Foundations of Group Behavior

How Groups Work

Synergy is the goal (Things so combined that they are more effective together than the sum of their separate parts)

Study Questions
What is the nature of groups in organizations? The dynamics of group formation and various types of groups What are the stages of group development? What are the foundations of group performance? How do groups make decisions?

What is the nature of groups in organizations?

The group is recognized as an important sociological and social psychological unit of analysis in the study of organizational behavior Studying groups is valuable when the dynamics are analyzed Group dynamics-are the interactions and forces among group members in social situations

What is the nature of groups in organizations?

Work group and teams is soaring First used in corporate giants such as Toyota Motorola, General Mills and General Electric Study and application of groups is undergoing considerable controversy and change

What is the nature of groups in organizations?

In a commentary about the status of groups in the field of OB Alderfer noted: Groups and Group dynamics are a little like the weathersomething that nearly everyone talks about and only few do anything about it In the world of practice we hear leaders speaking out to encourage team work-support empowering people-establish organizational cultures that promote total quality management Each initiatives depends on understanding groups and acting effectively with them

What is the nature of groups in organizations?

Todays social environment surrounding groups is changing Example-There is the assumption that Generation Xers and now called Echo Generations(offspring of the now aging Baby Boomers) Difficult to manage in groups-they have low needs for group affiliation high needs for individual achievement-doing their own thing Solution may be found in the careful construction of rewards and performance measures to obtain cooperation and collaboration

 Group a collection of two or more people who work with one another regularly to achieve common goals In a true group 1.Members are mutually dependent on one another to achieve common goals 2.Members interact with one another to pursue those goals over a sustained period of time Groups are important resources that are good for both organizations and their members Help accomplish important tasks Help maintain a high-quality workforce by satisfying needs of their members

Meaning of a Group

Meaning of a Group and Group Dynamics

The term group can be defined in a number of different waysdepends on the perspective that is taken A comprehensive definition would say that if a group exists in an organization its members 1. Are motivated to join 2. Perceiving the group as a unified unit of interacting people 3. Contribute in various amounts to the group processes(some people contribute more time or energy to the group than do others) 4. Reach agreements and have disagreements through various forms of interaction

Meaning of a Group and Group Dynamics

No one definition of the term group No universal agreement on what is meant by group dynamics Kurt Lewin father of group dynamics popularized the term in the 1030s One normative view is that the group dynamics describes how a group should be organized and conducted Democratic leadership member participation and overall cooperation are stressed

Meaning of a Group and Group Dynamics

Another view of group dynamics is that it consists of a set of techniques - Here Role playing Brainstorming Focus groups Leaderless groups Group therapy Sensitivity training Team building Transactional analysis Johari Window are traditionally equated with group dynamics -as are the more modern self managed and virtual teams

Meaning of a Group and Group Dynamics

A recent example of a new group technique is called creative abrasion Search for a clash of ideas rather than personal abrasion or the clash of people Goal is to develop creativity

What is the nature of groups in organizations?

What is an effective Group Scholar Harlod J.Leavitt well known advocate for the power and usefulness of groups Describes effective groups as power groups They thrive in conditions of crises and competition and whose competition and whose creativity and innovativeness generates extraordinary returns

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What is the nature of groups in organizations? Effective group

one that achieves high levels of task performance, member satisfaction, and team viability

What is the nature of groups in organizations? Effective groups achieve high levels of:
Task performance
Members attain performance goals regarding quantity, quality, and timeliness of work results

Members satisfaction
Members believe that their participation and experiences are positive and meet important personal needs

Team viability
Members are sufficiently satisfied to continue working together on an ongoing basis

Synergy is the goal

Synergy and Group accomplishment When groups are effective they help organizations accomplish important tasks -particularly they offer the potential for synergy Synergy Is the creation of a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts When synergy occurs groups accomplish more than the total of their members individual capabilities Group synergy is necessary for organizations to become competitive and achieve long term high performance in todays dynamic times

The Effective Manager

How groups can help organizations
Groups are good for people Groups can improve creativity Groups can make better decisions Groups can increase commitments to action Groups help control their members Groups help offset large organization size

