindrical concrete specimen. Rib angle of each deformed steel bar was 450.

21

Figure 3.2: Pullout Test Specimens 3.2.2 Compressive & Splitting Tensile Strength Test Specimens For each Casting temperature, total No. of 16 cylindrical concrete specimens were constructed to assess the compressive and splitting tensile strength test value. Each specimen had a diameter 100 mm and height of 200 mm. 3.2.3 Out Line of Test Specimens Table 3.1: Out Line the Number of the Test Specimens Casting Compressive strength test Splitting Pull-out test Temp. tensile Accelerated Direct pull-out strength corrosion test test 7 28 days 90 days 28 days 12mm 12mm 12mm 12mm Days deformed plain deformed plain bars bars bars bars 0 4 15 C 4 4 4 6 6 6 6 0 4 30 C 4 4 4 6 6 6 6 0 45 C 4 4 4 4 6 6 6 6 3.3 Concrete Properties Throughout this experiment, normal Portland cement was used. The properties of fine and coarse aggregates that were used are summarized in Table 3.2. River bed sand was used as a fine aggregate and crushed picket brick was used as a coarse aggregate. The maximum size of coarse aggregate was 19 mm. The cement used throughout this experiment were manufactured and supplied by King Brand Cement, Bashundhara Group, Bangladesh. Table 3.2: Properties of Coarse and Fine Aggregate. Properties Coarse aggregate Fine aggregate (River Bed (Crushed Burned Brick) Sand) Maximum aggregate size, (mm) 19.0 2.38 3 Unit weight(Kg/m ) 861.02 1555.58 Specific gravity 2.04 2.64 Fineness modulus 2.72 Absorption, (%) 18.25 3.19
22

3.4 Temperature Trial Test Temperature trial test is a simple method of trialing temperature into the laboratory by inputting various temperatures in the water and aggregates and observing the output temperature of concrete mixture. This process was applied again and again, and after some trial test expected mixing temperature was recorded. The output result of temperature may be changed due to the change of environmental temperature relatively change of the ambient temperature of fine and coarse aggregate. Only expected casting temperature observation procedure was explained under these paragraphs. i. Trial Test for 450C: At first, the coarse aggregates had been immersed into water for 24 hours. Water was heated at 600c temperature and the wetted coarse aggregate were immersed into the heated water. The jar of heated water and aggregates was placed into the oven and the oven temperature had been controlled by 600c since 24 hours. After 24 hours, the jar of coarse aggregate and water was received from the oven and coarse aggregates were partially saturated. According to the materials proportion, weighed cement, sand, partially saturated coarse aggregates and 600 c heated water were mixed by hand. Then the mixing temperature was recorded by thermometer. Heating of aggregate into oven Water heater

Figure 3.3: A Jar of Water& Coarse Aggregate Heated at 600c into Oven (Left) and Measuring Mixture Temperature by Thermometer (Right) ii. Trial Test for 300C: This is the simple process among three casting temperature. At first, ambient temperature of coarse and fine aggregate were measured by thermometer. The water was heated at 360 c by water heater and according to the materials proportion, weighed cement; sand, coarse aggregates and 360 c heated water were mixed by hand. Then the mixing temperature was recorded by thermometer. iii. Trial Test for 150C: At first, the coarse aggregates had been immersed into water for 24 hours. After 24 hours, coarse aggregates were yielded from the water. Those saturated aggregates and water were placed into the refrigerator and kept them 24 hours. After 24 hours, the coarse aggregates and water were received from the refrigerator and coarse aggregates were partially saturated. According to the materials proportion, weighed
23

cement, sand, partially saturated coarse aggregates and 100 C cooled water were mixed by hand. Then the mixing temperature was recorded by thermometer.

Figure 3.4: Water and Coarse Aggregate Cooled into Refrigerator (Left) and Measuring Mixture Temperature by Thermometer (Right) Temperature trial test expected value, input value, output value and final mixing value during casting concrete were given in Table 3.3. Table 3.3: Findings of temperature trial test Expected Laboratory input 0 Temperature, ( C) temperature,(0C) Water 100 150C Brick khoa 80 Sand 30.50 Water 360 300C Brick khoa 28.50 Sand 28.50 Water 600 450C Brick khoa 600 Sand 30.50

