Mechanical Vibration I

Dr.
Bassuny EL-Souhily Chapter I Mechanical Vibrations

1

CHAPTER I
Fundamentals of vibration

Vibration:
It's the motion of a body or a system that is repeated after a given interval of time
known as the period.
Frequency:
-The number of cycles of the motion per unit time (c.p.m, r.p.m, cps, Hz, rad/s).
Amplitude:
- The maximum displacement (velocity, acceleration or force) of the body or
some parts of the system from the equilibrium position is the amplitude of the
vibration of that point.
-

Figure 1 Phase relationships among displacement, velocity, and
acceleration are shown on these time history plots.

Natural Frequency:
If a body is suddenly disturbed in some manner it will vibrate at a definite frequency
known as its natural frequency ().
Dr. Bassuny EL-Souhily Chapter I Mechanical Vibrations
2

Figure 2: The Main parameters of the Simple harmonic motion

Importance of the study of vibration:
I- Most human activities involve vibration in one from or other:
1- We hear because our eardrums vibrate.
2- We see because light waves undergo vibration.
3- Breathing is associated with the vibration of lungs.
4-Walking involves oscillatory motion of legs and hands.
5-We speak due to the oscillatory motion of larynges (tongue).

II- Most prime movers have vibrational problems due to unbalance in the engines.
The unbalance may be due to faulty design or poor manufacture:
1- Imbalance in diesel engines can cause ground waves sufficiently powerful
to create a nuisance in urban areas.
2- The wheels of some locomotion can rise more than a centimeter off the
track at high speeds due to unbalance.
3-In turbines vibrations cause spectacular mechanical
failures.
4-The structures designed to support heavy centrifugal machines, like motors
and turbines, or reciprocating machines, like steam and gas engines and
reciprocating pumps, are subjected to vibration. The structure or machine
component subjected to vibration can fail because of material fatigue resulting
from the cyclic variation of the induced stress.
5-the vibration causes more rapid wear of machine parts such as bearings and
gears and also creates excessive noise.
6-vibration causes looseness of fasteners, poor surface finish.
III- Whenever the natural frequency of vibration of a machine or structure coincides
with the frequency of the external excitation, there occurs a phenomenon known as
3

resonance, which leads to excessive defection and failure (Tacoma narrows bridge
during wind induced vibration opened can july\1940,collapsed on nov,7(1940).

IV- The transmission of vibration to human beings results in discomfort and loss of
efficiency.

One of the important purposes of vibration study is to reduce vibration through
proper design of machines and their mountings, the mechanical engineer tries to
design the engine or machine so as to minimize unbalance, while the structural
engineer tries to design the supporting structure so as to ensure that the effect of the
imbalance will not be harmful .

In spite of its detrimental effects, vibration can be utilized profitably in several
consumer and industrial applications.
1- Vibration is put to work in vibratory conveyors, hoppers, sieves,
compactors, washing machines electric tooth brushes, dentist's drill,
clocks, and electric massaging units.
2- Vibration is also used in pile driving, vibratory testing of materials,
vibratory finishing processes, and electronic circuits to filter out the
unwanted frequencies.
3- Vibration has been found to improve the efficiency of certain machining,
casting, forging, and
4- It is employed to simulate earthquakes for geological research.

Basic concepts of vibration

1- Elementary parts of vibrating systems:

-Vibratory system, in general includes:
a- A mean for storing kinetic energy (mass or inertia).
b- A mean for storing potential energy (springs or elastic members).
c- A mean by which energy is gradually lost. (dampers).

-the vibration of a system involves the transfer of its potential energy to kinetic
energy and kinetic energy to potential energy, atternately. If the system is damped,
some energy is dissipated in each cycle of vibration and must be replaced by an
external source if a state of steady vibration is to be maintained.
4

2- Degree of freedom:

Degree of freedom is the minimum number of independent coordinates required to
determine completely the positions of all parts of a system at any instant of time.