What is the nature of groups in organizations? Situations in which groups are superior to individuals
When there is no clear expert in a particular problem or task When problem solving can be handled by a division of labor and the sharing of information When creativity and innovation are needed

What is the nature of groups in organizations? Potential benefits for group members
People learn from each other and share job skills and knowledge The learning environment and the pool of experience within a group can be used to solve difficult and unique problems Helpful to new comers Groups are important sources of need satisfaction for their members

What is the nature of groups in organizations? - Group members support and help each other in acquiring and improving job competencies-may make up for the deficiencies in organizational training systems

Why People Join Groups

Security Status Self-esteem Affiliation Power Goal Achievement

What is the nature of groups in organizations? Groups can also have problem Social loafing-Ringlemann effect
The tendency of people to work less hard in a group than they would individually. Reasons for social loafing
Individual contributions are less noticeable in the group context Some prefer to see others carry the workload

What is the nature of groups in organizations? Ways of preventing social loafing

Define roles and tasks to maximize individual interests Raise accountability by making individuals performance expectations clear and identifiable Tie individual rewards to performance contributions to the group

What is the nature of groups in organizations? Social facilitation is an important aspect of group work
The tendency for a persons behavior to be influenced by the presence of others

What is the nature of groups in organizations? Social facilitation theory

indicates that working in the presence of others creates an emotional arousal or excitement that stimulates behavior and therefore affects performance World class athlete in front of an enthusiastic hometown crowd Social facilitation can be negative when task is not well learned public speaking-trying to talk about an unfamiliar topic

Classifying Groups
Informal Group A group that is neither formally structured nor organizationally determined; appears in response to the need for social contact.(are unofficial & serve special interest)

Formal Group A designated work group defined by the organizations structure.(work unit headed by manager & direct reports)

Classifying Groups
Command Group(permanent) A group composed of the individuals who report directly to a given manager. Interest Group(informal) Those working together to attain a specific objective with which each is concerned. Task Group(temporary) Those working together to complete a job or task.

Friendship Group Those brought together because they share one or more common characteristics.

Formal groups
Formal groups can be permanent or temporary Permanent work groups or command groups in the vertical structure often appears in the organization chart as departments( market research dept) -division (consumer product division) -or teams (product assembly teams) Vary in size They are formed to perform specific function on an ongoing basis-continue till some decision to change or reconfigure the organization

Formal groups
Temporary work groups are task groups specifically created to solve a problem or perform a defined task -They disband once the assigned purpose or task is accomplished -Committees -Organizations make use of cross functional teams and task forces for special problem solving efforts Task force to examine possibility of implementing flexible work hours for non managerial position Project team specific task like (new email system-cross functional)

What is the nature of groups in organizations? Types of formal groups

Cross-functional teams or task forces
Engage in special problem-solving efforts drawing on input of the functional areas

Project teams
Formed to complete a specific task with a well-defined end point

Virtual group
Members work together via computers

What is the nature of groups in organizations? Informal groups

Emerge without being officially designated by the organization Types of informal groups
Friendship groups Interest groups

Dynamics of Group formation

Dynamics of Group formation Why do individuals form into groups? Lets discuss social psychology theories of group formation Why people affiliate with one another Basic theory of affiliation is propinquity Affiliation is because of Spatial and geographical proximity

Dynamics of Group formation

The drawback of propinquity theory is that it is not analytical and does not begin to explain some of the complexities of group formation and modern development of globalization and electronic online networking and telecommuting - virtual teams that are linked in cyberspace rather than physical proximity - Give new meaning to spatial or geographic proximity

Dynamics of Group formation

Theories of group formation More comprehensive theory of group formation is the Classic theory of George Homans based on Activities-Interactions and Sentiments The major element is interaction Persons in a group interact with one another not just in the physical propinquity sense or increasingly electronically But to accomplish many group goals through cooperation and problem solving

Dynamics of Group formation

Theodore Newcombs classic balance theory of group formation Similar attitudes and common relevant objectives and Goals
Individual X Individual y

Z Common Attitudes and Values Religion Politics Lifestyle Marriage-Work-Authority