Laboratory output Temperature,(0C) 11.50

Final mixing temperature,(0C) 13.50

300

310

45.50

440

3.5 Mixing, Casting and Curing The concrete mix for every specimen was based on the mix design. The weight proportion of the concrete of the mixture was 1 ( cement ) : 1.4 ( coarse aggregate ) : 2.5 ( fine aggregate ): 0.5 ( water), giving a water to cement ratio (W/C) of 0.5. The concrete was mixed by following the hand mixing method. The concrete mix consisted of 147kg/m 3 water, 295 kg/m3 cement, 445 kg/m3 river bed sand, 500 kg/m3 burned crushed brick (maximum size 19 mm). The concrete was mixed to maintain the above procedure of casting temperature. Slump test of concrete mixture was performed by frustum of a cone with top and bottom diameter 100 mm and 200 mm and height of 300 mm respectively. After 24 hours later of casting the concrete, concrete specimens were de-molded prior to

24

curing under laboratory controlled temperature. The mix was found to have a 28 days average compressive strength of 38.63 MPa and a tensile strength of 3.26 MPa.
b

100 mm

Casting Temperature 30 C

Figure 3.5: Mixing of Concrete (a & b) and Measurement of Slump Value (c)

Figure 3.6: Casting of Specimens (Left) and Curing of Specimens in Laboratory Controlled Temperature (Right) 3.6 Experimental Setup for Accelerated Corrosion After curing the specimens for 30 days, pullout specimens were partially immersed in 5% salt water solution (by weight). Subsequent to this, the specimens were subjected to accelerated galvanic corrosion by the impression of an average direct current of 1.86 Amp for the application of 3.40 volt from DC power supply.

(a) (b) Figure 3.7: Electrochemical Corrosion System. a) Schematic Drawing b) Photograph of Set-up in the Laboratory
25

By electrochemical method, the pullout specimens were connected with parallel connection. The positive terminal of the power supply was connected in parallel to each protruding rebar to act as an anode, while the negative terminal was connected to the copper rod, which served as a cathode. The electrolyte solution (5% NaCl) covered two thirds of the concrete portion of the pullout specimens, as illustrated in Figure 3.7. 3.7 Voltage Monitoring Since the current used to corrode the pullout specimens was constant in initial stage. Corrosion of the specimens causes increased concrete cracking, which in turn results in a reduced resistance. Therefore, observing the fluctuation in voltage can be useful when determining initial cover cracking. For reducing voltage, amount of current will be reduce or fluctuate. For this reason, the voltage was recorded daily or regularly by multi-meter as part of the accelerated corrosion monitoring in this study.

Figure 3.8: Measurement of Voltage, (volt) (Left) and Current, (amp) (Right) in laboratory 3.8 Mechanical Testing 3.8.1 Compressive Strength Test According to the ASTM C39, 100 mm dia. and height of 200 mm cylindrical concrete specimen were tested by Compression Test machine for different age of concrete for different casting temperature. Compressive strength, = Where, F= compressive force on cylindrical concrete and A is area of the concrete cylinder

Figure 3.9: Compression Strength and Its Fracture Pattern

26

3.8.2 Splitting Tensile Strength Test In Compression Test Machine, a 100 mm dia. and height of 200 mm cylindrical concrete specimen were laid on the base of this machine in which longitudinal axis of concrete specimen was along the base and load was applied on the transverse surface of cylindrical concrete specimen from Compression Test Machine. Calculate the splitting tensile strength of specimen as follows:

T=
Where, T=Splitting tensile strength, kPa, P=maximum applied load indicated by the testing machine, k N l=length, m; d= diameter, m

Figure 3.10: Splitting Tensile Strength Test and Its Failure 3.8.3 Pullout Test Pullout specimens were tested in order to determine the maximum bond stress at a level of corrosion and non-corrosion of 12 mm dia. plain and deform steel reinforced bars for different casting temperature. Each pullout specimen was mounted in a specifically designed test frame and subjected to a standard pullout test, where the embedded reinforcement steel is tensioned until the failure of bond. For each test, the applied load and corresponding slip of reinforced steel were recorded using a data acquisition program. Bond stress,

= P max / ( db Ld)
Where, = bond stress, P max = maximum pullout load, db= diameter of reinforced steel, Ld = embedded length of reinforced steel into concrete. By using bond-slip data, a empirical model proposed by various researchers were developed.