5

3- Discrete and Continuous System:-
-Some systems, especially those involving continuous elastic members, have an
infinite number of degrees of freedom. (e.g. cantilever beam).
-Systems with a finite number of degree of freedom are called continuous or
distribute systems.
-Most of the time, continuous systems are approximated as discrete system, (more
accurate results are obtained by increasing the number of degrees of freedom.
-The analysis methods available for dealing with continuous systems are limited to a
narrow selection of problems, such as uniforms beams, slender rods, and thin plates.
6

Classification of Vibration

- Free and forced vibration:

Free vibrations: If a system, after an initial disturbance, is left to vibrate on its own,
the vibration is known as free vibration no external force acts on the systems (e.g.
simple pendulum).

Forced vibration: If a system is subjected to an external force, the resulting
vibration is known as forced vibration if the frequency of the external force
coincides with one of the natural frequencies of the system, a conditions known as
resonance occurs (large oscillation). Failures of such structures as building, bridges,
turbines and airplane wings have been associated with the occurrence of resonance.

7

- Undamped and damped vibration:

- If no energy is lost or dissipated in friction or other resistance during oscillation,
the vibration is undamped vibration.
- If any energy is lost, it is called damped vibration.
-consideration of damping becomes extremely important in analyzing vibration
systems near resonance.

- Linear and nonlinear vibration:
- If all the basic components of a vibratory system, the spring, the mass, and the
damper, behave linearly, the resulting linear vibration.
-If any behave non-linearly, the vibration is called nonlinear vibration.

- Deterministic and random vibration:
-If the value or magnitude of the excitation (force or motion) acting on vibrating
system is known at any given time, the excitation is called deterministic. The
resulting vibration is known as deterministic vibration.

Figure 2.4: Effect of damping in free vibration
on the amplitude of the vibration
8

Deterministic (periodic) excitatuin

-If the value of the excitation at a given time cannot be predicted,
the resulting vibration is known as random. (e.g. wind velocity,
road roughness, and ground motion during earthquakes).

t

x(t)
t

t
x(t)
9

Random excitation

Vibration analysis procedure

- A vibratory system is a dynamic system for which the variables such as the
excitations (input) and responses (outputs) are time-dependent.
The response of a vibrating system generally depends on the initial conditions as
well as the external excitations.
-Most practical vibrating systems are very complex, and it is impossible to consider
all the details for a mathematical analysis.
-The analysis of a vibration system usually involves mathematical modeling,
derivation of the governing equations solution of the equations, and interpretation of
the result.

Step1: Mathematical Modeling:

The purpose of it is to represent all the important features of the system for the
purpose of deriving the mathematical (or analytical) equations governing the
behavior of the system.
The mathematical model is gradually improved to obtain more accurate results.
10

11

12

Step 2: Derivation of governing Equations:

Once the Mathematical model is available, we use the principles of dynamics and
derive the equations that describe the vibration of the system. The equations of
motion can be derived by Newton's second law, d'Alembert principle, and the
principle of conservation of energy.

Step3: Solution of the governing Equations:

The equations of motion must be solved to find the response of the vibrating system,
using the following techniques.
1-Standard methods of solving differential equations.
2-Laplace transformation methods.
3-Matrix method.
4-Numerical methods.

Steps4: Interpretation of the results:

-The solution gives the displacements, velocities, and accelerations of the various
masses of the system, these results must be interpreted with a clear view of the
purpose of the analysis and possible design implications of the results.

Spring Elements

The stiffness "k" of a spring element is a relation between the force F and the
deflection x where;

k =
x d
F d
= the slope of curve

x
F
a b c
13

The relation between the force and the deflection is illustrated in previous figure.
If the stiffness increases with the force, curve (a), the spring is called nonlinear
hard.
If the stiffness decreases with the force, curve (c), the spring is called nonlinear
soft.
If the stiffness is constant, line (b), the spring is called linear spring.

Linear springs are available in a broad range of springs and elastic elements. All
springs are considered approximately linear over a certain range of deformation.
The analysis in this course is concerned only with applications having linear
springs. The following table lists a variety of spring elements.

