MUKESH PATEL SCHOOL OF TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT & ENGINEERING

SHIRPUR, D IST . DHULIA (M.S) - 425405.

Seminar Report On: -

ANGULAR

ERRORS AND BACKLASH IN GEARS

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

2ND YEAR B.TECH. TRIMESTER V

BY

Anurag Sarkar
Roll No: 607 (SAP ID)

2011 2012

DEPARTMENT

OF

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

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CERTFICATE
This is to certify that the seminar entitled Angular errors and backlash in gears has been submitted by ANURAG SARKAR under the guidance of Prof. VISHAL FEGADE in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering of MPSTME, NMIMS University, Shirpur during the academic year 2011-2012 (Trimester-V).

DATE:

PLACE: Shirpur

Guide Associate Dean

H.O.D

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Prof. Vishal Fegade Dr. M.V.Deshpande

Prof. Vishal Fegade

ABSTRACT

A gear is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs, which mesh with another toothed part in order to transmit torque. Two or more gears working to and fro are called a transmission and can produce a mechanical advantage through a gear ratio and thus may be considered a simple machine. Geared devices can change the speed, torque, and direction of a power source. The most common situation is for a gear to mesh with another gear, however a gear can also mesh a non-rotating toothed part, called a rack, thereby producing translation instead of rotation. An advantage of gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent slipping. The prime function of many gears these days is to accurately transmit angular displacement. The power they transmit is negligible. One problem with this type of application is that there are no commercially available machines for measuring angular errors in gears. Some gear manufacturers do have specially designed machines, but they report that it takes days to check one set of gears. Also because the phase relationship among the various factors that contribute to angular error is unpredictable; the actual total angular error is indeterminate.

To overcome these limitations, studies were conducted to determine the following. Equations relating backlash and index error to variations in gear and mounting dimensions.

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Maximum errors which can result from these variations for a set of Precision III gears (which are the highest quality gears listed in AGMAs standard 236.04).

Statistical average of total of such errors.

INDEX
SR No. 1 Topic Gear Terms and Abbreviations 2 3 4 5 6 7 Gearing Errors Indexing/Angular Errors Backlash Definition Of Backlash Backlash Relationships Tooth Thickness and Backlash 8 Gear Train and Backlash 9 Methods of controlling Backlash 10 11 Anti-Backlash designs Applications Of backlash 24 25 20 19 8 9 9 11 14 18 Page No. 7

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List of Figures
Sr. No.
1 2 3 4 5 6.1 6.2 7

Figure
Gear Backlash Gear Words Diameters Driver and driven of backlash Backlash between two gears Geometrical definition of angular backlash Geometrical definition of linear backlash Backlash caused by opening of center distance Kinds of backlash and their direction Backlash of helical gear mesh Backlash of straight bevel gear mesh Backlash of spiral bevel gear mesh Backlash of Worm gear mesh Overall accumulated backlash of 2 stage gear train Ways of decreasing backlash in gears mounted on fixed centers Ways of decreasing backlash in center distance adjustment

Page No.
7 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

8 9 10 11 12 13

14 15 16 17 18 19

14

21

15

22

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List of Tables
Sr. No.
1 2

Table
The relationships among the backlashes Relationship between center distance and gear size

Page No.
16 22

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1. GEAR TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS:

Figure 1(Gear Backlash)

Base Diameter - (B.D.) The diameter of the circle from which the involute is generated. Backlash - Is the amount by which the width of a tooth space exceeds the thickness of the engaging tooth of a mating gear, when both gears are at nominal centre distances. Centre Distance - (C.D.) Distance between the Centres of mating gears. Circular Pitch - (C.P.) The distance, along the Pitch Circle, between corresponding points of adjacent teeth.