27

Figure 3.11: Pullout Test Set-up in Laboratory

Figure 3.12: a) Cracking in Pullout Test Specimen, b) Displacement of Reinforced Steel Bar from Concrete and c) Interlocking Steel Rib with Concrete 3.8.4 Mass Loss Determination Following the structural and subsequent destructive tests, the tensile reinforcement was removed from each pullout specimen and the corrosion products were cleaned using a wire brush. The corroded reinforcing bars were characterized by percent mass loss, which was calculated by Equation 2.8

28

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The purpose of this chapter is to report the results gathered from the physical properties of aggregate, compressive strength test, splitting tensile strength test, monitoring of accelerated corrosion test and pullout test. 4.1 Material Properties Two types of materials properties were find out in the laboratory. Coarse aggregate ( Crushed picket brick) Fine aggregate (River bed sand) Coarse Aggregate (Crushed Picket Brick): Coarse aggregate was performed on the following test: A. Unit Weight Test: According to the ASTM C29, unit weight of coarse aggregate was determined. Calculations are given below: Weight of bucket + water =9600 gm Weight of bucket =4681gm Weight o water = (9600 4681) =4919 gm Volume of Bucket = 4.919 Kg/ 998 (Kg/m3) =4.93x10-3 m3 Mass of aggregate + bucket = 8900 gm Unit weight of aggregate = Kg/ m3 = 861.02 Kg/ m3

B. Specific Gravity Test: According to the ASTM C128, specific gravity of coarse aggregate was determined. Calculations are given below: Volume of displaced water =2445 mL Weight of displaced water =2445 / 0.998 =2450 gm Weight of SSd aggregate = 5000 gm Specific gravity =5000/2450 =2.04 C. Absorption Test: According to the ASTM C128, absorption of coarse aggregate was determined. Weight of SSD aggregate =5000 gm Weight of oven dry aggregate =4228.5 gm Absorption = x 100 % =18.25 %

Fine Aggregate (River Bed Sand): Fine aggregate was performed on the following test:
29

A. Sieve Analysis According to the ASTM C136, sieve analysis was performed by selection of sieves with suitable opening, limiting the quality of material, prevention of overload and insertion of additional sieve. Table 4.1 Determination of Fineness Modulus (River Bed Sand) Sieve Size Wt. retained Cumulative Wt. Cumulative % (gm) retained (gm) Wt. retained 0 0 0 4 24.5 24.5 4.9 8 83 107.5 21.5 16 181 288 57.6 30 164.5 453 90.6 50 37.5 490.5 98.12 100 Pan 8 Fineness modulus of sand (F.M) = (0+4.9+21.5+57.6+90.6+98.12)/100 = 2.72 B. Unit Weight Test According to the ASTM C29, unit weight of fine aggregate was determined. Calculations are given below: Mass of sand + bucket = 12351 gm Unit weight of sand =

%Finer 100 95.1 78.5 42.4 9.4 1.88 -

=1555.58 Kg/m3

C. Specific Gravity Test: According to the ASTM C128, specific gravity of fine aggregate was determined. Calculations are given below: Weight of sample = 200 gm Weight of pycnometer =218 gm Weight of water + pycnometer +sand =1334 gm Weight of water + pycnometer =1209.8 gm Weight of water = (1209.8-218.0) = 991.8 gm Weight of water after filling sand =1334 (200+218) = 916 gm Weight of water displacement =991.8-916 =75.8 gm Specific gravity = 200/75.8 =2.64 D. Absorption Test: According to the ASTM C128, absorption of fine aggregate was determined. Calculations are given below: Weight of sample (SSD) + can =126.2gm Weight of sample (oven dry) + can = 122.3 gm Water absorbed = 3.90 gm Absorption, (%) = (3.90x100)/122.3 =3.19 %
30

4.2 Compressive Strength Test and Splitting Tensile Strength Test According to the ASTM C 39, compressive strength test was performed in the laboratory by compressive strength testing machine. According to the ASTM C 496, splitting tensile strength test was performed in the laboratory by compressive strength testing machine. Table 4.2: Data of compressive strength test for 7, 28 and 90days T 7 days 28 days e m p. Area (mm2) Avg.Load (kN) Avg.Load (kN) Strength (MPa) No. Load (kN) Load (kN) 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 182.8 173.9 205.1 218.5 187.3 218.5 191.7 249.7 216.3 321.1 333.4 307.7 329.9 303.2 285.4 294.5 278.7 303.2

90 days Avg.Load (kN) 333.1 315.1 303.2 Splitting tensile strength, (MPa) 3.266 3.218 2.791 Strength (MPa) 42.4 40.1 38.6 Load (kN) 340.0 326.6 332.8 312.1 329.9 303.2 321.1 298.8 289.7