Element Name Stiffness

Coil
3
4
R n 64
d G
k =
n = number of coils
R = radius
d = wire diameter

Series
2 1
2 1
k k
k k
k =

Parallel k = k
1
+ k
2

Longitudinal bar
L
A E
k =

Cantilever beam
3
L
I E 3
k =

Simply supported beam
2 2
b a
) b a ( I E 3
k
+
=

Fixed-hinged beam
) a 8 L 3 ( a
I E 24
k
2
+
=
k
1
k
2

k
1

k
2

E, A, L

E, I, L

a b
L a
14

Hinged-hinged
2
a ) a L (
I E 3
k
+
=

Spiral spring
L
I E
k
t
=

Torsion bar
L
J G
k
t
=
Damping Elements

The vibrational energy is gradually converted to heat or sound. Dampers are
devices which are used to dissipate energy from the system in order to reduce the
vibrations.
A damper is assumed to have neither mass nor elasticity.
Damping force exists only if there is relative velocity between the two ends of the
damper.
Damping is modeled as one or more of the following:

1-Viscous damping

Viscous damping is the most commonly used damping mechanism in vibration
analysis (fluid medium such as air, gas, water, or oil).
Typical examples of viscous damping include:
a- Fluid films between sliding surfaces,
b- Fluid flow around a piston in a cylinder,
c- Fluid flow through an orifice, and
d- Fluid film around a journal bearing.
F
d
= c

2-Coulomb damping (or Dry Friction)

The resisting force is constant in magnitude. Its direction is opposite to the
direction of the velocity. It is caused by friction between rubbing surfaces that
either dry or have insufficient lubrication.

x
L a
15

3-Internal, solid, material or hysteric damping

When a material is deformed, there is an internal resistance due the sliding action
of the molecules, energy dissipated by the material, due to friction between internal
planes, which slip or slide.

SIGNAL ANALYSIS

When a body vibrates, it undergoes
an oscillatory motion. In order to study the
nature of the vibrations of bodies we transfer the mechanical motion to an
electrical signal which is easier to deal with. A signal in its broad meaning has
repetitive nature. Generally, a signal is a combination of several signal
components. For example, if we study the electromagnetic signals of radio stations,
T V, or cellular phones, we find that these signals are combinations of discrete
frequencies, each represents one particular station. Sound signals are also examples
of compound signals. We hear different sounds at the same time. Sound results
from the vibration of bodies. Also, hearing the sounds is a result of the vibration of
the ear drum. We can hear different sounds at the same time and distinguish
between them. Each body has its unique vibration characteristics.

So, in general, a compound signal is the sum of many fundamental signals, each
has a single frequency and certain strength. Such fundamental signal is known as
the harmonic signal. In the following sections we shall discuss the different types
of signals. For compound signals, we shall be able to analyze them to extract the
constituents of the harmonic signals. This is known as signal analysis.

Harmonic Motion

It is the simplest form of a periodic motion. It is known as simple harmonic
motion. Mathematically, it is represented by the sinusoidal function (a sine or a
cosine function). Graphically, the sine curve is the vertical projection of a vector of
length A rotating with an angular frequency (simply called frequency)
16

which is measured in rad/s; it makes an angle = t with the horizontal axis; t
is the time. The cosine curve is the vertical projection of a vector of length A
rotating with an angular velocity ; it makes angle = t with the vertical
axis, as shown in the figure. We conclude that the cosine function is leading the
sine function by 90
o
.

x = A sin (1)

y = A cos (2)

Where, A is known as the amplitude and = t. Both curves make a complete
cycle when the vectors rotate an angle equals to 2t". This corresponds to one
complete cycle of the harmonic curve. The time of one cycle is called the period
"t" such that

t = 2t

t =
e
t 2

The circular frequency "f" is the number of cycles per second. Its unit is Hz
(Hertz). Its value is given by

f =
t
e
=
t 2
1

e
t 2
t

t
e
t 2
t
A
A
t
x = A cos t
x = A sin t
17

The relation between the circular frequency and the angular frequency is

= 2 t f

Important conclusion For the sake of graphical representation, a sine function can
be considered as a vector that makes an angle with the horizontal axis. Likewise, a
cosine function can be considered as a vector that makes an angle with the vertical
axis as shown.