Dynamics of Group formation

Another Theoretical approach to Group formation from Social psychological theory Exchange theory similar to its functioning as a work motivation theory Based on reward cost outcomes of interaction Rewards from interactions gratify needs Costs incur anxiety frustration-embarrassmentfatigue Propinquity-interaction common attitudes all have roles in exchange theory

Dynamics of Group formation

Dr Bruce Tuckman published his Forming Storming Norming Performing model in 1965. He added a fifth stage, Adjourning, in the 1970s. The Forming Storming Norming Performing theory is an elegant and helpful explanation of team development and behaviour. Similarities can be seen with other models, such as with Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership model, The Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum model developed about the same time.

Dynamics of Group formation

Tuckman's model explains that as the team develops maturity and ability, relationships establish, and the leader changes leadership style. Beginning with a directing style, moving through coaching, then participating, finishing delegating and almost detached. At this point the team may produce a successor leader and the previous leader can move on to develop a new team.

Five stages of group development

The Four Leadership Styles

2003 The Ken Blanchard Companies. All rights reserved. Do not duplicate V080103

What are the stages of group development? Forming stage

Initial entry of members to a group Member challenges
Getting to know each other Discovering what is considered acceptable behavior Determining the groups real task Defining group rules

Forming stage
High dependence on leader for guidance and direction. Little agreement on team aims other than received from leader. Individual roles and responsibilities are unclear. Leader must be prepared to answer lots of questions about the team's purpose, objectives and external relationships. Processes are often ignored. Members test tolerance of system and leader. Leader directs (similar to Situational Leadership 'Telling' mode).

What are the stages of group development? Storming stage

A period of high emotionality and tension among group members Member challenges
Hostility and infighting Formation of coalitions and cliques Clarification of members expectations

Storming
Decisions don't come easily within group. Team members vie for position as they attempt to establish themselves in relation to other team members and the leader, who might receive challenges from team members. Clarity of purpose increases but plenty of uncertainties persist. Cliques and factions form and there may be power struggles. The team needs to be focused on its goals to avoid becoming distracted by relationships and emotional issues. Compromises may be required to enable progress. Leader coaches (similar to Situational Leadership 'Selling' mode).

What are the stages of group development? Norming stage

Sometimes called initial integration The point at which the group really begins to come together as a coordinated unit

Norming
Agreement and consensus is largely forms among team, who respond well to facilitation by leader. Roles and responsibilities are clear and accepted. Big decisions are made by group agreement. Smaller decisions may be delegated to individuals or small teams within group. Commitment and unity is strong. The team may engage in fun and social activities. The team discusses and develops its processes and working style. There is general respect for the leader and some of leadership is more shared by the team. Leader facilitates and enables (similar to the Situational Leadership 'Participating' mode).

What are the stages of group development? Performing stage

Marks the emergence of a mature, organized, and well-functioning group Structure is stable Members are motivated by group goals

Performing
The team is more strategically aware; the team knows clearly why it is doing what it is doing. The team has a shared vision and is able to stand on its own feet with no interference or participation from the leader. There is a focus on overachieving goals, and the team makes most of the decisions against criteria agreed with the leader. The team has a high degree of autonomy. Disagreements occur but now they are resolved within the team positively and necessary changes to processes and structure are made by the team. The team is able to work towards achieving the goal, and also to attend to relationship, style and process issues along the way. team members look after each other. The team requires delegated tasks and projects from the leader. The team does not need to be instructed or assisted. Team members might ask for assistance from the leader with personal and interpersonal development. Leader delegates and oversees (similar to the Situational Leadership 'Delegating' mode).

Ten criteria for measuring the maturity of a group

What are the stages of group development? Adjourning stage

A well-integrated group is:
Able to disband when its work is finished Willing to work together in the future

Particularly important for temporary groups

What are the stages of group development?

Tuckman's fifth stage, Adjourning, is the break-up of the group, hopefully when the task is completed successfully, its purpose fulfilled; everyone can move on to new things, feeling good about what's been achieved. From an organizational perspective, recognition of and sensitivity to people's vulnerabilities in Tuckman's fifth stage is helpful, particularly if members of the group have been closely bonded and feel a sense of insecurity or threat from this change. Feelings of insecurity would be natural for people with high 'steadiness' attributes (as regards the 'four temperaments' or DISC model) and with strong routine and empathy style (as regards the Benziger thinking styles model, right and left basal brain dominance).