15 C 7854

187.3

23.85

320.7 38.98 306.2 37.19 292.1

300C 7854

208.2

26.51

45 C 7854

219.2

27.91

Table 4.3: Data of splitting tensile strength test for 28 days Casting Diameter of Length of Tensile Temperature specimen,(mm) specimen,(mm) Load ,(kN) 102.60 102.60 102.60 102.60 98.10 102.6 89.18 84.72 89.18

15 C

100

200

300 C

100

200

450C

100

200

As, results show (Table 4.2), Casting temperature has the direct effect on compressive strength. Compressive strength from Figure 4.1 shows that at beginning stage of strength gaining process, 450C casting temperature sample has the higher value of strength than 150C casting temperature sample. But 28 days and 90 days strength shows that reverse of 7 days strength value. Due to the high casting temperature, rate of hydration of cement has increased and initial setting time has decreased. Due the low casting temperature, heat of hydration has been absorbed by the ambient temperature of aggregate. For this hydration
31

Strength (MPa) 40.8

Average Load,(kN)

102.60

101.10

87.69

rate has decreased and initial setting time has increased. It can conclude considering the initial setting time, for lower setting time 450C sample gives higher early age strength but long time strength of this sample gives low value and 150C sample has the reverse strength due to the higher setting value. .
45

Compressive Strength,(M Pa)

40 35 30 25 20 15 7 days 28 days 90 days

15 C 0 30 C 0 45 C

Age,(Days)

Figure 4.1: Relation between Compressive Strength (MPa) and Age for Concrete Made with Different Casting Temperature. Results show Table (4.3 and Figure 4.2), casting temperature has a small effect on splitting tensile strength. It gives the downward slope of strength from 150C to 450C casting temperature. Lower casting temperature gives 14% more tensile strength than higher casting temperature
5
Splitting Tensile Strength, (M Pa)

4 3 2 1 0 15 30 45 0 Casting Temperature, ( C)

Figure 4.2: Splitting Tensile Strength (MPa) for Different Casting Temperature (0C
32

4.4 Voltage Monitoring Table 4.4: Data for Voltages and current reading for pullout specimens Elapsed time 12 mm Plain rebar 12 mm Deform rebar (Days) Voltage (V) Current (A) Voltage (V) Current (A) 0 3.10 1.98 2.90 1.52 3 3.25 2.02 3.20 1.60 6 3.50 2.04 3.30 1.68 9 3.5 1.96 3.25 1.62 12 3.4 1.91 3.20 1.57 15 3.4 1.86 3.20 1.56 18 3.4 1.84 3.15 1.46 21 3.35 1.82 3.15 1.43 24 3.35 1.82 3.10 1.32 27 3.30 1.76 3.10 1.29 30 3.30 1.76 3.10 1.29
3.4 1.8

Deform Rebar
3.2

Current

Voltage 1.7 1.6

Voltage (V)

1.5 2.8 1.4 2.6 1.3 1.2 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

2.4

Elapsed Time (Days)

3.6

Plain Rebar
3.5 3.4 3.3 3.2 3.1 3.0 0 5 10

Current

Voltage

2.2 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.6

Voltage (V)

15

20

25

30

Elapsed Time (Days)

Figure 4.3: Voltage (V), Current (A) Reading for Elapsed Time (Days)
33

Current (A)

Current (A)

3.0

Figure 4.3 shows the relationship among voltage, current and elapsed time for deform and plain rebar. At the initial stage of accelerated corrosion setup, value of passing current increase with the increase of voltage. After at a time current decreases with decreases the voltage of DC power supply due to fall of resistance of Reinforced concrete body. Comparison between Figure 4.3 and Table 4.4 show that high current instigate to increase the corrosion level of the rebar. As the consequence of this comparison plain rebar has the higher corrosion level, (%) than deform rebar. 4.5 Bond Strength and Ultimate Slip Table 4.5: Bond Strength (MPa) and Ultimate Slip (mm) of Pullout Specimens under Corroded and Un- corroded Condition Temperature Bond Strength (MPa) Ultimate Slip (mm) 0 ( C) Un-corroded Corroded rebar Un-corroded Corroded rebar rebar rebar Deform Plain Deform Plain Deform Plain Deform Plain 0 15 C 6.9 6.63 6.37 6.19 0.736 1.218 0.996 1.380 0 30 C 6.45 6.19 6.01 5.92 0.556 1.065 0.804 1.25 0 45 C 5.48 5.31 5.31 5.04 0.304 0.530 0.538 0.825

Ultimate Slip (mm)

2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 70 6 5 4 0

Un corroded deform Corroded deform

Uncorrode plain Corroded plain

Bond Strength (MPa)