Combination of Two Harmonics :

a- Having the Same Frequency

Consider a signal given by,

x = A
1
sin t +

A
2
sin (t + )

is a phase angle between the two signals. Using the vector representation, A
1
sin t is represented by a vector of length A
1

that makes an angle t with the
x-axis. Similarly, A
2
sin (t + ) is represented by a vector of length A
2
that
makes an angle t + with the x-axis. The resultant vector is a vector of length
C which makes an angle t + with the x-axis, and is represented by

x = C sin ( t + ) (3)

C
2
=
2
1
A

+
2
2
A + 2 A
1
A
2
cos (4)
A
1
C
A
2

t

y

x
A
1
18

tan =
cos
sin
2 1
2
A A
A
+
(5)

b- Having Different Frequencies

Suppose we have a signal which is composed from two harmonics with
frequencies
1
and
2
;
2
>
1
. The resultant signal is

x = b

sin
1
t +a

sin
2
t

Periodic motion

1- The resultant motion is not simple harmonic motion but periodic motion,
2- The amplitude various between (a+b) when the vectors are in phase and
minimum value (b-a) when they are 180
o
off phase,
3- The period of the compound periodic motion is the time interval required for
one component vector to rotate a complete revolution relative to the other
[i.e. 2/(
1

2
)],
4- The angular velocity of the resultant is (
1
+

2
)/2,
5- The interval between successive peaks is . 2/[(
1
+

2
) /2]

Beats:
19

Beating is an interesting phenomenon that occurs when a system with very little
damping is subjected to an excitation source that has a frequency very close to its
natural frequency,
(or, when two harmonic motions, with frequencies close to one another, are
added).

x = A
1

sin
1
t +A
2
sin
2
t

Case 1:
When A
1
= A
2
= A and
2
is very close to
1

The resultant vector bisects the angle between the two vectors. Then

= (
2
-
1
)t

The angle of the resultant vector is

1
t + (
2
-
1
) t = (
2
+
1
)t

The length of the resultant vector is given by

C = 2 A cos (
2
-
1
)t

C
A

1
t
= (
2

1
)t/2
x
y

2
t
A

t
2
t ) (
1 2

x
20

Therefore,
x = 2 A [cos (
2
-
1
)t sin (
2
+
1
)t]
1- The amplitude of this motion slowly fluctuated between 0 and 2A according
to the term 2 A cos (
2
-
1
)t,
2- The period of fluctuating is 2/ (
2
-
1
),
3- The time between two successive maximum and minimum values will be
2/(
2
-
1
), (period of beating),
4- The frequency of the harmonic signal is (
2
+
1
),
5- The vibration period is 2/ (
2
+
1
),
6- The beating frequency is
2
-
1
.

Case 2:
When A
1
A
2
and
2
is very close to
1

x
1
= A
1

sin
1
t and x
2
= A
2
sin
2
t

if = (
2
+
1
), = (
2
-
1
)

x
1
= A
1

sin ( - )t and x
2
= A
2
sin ( + )t

x = (A
1
+A
2
) cos t sin t + (A
1
- A
2
) sin t cos t

t
2
t ) (
1 2

x
21

= C sin (t +)
Where,
C= A
1
2
+ A
2
2
+ 2 A
1
A
2
cos 2t

Max. amplitude C
max
= A
1
+ A
2

Min. amplitude C
min
= A
1
- A
2

Vibration period 4/ (
2
+
1
),

Beating period 2 /(
2
-
1)
.

Periodic Motion Fourier Series

When machines or structures are subjected to an excitation involving more than
one frequency, the resulting vibration is said to be periodic.
Consider a signal which consists of several components.

x = A
1
sin
1
t + A
2
sin
2
t + . +A
n
sin
n
t (7)

Consider the case when the frequencies of the components have definite relations
such that

2
= 2
1
,
3
= 3
1
, ,
n
= n
1

The resultant is a periodic signal with a periodic frequency equal to
1
,
1
is
called the fundamental frequency. The period is equal to
1
2
e
t
. If the number of
components is infinite, the function is still periodic. The shape of the function
depends on the amplitude of the components. In general, the terms in Eq. (7) may
include sine and cosine functions. This type of functions is represented by Fourier
series. It is written in the form

x(t) =
=
e + e
0 n
n n
) t n sin b t n cos a ( (8)