Johari window
Known by self known To others
Tell Self disclosure HIDDEN AREA(CLOSED)
SHARED DISCOVERY OTHERS OBSERVATION

Ask

unknown by self

OPEN FREE AREA(Arena)

Feedback

BLIND AREA

UNKNOWN AREA(DARK)
SELF DISCOVE RY

Unknown By others

What are the stages of group development? Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum
The Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum management style tends to offer more freedom as the group matures. As the team matures and becomes more self-suffient and self-directing, so the manager's style should react accordingly, ideally becoming more detached, more delegating, encouraging and enabling the group to run itself, and for a successor (or if you are a good manager or a lucky one, for more than one successor) to emerge.

An Alternative Model: Temporary Groups with Deadlines

Punctuated-Equilibrium Model Temporary groups under time constrained deadlines go through transitions between inertia and activity---at the half-way point, they experience an increase in productivity. Sequence of actions:
1. Setting group direction 2. First phase of inertia 3. Half-way point transition 4. Major changes 5. Second phase of inertia 6. Accelerated activity

The Punctuated-Equilibrium Model

What are the foundations of group performance? To understand the foundations of group performance let us understand the open systems model Help us understand how groups like organizations pursue effectiveness by interacting with their environments to transform resource inputs into product output

Open System Model

What are the foundations of group performance? Tasks

Technical demands of a task includes: Routineness, difficulty, and information requirements Social demands of a task
Relations, ego involvement, and controversies over ends and means

What are the foundations of group performance? Goals, rewards, and resources
Long-term performance relies on:
Appropriate goals Well-designed reward systems Adequate resources

What are the foundations of group performance? Technology

Provides the means to get work accomplished The right technology must be available for the task at hand Workflow technology can affect the way group members interact - e.g to be a part of a group that crafts products to specific customer request(cross functional ) - To be a part of a group whose members staff one section of a machine paced assembly line

What are the foundations of group performance? Membership characteristics

A group must have the right skills and competencies available for task performance and problem solving In homogeneous groups, members are very similar to one another In heterogeneous groups, members vary in age, gender, race, and ethnicity

What are the foundations of group performance? Diversity-consensus dilemma

The tendency for increasing diversity among group members to make it harder for group members to work together, even though the diversity itself expands the skills and perspectives available for problem solving.

What are the foundations of group performance?

The blend of personalities is also important in a group FIRO-B theory Identifies individual differences in how people relate to one another in groups Based on needs to express and receive feelings of inclusion, control, and affection Developed by William Schutz Group Members who have compatible needs are effective than incompatible needs

What are the foundations of group performance?

Symptoms of incompatibilities in a group include withdrawn members ,open hostilities, struggle over control and domination of the group by a few members Schutz states the management implications of FIRO B theory this way: - If at the outset we can choose a group of people who can work together harmoniously, we shall go far toward avoiding situations where a groups efforts are wasted in interpersonal conflicts

What are the foundations of group performance?

Another source of diversity within group membership is Status A persons relative rank, prestige, or standing in a group Status is based on age, work seniority, education, occupation, performance ,standing in other groups Status congruence Involves consistency between a persons status within and outside of a group(High power distance cultures-Malaysia chair of a committee expected to be highest ranking member of the group) When status incongruence is present, problems will likely occur( a young member heads the group)

What are the foundations of group performance? Group size

Can make a difference in a groups effectiveness As group size increases, performance and member satisfaction increase up to a point Problem-solving groups should have 5 to 7 members

What are the foundations of group performance?

Group and intergroup Dynamics Effectiveness of a group depends on how well members work together to utilize inputs to produce desired outputs When we speak people working together in groups-dealing with group dynamics(forces operating in groups that affect the way members relate to and work with one another) Open system model group dynamics are the processes through which inputs are transformed into outputs

What are the foundations of group performance?