15

30

45

15 30 0 Casting Temperature ( C)

45

Figure 4.4: Plot of Bond Strength (MPa), Ultimate Slip (mm) Vs Casting Temperature, 0C As, results show (Table 4.5 and Figure 4.4), the relationship among the bond strength, ultimate slip and casting temperature. This figure explains that deform bars give less slip than plain bars and un-corroded bars shows less slip than corroded bars but the plots of slip with different casting temperature form a downward linear relationship from 150C to 450C casting temperature. Northerly, deform bars give more bond strength than plain bar, un-corroded bars show more bond strength than corroded bars and the plots of bond strength with different casting temperature form a downward slop from 150C to 450C
34

casting temperature. The above explanation illustrates that higher slip instigate to raise the bond strength, for this cause, 150C casting temperature shows the better bond strength than 450C casting temperature. This figure also explain that deform bars shows 2%-5% more bond strength than plain bars due to the effect of rib face angle of deform bars. 4.6 Measurement of Corrosion Level, (%) Table 4.6: Corrosion Levels (%) of Deform and Plain Rebar Temperature Deform Rebar Before After (%) of Before Weight Weight Corrosion Weight (gm) (gm) (gm) 0 15 C 277 273.4 1.30 278.8 0 30 C 264.3 259.0 2.01 279.6 0 45 C 274.6 268.1 2.37 283.9

Plain Rebar After (%) of Weight Corrosion (gm) 273.9 1.76 273.2 2.09 276.4 2.64

Figure 4.5 illustrates that the relationship between bond strength and casting temperature with respect to corrosion level (%). In electrochemical corrosion cell of plain bar, output of DC power supply was higher but it was no longer than deform bar cell. By considering this effect, it may enlighten that plain bars have higher corrosion level. Without this parameter, this figure shows the linear relationship between bond strength and corrosion level. It shows that lower bond strength produces higher corrosion level.
Corrosion Level (%)
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 70 6 5 4 0 15 30 0 Casting Temperature, ( C) 45 15 30 45 Deform Bar Plain Bar

Bond Strength (MPa)

Figure 4.5: Plot of Bond Strength (MPa), Corrosion Level, (%) Vs Casting Temperature (0C)

35

4.7 Bond-Slip Relationship Table 4.7: Data for Bond-Slip Relationship (Un-corroded rebar) Load Dia. Embeded Bond Slip (mm) (kN) of Rebar Strength Deform Rebar Plain Rebar 0 0 0 Steel Length (MPa) 15 C 30 C 45 C 150C 300C (mm) (mm) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0.88 0.034 0.082 0.128 0.026 0.04 10 1.77 0.098 0.128 0.15 0.08 0.132 15 2.65 0.165 0.193 0.182 0.20 0.22 20 12 150 3.54 0.238 0.261 0.236 0.391 0.428 25 4.42 0.34 0.368 0.266 0.818 0.712 30 5.31 0.45 0.465 0.304 0.925 0.91 35 6.2 0.32 0.556 1.218 1.065 40 7.07 0.736 -

450C 0 0.068 0.17 0.288 0.32 0.444 0.53 -

Table 4.8: Data for Bond-Slip Relationship (Corroded rebar) Load Dia. Embeded Bond Slip (mm) (kN) of Rebar Strength Deform Rebar Plain Rebar 0 0 0 0 Steel Length (MPa) 15 C 30 C 45 C 15 C 300C 450C (mm) (mm) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0.35 0.01 0.012 0.030 0.024 0.07 0.110 4 0.71 0.024 0.040 0.078 0.054 0.134 0.156 6 1.06 0.038 0.132 0.159 0.080 0.204 0.212 8 1.42 0.080 0.190 0.197 0.106 0.270 0.294 10 1.77 0.174 0.246 0.288 0.160 0.336 0.364 12 2.12 0.202 0.314 0.308 0.184 0.398 0.446 14 2.48 0.254 0.340 0.328 0.222 0.452 0.446 16 12 150 2.83 0.308 0.408 0.350 0.274 0.524 0.488 18 3.18 0.352 0.452 0.375 0.324 0.558 0.512 20 3.54 0.374 0.502 0.396 0.420 0.626 0.578 22 3.89 0.374 0.540 0.420 0.460 0.682 0.610 24 4.24 0.420 0.628 0.460 0.668 0.774 0.658 26 4.60 0.492 0.654 0.490 0.894 0.872 0.715 28 4.95 0.600 0.710 0.538 1.058 0.982 0.825 30 5.31 0.702 0.718 0.589 1.187 1.116 32 5.66 0.802 0.764 1.254 1.180 34 6.01 0.968 0.804 1.297 1.250 36 6.37 0.996 1.380 38 6.72 40 7.07 -