22

The summation of signals with frequencies which are multiple of the first
frequency results in a periodic signal. Here we want to do the reverse. We have a
periodic function x(t) with a period t and need to obtain its frequency
components. In the case of periodic functions Fourier analysis is used. In general,
x(t) is put in the form of Eq. (8) which can be written in the form:
x (t) = a
o
+
=
e + e
1 n
1 n 1 n
) t n sin b t n cos a ( (9)

Expanding Eq. (9), then

x (t) = a
o
+ a
1
cos
1
t + a
2
cos
2
t +
+ b
1
sin
1
t + b
2
sin
2
t

+ (10)

Where,

1
=
t
t 2

n
= n
1

Multiply both sides of Eq. (10) by cos
n
t and integrate over the period t. For
the right hand side it is known that:

}
t
= t
=
= e e
0
m n
n m if 2 /
n m if 0
t d t cos t cos (11)
t

x(t)
t
23

}
t
=
=
= e e
0
m n
n m if 0
n m if 0
t d t sin t cos (12)

Similarly, multiplying both sides of Eq. (10) by sin
n
t and integrate over the
period t.

}
t
= t
=
= e e
0
m n
n m if 2 /
n m if 0
t d t sin t sin (13)

}
t
=
=
= e e
0
m n
n m if 0
n m if 0
t d t cos t sin (14)

Use Eqs. (11), (12), (13) and (14) we get

a
n
=
}
t
e
t
0
n
t d t cos ) t ( x
2
n = 0, 1, 2, (15)

b
n
=
}
t
e
t
0
n
t d t sin ) t ( x
2
n = 1, 2, (16)

After obtaining the coefficients a
n
and b
n
, Eq. (9) can be written in the form

x (t) = a
o
+
=
+ e
1 n
n 1 n
) t n ( sin c (17)

Where c
n
is the amplitude of the component with frequency
n
and
n
is a
phase angle. Their values are given by

c
n
=
2
n
2
n
b a +

n
= tan
-1
n
n
b
a

Example 1

Determine the Fourier series for the half sine wave signal shown in Figure.

24

Solution

The signal is represented by
x =
t
tt
sin 2 for 0 t t

a
n
=
}
t
t
t
t
t
t
0
t d
t n 2
cos
t
sin
4

=
) 1 n 4 (
) n (cos 8
2
2
t
t

=
) 1 n 4 (
8
2
t
n = 0, 1, 2

b
n
=
}
t
t
t
t
t
t
0
t d
t n 2
sin
t
sin
4

=
) 1 n 4 (
n 2 sin 4
2
t
t

= 0 for all values of n.

The Fourier series for this signal is
x (t) =
=
t
+
t
1 n
2
t n 2
cos
) 1 n 4 (
8 4

0 t 2t t

x (t)

n
c
n
25

The frequency spectrum is a plot of the amplitudes with the frequencies. They give
a true picture for the whole signal. The spectrum of the signal of Example 1 is
shown in the above figure.

C
n
=
t ) 1 n 4 (
8
2

Example 2

Determine the Fourier series for the rectangular pulses shown in figure. Plot the
frequency spectrum.

Solution

The signal is represented by

x = A for 0 t t
x = 0 for t t T

0 t T t
x (t)

A
Fig. 1-10
26

1
=
T
2t
,
n
=
T
n 2t

Apply Eqs. (1-15) and (1-16), then

a
n
=
}
t
e
0
n
t d t cos
T
A 2

= t e
e
n
n
sin
T
A 2

b
n
=
}
t
e
0
n
t d t sin
T
A 2

= ) cos 1 (
T
A 2
n
n
t e
e

The amplitude is given by c
n

c
n
=
2
n
2
n
b a +

Substitute the values of a
n
, b
n
, and
n
. After simplifications

c
n
=
T
n
sin
n
A 2 t t
t

The Fourier series is given by

x (t) =
=
(
+
t t t
t
0 n
n
)
T
t n 2
( sin
T
n
sin
n
A 2

The spectrum of this signal is shown in Figure.