What goes on within Groups Workgroup behaviors George Homans classic model of group involves two sets of behaviors Required behaviors those that are formally defined and expected by the organization-punctuality, respect for customers, assistance for co-workers Emergent behaviors those that group members display in addition to what the organization asks of them(email message sent to a absent group member to keep her informed about what happened in the meeting)

What are the foundations of group performance?

Member relationships(Homans model of group dynamics) Activities the things people do or the actions they take Interactions interpersonal communications and contacts Sentiments the feelings, attitudes, beliefs, or values held by group members

What are the foundations of group performance? What goes on between groups Intergroup dynamics
The dynamics that take place between two or more groups Competition Intergroup problems(sales and manufacturing dont get along)Negative

What are the foundations of group performance? Ways to achieve positive intergroup dynamics
Refocusing members on a common enemy or goal Negotiating directly Training members to work more cooperatively Refocusing rewards on contributions to the total organization and how much groups help each other

Interaction pattern and communication network in groups

How do groups make decisions? Decision by lack of response

One idea after another is suggested without any discussion-taking place

Decision by authority rule

The chairperson, manager, or leader makes a decision for the group

Decision by minority rule

Two or three people are able to dominate or railroad the group into making a decision to which they agree

How do groups make decisions?

Decision by majority rule
Formal voting may take place, or members may be polled to find the majority viewpoint

Decision by consensus
Discussion leads to one alternative being favored by most members and the other members agree to support it

Decision by unanimity
All group members agree totally on the course of action to be taken

How do groups make decisions?

Assets and Liabilities of Group Decision making Potential advantages of group decision making Information-More knowledge and expertise is applied to solve the problem Alternatives-A greater number of alternatives are examined Understanding and acceptance-The final decision is better understood and accepted by all group members Commitment-More commitment among all group members to make the final decision work

How do groups make decisions?

Potential disadvantages of group decision making Social pressure to conform-Individuals may feel compelled to conform to the apparent wishes of the group Minority domination-The groups decision may be dominated by one individual or a small coalition Time delays-Group decisions usually take longer to make

How do groups make decisions?

An Important potential problem when groups make decisions was identified by social psychologist Irving Janis and called Groupthink the tendency of members in highly cohesive groups to lose their critical evaluative capabilities Members unwilling to criticize one anothers ideas and suggestions Avoid unpleasant disagreement The possible result is poor decision Group leaders and members should be alert to the symptoms and take necessary action to prevent occurrence

Group Decision Making (contd)

Groupthink Phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative course of action. Group shift A change in decision risk between the groups decision and the individual decision that member within the group would make; can be either toward conservatism or greater risk.

How do groups make decisions?

Ways to avoid groupthink
Assign the role of critical evaluator to each group member Have the leader avoid seeming partial to one course of action Create subgroups that each work on the same problem Have group members discuss issues with outsiders and report back

How do groups make decisions?

Ways to avoid groupthink
Invite outside experts to observe and react to group processes Assign someone to be a devils advocate at each meeting Write alternative scenarios for the intentions of competing groups Hold second-chance meetings after consensus is apparently achieved

How do groups make decisions?

How to improve Group Decisions Brainstorming Group members actively generate as many ideas and alternatives as possible Four rules govern the brainstorming process All criticism is ruled out(judge and evaluate idea) Freewheeling is welcomed(emphasis on creativity and imagination)Wilder and more radical the idea -the better Quantity is wanted(number of ideas) Piggy-backing is welcomed(Every one is encouraged to suggest-others ideas turned to new ideas-two or more ideas joined into still another new idea)

How do groups make decisions?

Nominal group technique Puts people in small groups of six to seven members and asks everyone to respond individually and in writing to a nominal question (What should be done to improve the effectiveness of this work team ?) List alternative ideas Read aloud in Round Robin fashion Clarify-no evaluation-structured voting procedure to prioritize responses This procedure allows ideas to be evaluated without risking the inhibitions-hostilities and distortion which may occur in a open meeting

How do groups make decisions?

Delphi technique
Involves generating decision-making alternatives through a series of survey questionnaires

Computer-mediated decision making

Group decision making takes place across great distances with the aid of group decision support systems