36

8 7
Bond Strength, (Mpa)

Deform rebar (un-corroded)

6 5 4 3 2 1
(a)

45 C 0 30 C 0 15 C 0.4 0.6 Slip, (mm) 0.8 1.0

0 0.0

0.2

8 Plain rebar (un-corroded) 7

Bond Strength, (Mpa)

6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0.0
(b)

45 C 0 30 C 0 15 C

0.2

0.4

0.6 0.8 Slip, (mm)

1.0

1.2

1.4

Figure 4.6: Relation between Bond Strength, (MPa) and Slip,(mm) Made with Different Casting Temperature of Concrete for a) Un-corroded Deform b) Un-corrode Plain Rebar Figure 4.6 shows the relation between bond strength and slip of un-corroded deform and plain bars for different casting temperature and Figure 4.7 shows the same relation for corroded condition. These figures explain same nature. At beginning stage 450C samples expedite the slip rate with respect to bond strength and 150C samples diminish the slip rate with respect to bond strength. At last stage bond-slip relationships held in reverse process.

37

8 7

Deform rebar (corroded)

Bond Strength, (MPa)

6 5 4 3 2 1
(a)

45 C 0 30 C 0 15 C
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

0 0.0

0.2

Slip,(mm)
7

Plain rebar (corroded)

6

Bond Strength, (MPa)

5 4 3 2 1
(b)

45 C 0 30 C 0 15 C
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

0 0.0

0.2

Slip,(mm)

Figure 4.7: Relation between Bond Strength, (MPa) and Slip, (mm) Made with Different Casting Temperature of Concrete for a) Corroded Deform Rebar b) Corrode Plain Rebar Figure 4.8 shows the combined effect of bond-slip relationship of deform and plain rebar for un-corroded and corroded condition. In un-corroded condition, at beginning stage, deform bars expedite the slip rate with respect to bond strength than plain bars and at last stage deform bars diminish the slip rate with respect to bond strength than plain bars. In corrode condition, bond-slip relationship between deform and plain bars held in reverse process of un-corroded condition. And 450C casting temperature samples accelerate the slip rate initially and at last stage it reduce the slip rate with respect to 150C temperature

38

Un-corroded rebar
7

Bond Strength, (MPa)

6 5 4 3 2 1
(a)

Deform 15 C 0 Plain 15 C 0 Deform 30 C 0 Plain 30 C 0 Deform 45 C 0 Plain 45 C 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

0 0.0
7

0.2

Slip,(mm)
Corroded rebar
6

Bond Strength, (MPa)

5 4 3 2 1
(b)

Deform 15 C 0 Plain 15 C 0 Deform 30 C 0 Plain 30 C 0 Deform 45 C 0 Plain 45 C 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

0 0.0

0.2

Slip,(mm)

Figure 4.8: Bond-Slip Relationship for a) Un-corroded b) Corroded Deform and Plain Rebar with Different Casting Temperature of Concrete. Table 4.9: Summary of Pull Out Test Results with Some Formula Proposed by Several Researchers Only for Deform rebar. fc P max Calculated Bond Strength (MPa) (MPa) (kN) Embedded length of bar (mm) Rebar Dia.(mm) Measured Bond Stress (MPa) Temperature Esfahani and Rangan (1998) Orangun et al. (1977) Hadi (2008) 10.01 9.79 9.56 AS3600 (1994) 7.89 7.72 7.54

150C 300C 450C

12 12 12

150 150 150

40.8 38.98 37.19

39 36.5 31

6.90 6.46 5.48

39

9.4 9.18 8.96

14.59 14.26 13.92

As ,results show (Table 4.9 and Figure 4.9), measured bond strength with respect to casting samples are lower than the calculated bond strength of proposed formula by several researchers.
25
Measured AS3600.(1994) Hadi (2008) Orangum et al.(1977) Esfahani(1998)

20

Bond Strength, (MPa)

15

10

0 15 30 45
0

Casting Temperature, ( C)

Figure 4.9: Comparison of Bond Strength, (MPa) Using Several Researchers Proposed Formula So, finally it can evidently say that lower casting temperature have high initial setting time that gives long period higher compressive strength. Low casting temperature gives large slip that contribute to get higher bond strength and higher bond strength reduce the corrosion level of steel of reinforced concrete. Higher casting temperature gives the reverse upshot. By investigating overall performance of the study it can be conclude that lower casting temperature gives better results than higher casting temperature because in high casting temperature internal air in concrete expand due to high temperature which creates more void that actuate to reduce the strength and in low casting temperature internal air voids compact due to the cold casting and ambient temperature of aggregates that help to condense the concrete body and finally increase strength.