1
n
e
e

t A 2
T c
n
27

Random Motion Fourier integral/Fourier Transforms

As the period of a periodic function approaches infinity, the frequency spectrum
approaches being continuous, rather than discrete. At the same time the Fourier
series approaches an integral that is referred as the Fourier integral.
The Fourier transform pair consists of two integrals, one that transforms a time
function to the frequency domain and one that a frequency function to time
domain.
If the frequencies in Eq. (7) have different values, the resulting signal is random. It
does not repeat itself and has a random shape, as shown in figure.

Random signal contains components with discrete frequencies. There are several
methods to analyze such signals. The most common method is Fourier transform.
If a random signal is represented by x(t) its Fourier transform pair is given by
X() = t d e t x
t i e

}
) (
(18)
x(t) = e e
e
d e X
t i

}
) (

t
x(t)
28

The absolute value of X() is the amplitude of the component which has a
frequency .
Example 3
Find the Fourier transform for the rectangular signal shown in Figure.
Solution

The random function x(t) is given by
x (t) = A 0 t t
x (t) = 0 t > t
Apply Eq. (11), then
X () =
e
A i
(e
- i t
- 1)
=
e
i A
(cos t - i sin t - 1)
The absolute value of X () is given by

e
= e
A
) ( X t e + t e
2 2
sin ) 1 (cos
t e
e
= cos 2 2
A

2
sin
A 2 t e
e
=
2
2
sin
A
t e
t e
t =
The frequency spectrum is shown in Figure.
There is a major difference between the frequency spectrum of the repeated
rectangular pulses of Example 2 and the rectangular pulse of Example 3. The first
has distinct frequencies due to the periodic nature of the signal, while the second
A
0 t t

x(t)
29

contains all the values of the frequencies. In other words, the spectrum of the first
signal is formed from lines while the spectrum of the second is continuous.

Frequency Analyzers Spectrum Analyzers

- Digital frequency analyzers, or spectrum analyzers, at use at present to
experimentally determine the Fourier coefficients of a complicated
vibrations of machines, such analyzers have a fast Fourier transform (FFT)
processor, which transforms digitally sampled time-domain into a finite
number of frequency components (Fourier coefficients).
- FFT is a computer algorithm, which is fast and efficient scheme for
computing a finite number of Fourier coefficients.
- Digital frequency analyzers can also synthesize the original time-domain
signal from the frequency components.
- Digital frequency analyzers are also used as part of preventive-(and
predictive) maintenance procedures for machines, for example, such
procedure might involve the periodic check of a machines vibration
characteristics to determine if any significant changes have occurred in them
because of bearing or gear wear, loose fasteners, fractures and so on.

Impact Hammers

Impact hammers are used to excite small structures and machines with an impulse,
the width of the impulse, and the frequency range over which the amplitudes are
essentially constant, depends upon the hardness of the hammer striker tip and upon
the material and stiffness of the system to which the hammer is applied.

Measuring Parameters
t A
X

2
t e

30

A vibration signal is measured by means of several parameters, namely
- Displacement: It is a measure for the amount of the distant traveled by the
vibrating part. It is measured in micrometers (10
-6
m). Displacement
measurement is used in the cases where the vibration frequency is below 10
Hz.
- Peak value: It represents the severity of the signal. It is equal to the amplitude
"A".
- Peak-to- peak value: The distance from the top of the signal to its bottom is
the peak-to-peak value. It is equal to 2 A.
- Velocity: It is equal to A. It is used to measure the vibration severity over
a wide range of frequencies from 10 Hz to 1000 Hz. It is measured in mm/s.
- Acceleration: It is equal to
2
A. It is usually expressed in "g"; where g is
the gravitational acceleration. The acceleration is used to measure vibrations
with frequencies higher than 1000 Hz.
- Spike Energy: This is a fairly abstract quantity that cannot be related to a
picture of vibrating weight. The spike energy measurements include very
short duration, high frequency, spike-like pulses of vibration that occur in
machinery, for example, faulty rolling bearings and gears.
- Average value: It is the average value of the rectified harmonic signal. It is
given by
x
av
= u u
t
}
t
0
d sin
A