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Figure 2(Gear Words)

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Circular Thickness - Thickness of tooth on pitch circle. Diametric Pitch - (D.P.) Number of teeth in a Gear having one inch pitch diameter. Ex.: A gear having 48 teeth and a 1pitch diameter is a 48 diametric pitch. Number of Teeth - (N) Outside Diameter - (O.D.) Diameter measuring on tops of teeth

Figure 3(Diameters)

Pressure Angle - (P.A.) The angle between a line tangent to the pitch circle and a line perpendicular to the tooth profile at the point of contact. Pitch Diameter - (P.D.) Diameter of the pitch Circle . Pitch Circle - An imaginary circle, whose diameter is equal to the number of teeth divided by diameter pitch. Testing Diameter - (T.D.) A diameter, established by inspection with a master gear of known size. It is equal to twice the difference between the tight mesh centre distance, and the sum of the master gear testing diameter, divided by 2. T.D= )

2. GEARING ERRORS:
In general, all gearing errors resolve themselves into one or two types: Backlash and Indexing error (sometimes called angular-displacement error).In the design of precision gearing, both of these malfunctions seriously affect the proper functioning of the over-all system.

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3. INDEXING/ANGULAR ERRORS:
Indexing error is the deviation from the theoretical linear relationship between input and output angles of rotation of a gear mesh. Although backlash and angular error are independent of each other, they often are a result of the same error source. In unidirectional systems, in which the driving and driven surfaces always remain in intimate contact, backlash does not contribute to the angular inaccuracy of the system. Angular error, on the other hand, is a cyclic factor and affects every revolution. In the case of bidirectional systems, the total angular error of a gear system is dependent upon the combined effect of both malfunctions.

Figure 4(Driver And Driven of backlash)

3.1 CAUSES OF ANGULAR ERROR:

1. Centre distance 2. Tooth thickness 3. Pitch errors
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4. Involute-profile errors 5. Pitch-diameter eccentricity 6. Lead angle 7. Wobble

4. BACKLASH:
Backlash is the error in motion that occurs when gears change direction. It exists because there is always some gap between the trailing face of the driving tooth and the leading face of the tooth behind it on the driven gear, and that gap must be closed before force can be transferred in the new direction. The term "backlash" can also be used to refer to the size of the gap, not just the phenomenon it causes; thus, one could speak of a pair of gears as having, for example, "0.1 mm of backlash." A pair of gears could be designed to have zero backlash, but this would presuppose perfection in manufacturing, uniform thermal expansion characteristics throughout the system, and no lubricant. If the gears are of standard tooth proportion design and operate on standard center distance they would function ideally with neither backlash nor jamming. Backlash is provided for a variety of reasons and cannot be designated without consideration of machining conditions. The general purpose of backlash is to prevent gears from jamming by making contact on both sides of their teeth simultaneously. A small amount of backlash is also desirable to provide for lubricant space and differential expansion between the gear components and the housing. Any error in machining which tends to increase the possibility of jamming makes it necessary to increase the amount of backlash by at least as much as the possible cumulative errors. Consequently, the smaller the amount of backlash, the more accurate must be the machining of the gears. Runout of both gears, errors in profile, pitch, tooth thickness, helix angle and center distance all are factors to consider in the specification of the amount of backlash. On the other hand, excessive backlash is objectionable, particularly if the drive is frequently reversing or if there is an overrunning load. The amount of backlash must not be excessive for the requirements of the job, but it should be sufficient so that machining costs are not higher than necessary.
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In order to obtain the amount of backlash desired, it is necessary to decrease tooth thickness.

Figure 5(Backlash between two gears)

Figure 5: This decrease must almost always be greater than the desired backlash because of the errors in manufacturing and assembling. Since the amount of the decrease in tooth thickness depends upon the accuracy of machining, the allowance for a specified backlash will vary according to the manufacturing conditions. It is customary to make half of the allowance for backlash on the tooth thickness of each gear of a pair, although there are exceptions. For example, on pinions having very low numbers of teeth, it is desirable to provide all of the allowance on the mating gear so as not to weaken the pinion teeth. In spur and helical gearing, backlash allowance is usually obtained by sinking the hob deeper into the blank than the theoretically standard depth. Further, it is true that any increase or decrease in center distance of two gears in any mesh will cause an increase or decrease in backlash. Thus, this is an alternate way of designing backlash into the system. For the determination of backlash in gear trains, it is necessary to sum the backlash of each mated gear pair. However, to obtain the total backlash for a series of meshes, it is necessary to take into account the gear ratio of each mesh relative to a chosen reference shaft in the gear train.