40

Bond Strength (MPa)

Corrosion Level (%)

Ultimate Load (kN)

Ultimate Slip (mm)

7 days

28 days

90 days

15

Uncorroded

Deform Plain Deform Plain Deform Plain Deform Plain Deform Plain Deform Plain

39.0 37.5 36.0 35.0 36.5 35.0 34.0 33.5 31.0 30.0 30.0 28.5

0.736 1.218 0.996 1.380 0.556 1.065 0.804 1.250 0.304 0.530 0.538 0.825

1.30 1.76 2.01 2.09 2.37 2.64

6.90 6.63 6.37 6.19 6.45 6.19 6.01 5.92 5.48 5.31 5.31 5.04 27.9 37.1 38.6 2.79 26.5 38.9 40.1 3.22 23.8 40.8 42.4 3.26

30

45

Corroded

Uncorroded

Corroded

Uncorroded

Corroded

41

Splitting Tensile Strength (M Pa) 28 days

4.9 Summary of Results The results of the experimental program employed for this study are summarized in Table (4.10) Table4.10: Results Summary of the Experimental Program Compressive Strength Temperature, (0C) (MPa)

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Conclusions Based on the results of this laboratory program, the following conclusions can be drawn with respect to different casting temperature of concrete. The test results show that lower casting temperature leads to increase initial setting time of concrete that increase long period compressive strength. increases 18%-20% more bond strength than higher casting temperature reduces the 30%-40% mass loss of the re-bars than higher casting temperature. Deform bars give 3%-7% more bond strength due to adhesion and cohesion of bar surface than plain bars. By investigating overall performance of the study it can be conclude that lower casting temperature gives better results than higher casting temperature. 5.2 Recommendations Following recommendations may be considered to enlarge this study The effect of salinity and pH of water may be considered on the above study. Controlled curing temperature may have some effect on this thesis work. Effect of casting temperature may find out on flexure and shear of reinforced concrete members.

42

RRFFERENCES ACI 305R-91, Hot Weather Concreting, ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 2-1992; Construction Practices and Inspection Pavements,20 pp.( Detroit, Michigan,1994) ACI 306R-88, Hot Weather Concreting, ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part 2-1992; Construction Practices and Inspection Pavements, 23 pp.( Detroit, Michigan,1994). Ahmad, S., Techniques for inducing accelerated corrosion of steel in concrete. Arabian Science and Engineering, (34), 2C. (2009). Amleh, L. and Mirza, M.S. Corrosion Deterioration of Dickson Bridge. Departmental. (2000). ASTM G1, Standard practice for preparing, cleaning, and evaluating corrosion test specimens. American society for Testing and materials. (2000). Australian Standard for Concrete Structures. AS3600, North Sydney, Australia, 1994. Aziz, M.A., (2nd Edition), A Text Book of Engineering Materials, Hafiz Book Centre, 167 Dhaka New Market, Bangladesh ( 1995 ) Beaudoin, J.J., Ramachandran, V.S., Techniques for corrosion investigation in reinforced concrete. New Jersey: Noyes Publications, 441-504. (2001). Bhargava, K., Ghosh, A.K., Yasuhiro M.S., Ramanujama, Corrosion-induced bond strength degradation in reinforced concrete-analytical and empirical models. Nuclear Engineering and Design, 237. (2007). Bhaskar, S., Bharatkumar, B.H., Ravindra Gettu and Neelamegam, M.,Effect of corrosion on the bond behaviour of OPC and PPC concretes. Journal of structural Engineering, 37(1), 37-42. (2010). Boah, J. K,Samuah, S.K. and Blanc, P. Le, Corrosion, 46, 153 ( 1990 ) Brown, M.C. Assessment of Comercial Corrosion Inhibiting Admixtures For Reinforced Concrete, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, ( Nov-1999 ) C. O. Orangun, I. O. Jirsa, and J. E. Breen, A Reevaluation of Test Data on Development Length and Splices, ACI Journal, vol. 74, no. 3, pp. 114-122,( March 1977). Cabrera, J.G. Deterioration of concrete due to reinforcement steel corrosion. Cement and Concrete Composites. 18 (1), 4759. (1996). Caims.l. and Ramli Ahdullah., "Fundamental Tests on the Effect of an Epoxy Coating on Bond Strength," ACI .loumal I.luly- August No. 91-M32. pp. 331-338. (1994). Cao, H.T,Bucea, L. and Sirivivatnanon, V., Cem. Concr. Res., 23, 1273 ( 1993 ) Cao,V. and Baweja, D. and Roper,H., Cem. Concr. RES.,20, 325 ( 1990 ) Chung, L. et.al., Bond strength prediction for reinforced concrete members with highly corroded reinforcing bars. Cement and Concrete Composites, 30, 603-611. (2008). David W. "Bond Stress in Concrete Pullout Specimens." American Concrete Institute, Vol 13. No.1, September, pp. 37-50. (1941). Ghani,U. Shabbir, F.,31st Conference on OUR WORLD IN CONCRETE &STRUCTURES,Singapore,16-17 August, 2006. Goni ,S.and Andrade, Cem. C., Concr. Res.,20,525 ( 1990 ) Hadi,N.S., Bond of High Strength Concrete with High Strength Reinforcing Steel, The Open Civil Engineering Journal, Volume 2, 143-147,(2008)