= A 637 . 0
A 2
=
t

- Root mean square value (rms): The square of the displacement is associated
with the amount of energy. The root mean square value is a measure for the
energy. It is obtained from the average of the squared harmonic signal.
x
rms
= ( )
}
t
u u
t
0
2
d sin
1
A = A 707 . 0
2
A
=
31

- Decibel (dB): It is a unit of measurement which is frequently used in sound
measurement. It is defined in terms of the power ratio.
dB = 10 log
10

2
2
1
x
x
|
|
.
|
\
|

= 20 log
10

|
|
.
|
\
|
2
1
x
x

x
2
is a reference value depends on the measured parameter.
- Octave: An octave is a frequency band width from f
1
to f
2
such that
2
f
f
1
2
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
. Thus the band width from 2 Hz to 4 Hz is an octave. Also, the band
width from 100 Hz to 200 Hz is an octave, and so on. So, the octave is
not a fixed band width but depends on the frequency range being considered.
Modulation
Modulation is the variation of one parameter of a signal by the action of another
signal. A common type of modulation is amplitude modulation, where the
amplitude of one signal (called the "carrier") is caused to fluctuate in response to a
modulating signal. This is the way AM radio transmission works; a high-frequency
wave called the carrier is caused to fluctuate in level in accordance with the voice
or music signal being transmitted. The radio receiver picks up the modulated
carrier and performs a demodulation to extract the audio signal. Frequency
modulation is another type where the frequency of the carrier is varied rather than
the amplitude. Modulation of a carrier causes new components to appear in the
spectrum and they are called sidebands. The frequencies of the sidebands are equal
to the carrier frequency plus and minus the modulating frequency.
In rotating machinery there are many fault mechanisms which can cause amplitude
and frequency modulation, and vibration analysis exposes the sidebands.
Demodulation can be performed to detect the modulation frequencies directly.
Amplitude Demodulation

Amplitude modulation is defined as the multiplication of one time-domain signal
by another time-domain signal. The signals may or may not be complex in nature,
i.e., either or both signals may contain harmonics components. It is impossible to
have amplitude modulation unless at least two different signals are involved. The
signals may be electrical in nature, or they can be vibration signals. Modulation is
32

inherently a non-linear process, and always gives rise to frequency components
that did not exist in either of the two original signals

Amplitude Modulated Wave Form
If the amplitude-modulated signal shown here is passed through a frequency
analyzer, the following spectrum is the result. The highest peak is the carrier
frequency. The right-hand peak is the upper sideband, and has a frequency of the
carrier frequency plus the modulating frequency. The left-hand peak or lower
sideband has a frequency of the carrier minus the modulating frequency. The
sidebands are sometimes called sum and difference frequencies because of their
symmetrical spacing around the carrier.
Amplitude modulation also occurs in sound reproducing equipment, where it is
called Intermodulation Distortion. The sum and difference frequencies are not in
musical harmony with the tones that cause them, making intermodulation a
particularly noticeable form of sound distortion.

Spectrum of Modulated Wave Form

Rectified Wave Form
33

Recovered Modulating Signal

This process of demodulation is exactly what happens in an AM radio -- the carrier
is a very high frequency signal generated by the radio station, and the modulating
signal is the voice or music that constitutes the program. The radio receives the
modulated carrier, amplifies it, and rectifies (detects) it to recover the program.
Modulation Effects

Modulation is a non-linear effect in which several signals interact with one another
to produce new signals with frequencies not present in the original signals.
Modulation effects are the bane of the audio engineer, for they produce
"intermodulation distortion", which is annoying to the music listener. There are
many forms of modulation, including frequency and amplitude modulation, and the
subject is quite complex.

Frequency modulation (FM) is the varying in frequency of one signal by the
influence of another signal, usually of lower frequency. The frequency being
modulated is called the "carrier". In the spectrum shown above, the largest
component is the carrier, and the other components which look like harmonics, are
called "sidebands". These sidebands are symmetrically located on either side of
the carrier, and their spacing is equal to the modulating frequency.
34

Frequency modulation occurs in machine vibration spectra, especially in gearboxes
where the gear mesh frequency is modulated by the rpm of the gear. It also occurs
in some sound system loudspeakers, where it is called FM distortion, although it is
generally at a very low level.

This example shows amplitude modulation at about 50% of full modulation
Notice that the frequency of the waveform seems to be constant and that it is
fluctuating up and down in level at a constant rate. This test signal was produced
by rapidly varying the gain control on a function generator while recording the
signal.

The spectrum has a peak at the frequency of the carrier, and two more components
on each side. These extra components are the sidebands. Note that there are only
two sidebands here compared to the great number produced by frequency
modulation. The sidebands are spaced away from the carrier at the frequency of
the modulating signal, in this case at the frequency at which the control knob was
wiggled. In this example, the modulating frequency is much lower than the
modulated or carrier frequency, but the two frequencies are often close together in
practical situations. Also these frequencies are sine waves, but in practice, both the
modulated and modulating signals are often complex. For instance, the transmitted
signal from an AM radio station contains a high-frequency carrier, and many
sidebands resulting from the carrier modulation by the voice or music signal being
broadcast.

35

Beats

If two sounds, vibrations, or electrical signals have nearly the same frequency and
they are linearly added together, their combined amplitude will fluctuate up and
down at a rate equal to the difference frequency between them. This phenomenon
is called beating, and is very commonly seen in practice. For instance, a
musician tunes his instrument by listening for beats between two tones that are
nearly the same pitch.

This waveform looks like amplitude modulation, but is actually just two sine wave
signals added together to form beats. Because the signals are slightly different in
frequency, their relative phase varies from zero to 360 degrees, and this means the
combined amplitude varies due to reinforcement and partial cancellation. The
spectrum shows the frequency and amplitude of each component, and there are no
sidebands present. In this example, the amplitudes of the two beating signals are
different, causing incomplete cancellation at the null points between the maxima.
Beating is a linear process -- no additional frequency components are created.
Electric motors often produce sound and vibration signatures that resemble
beating, where the beat rate is at twice the slip frequency. This is not actually
beating, but is in fact amplitude modulation of the vibration signature at twice the
slip frequency. Probably it has been called beating because it sounds somewhat
like the beats present in the sound of an out of tune musical instrument.
The following example of beats shows the combined waveform when the two
beating signals are the same amplitude. At first glance, this looks like 100%
36

amplitude modulation, but close inspection of the minimum amplitude area shows
that the phase is reversed at that point.

'

This looks like 100% amplitude modulation!
This example of beats is like the previous one, but the levels of the two signals are
the same, and they cancel completely at the nulls. This complete cancellation is
quite rare in actual signals encountered in rotating equipment.

Earlier we learned that beats and amplitude modulation produce similar
waveforms. This is true, but there is a subtle difference. These waveforms are
enlarged for clarity. Note that in the case of beats, there is a phase change at the
point where cancellation is complete.

37

A beating waveform looks very much like amplitude modulation, but it is actually
completely different. A spectrum analysis of beats produces only the two
frequency components that are combined -- there are no new frequencies such as
sidebands present. It is easy to confuse beats with amplitude modulation, but a
spectrum analysis will show the difference. In general, beats are benign, and do not
imply faults in machines. For example, the sound of two similar machines running
side by side at slightly different speeds will often produce audible beats. This is
simply the sounds made by the machines combining in air to produce the
amplitude fluctuations.

References:

1- Mechanical Vibrations Singiresu S. Rao Addison_Wesley publishing
company.
2- Theory of Vibration with Applications William T. Thomson Prentice
hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
3- Vibration of Mechanical and Structural systems M. L. James, G. M.
Smith, J. C. Wolford, and P. W. Whaley Harper & Row, publishers, New
York.
4- A course in Mechanical Vibrations Mahmoud Mostafa Faculty of
Engineering, University of Alexandria.

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Dr.

Bassuny EL-Souhily Chapter I Mechanical Vibrations

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