43

Hassan, A.A., Bond of Reinforcement in Concrete with Different Types of Corroded Bars, Thesis and Dissertations, Paper 133 ( 2003 ) Ijsseling, F.P., Application of electrochemical methods of corrosion rate determination to system involving corrosion product layers. British corrosion, 21(2), 95-101(1986). Jones, D.A. (1996). Principles and prevention of corrosion. Upper Saddle River (NJ). Kahyaoglu,H.,Erbil,M. and Yilmaz,A.B., TUBITAK, pp.759-769, (2002). Kivell,A., Palermo,A. and Scott, A., Effects of Bond Deterioration due to Corrosion in Reinforced Concrete, PCEE, 14-16, (New Zealand -2011). Kobayashi, K., Shuttoh, K. Cem. Concr. Res., 21, 273 ( 1991 ) Lee, H.S., Noguchi, T., Tomosawa, F., Evaluation of the bond properties between concrete and reinforcement as a function of the degree of reinforcement corrosion. Cement and Concrete Research. 32 (8), 13131318. (2002). Lundgren K., Bond between ribbed bars and concrete. Part 1: Modified model. Magazine of Concrete Research, 57(7), 371-382. (2005). Lundgren K., Effect of corrosion on the bond between steel and concrete: an overview. Magazine of Concrete Research, 59(6):447-461. (2007). M. R. Esfahani and B. V. Rangan, Bond Between Normal Strength and High-Strength Concrete (HSC) and Reinforcing Bars in Splices in Beams, ACI Structural Journal, vol. 95, no. 3, pp. 272-280, May-Jun. (1998). Neville, A.M., (4th Edition),Properties of Concrete, Pearson Education, Inc. One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 USA ( 2006 ) Newman, J. Choo, B.S. Advanced Concrete Technology, Elsevier, Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, 200 Wheeler Road, Burlington. (2003) Park, R. and Paulay, T. Reinforced Concrete Structures. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. . (1975). Park. R.and Paulay, T., "Reinforced Concrete Structure," Ultimate strength design of reinforced concrete structures, vol.1, printed by the University of Canterbury for extension study seminars conducted for practicing structural engineers in New Zealand. (1975). Raupach, M., Material and Struc., 29, 174 ( 1996 ) Shetty, A. and Vekataramana, K., Effectof Loss of Bond Strength Due to Corrosion in Reinforced Concrete Members, ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 04, NO. 06, PP. 879-884 (2011 ) Smith, Roger W., The effects of Corrosion on the Performance of reinforced Concrete Beam. Thesis and Dissertations. Paper-149 (2007 ) Soroka, I. Portland cement paste and concrete. Chemical Publishing Company, Inc., New York, 1980. Trejo, D. and Monteiro P.J. ,Corrosion performance of conventional (ASTM A615) and low-alloy (ASTM A706) reinforcing bars embedded in concrete and exposed to chloride environments. Cement and Concrete Research, (35). (2005). Whittington, H. W., McCarter, J. and Forde, M. C., The Condition of Electricity through Concrete, Mag. Concr. Res., 33, No. 114, pp.48-60 ( 1981 ) Zheng, J.J., Li,C. Q. and Lawanwisut, W. , Modeling of Crack Width in Concrete Structures Due to Expansion of Reinforcement Corrosion, 10BMC International
44

Conference on Durability of Building Materials and Components ,LYON, France, ( April-2005 )

45