5. Definition of Backlash

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Backlash is defined in Figure 6 as the excess thickness of tooth space over the thickness of the mating tooth. There are two basic ways in which backlash arises: tooth thickness is below the zero backlash value; and the operating center distance is greater than the zero backlash value.

Figure 6.1(Geometrical Definition of Angular backlash)

If the tooth thickness of either or both mating gears is less than the zero backlash value, the amount of backlash introduced in the mesh is simply this numerical difference: j = Sstd - Sact = S Where, j = linear backlash measured along the pitch circle (Figure 6.2) Sstd = no backlash tooth thickness on the operating pitch circle, which is the standard tooth thickness for ideal gears Sact = actual tooth thickness Backlash, Along Line-of-Action = jn = jcos (1)

Figure 6.2(Geometrical Definition of linear backlash)

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When the center distance is increased by a relatively small amount, increase and linear backlash jn along the line-of-action is: jn = 2 a sin (2)

a, a backlash space

develops between mating teeth, as in Figure 7. The relationship between center distance

Figure 7(Backlash caused by opening of center distance)

This measure along the line-of-action is useful when inserting a feeler gage between teeth to measure backlash. The equivalent linear backlash measured along the pitch circle is given by: j = 2 a tan Where: a = change in center distance a = pressure angle Hence, an approximate relationship between center distance change and change in backlash is: a = 1.933 j for 14.5 pressure angle gears a = 1.374 j for 20 pressure angle gears (3b) (3c) (3a)

Although these are approximate relationships, they are adequate for most uses. Note that backlash due to center distance opening is dependent upon the tangent function of the pressure angle. Thus, 20 gears have 41% more backlash than 14.5 gears, and this constitutes one of the few advantages of the lower pressure angle. Equations (3) are a useful relationship, particularly for converting to angular backlash. Also, for fine pitch gears the use of feeler gages for measurement is impractical, whereas an indicator at the pitch line gives a direct measure. The two linear backlashes are related by:
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j=

(4)

The angular backlash at the gear shaft is usually the critical factor in the gear application. As seen from Figure 6.1, this is related to the gear's pitch radius as follows: j = 3440 (arc minutes) (5)

Obviously, angular backlash is inversely proportional to gear radius. Also, since the two meshing gears are usually of different pitch diameters, the linear backlash of the measure converts to different angular values for each gear. Thus, an angular backlash must be specified with reference to a particular shaft or gear center. Details of backlash calculations and formulas for various gear types are given in the following sections.

6. Backlash Relationships

Figure 8(Kinds of backlash and their direction)

Expanding upon the previous definition, there are several kinds of backlash: circular backlash Jt, normal backlash jn, center backlash jr, and angular backlash J (), see Figure 8. Table 1 reveals relationships among circular backlash jt, normal backlash jn and center backlash jr. In this definition, Jr is equivalent to change in center distance, a in Section 5

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Table 1(The Relationships among the backlashes)

Circular backlash jt has a relation with angular backlash jq as follows: jq = jt (degrees) (6)

6.1. Backlash of a Spur Gear Mesh

From Figure 8 we can derive backlash of spur gear mesh as: jn = jt cos jr = (7)

6.2. Backlash of Helical Gear Mesh

The helical gear has two kinds of backlash when referring to the tooth space. There is a cross section in the normal direction of the tooth surface n, and a cross section in the radial direction perpendicular to the axis, t.

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Figure 9(Backlash of helical gear mesh)

jnn= backlash in the direction normal to the tooth surface. jnt= backlash in the circular direction in the cross section normal to the tooth. jtn= backlash in the direction normal to the tooth surface in the cross section perpendicular to the axis. jtt =backlash in the circular direction perpendicular to the axis. These backlashes have relations as follows: In the plane normal to the tooth: jnn = jnt cos
n

(8)

On the pitch surface: jnt =jtt cos (9)

In the plane perpendicular to the axis: jtn = jtt cos jt =

t

(10)

6.3. Backlash of Straight Bevel Gear Mesh

Figure 10 expresses backlash for a straight bevel gear mesh. In the cross section perpendicular to the tooth of a straight bevel gear, circular backlash at pitch line jt, normal backlash jn and radial backlash jr' have the following relationships: jn = jt cos jtr = (11)

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Figure 10(Backlash of straight bevel gear mesh)

The radial backlash in the plane of axes can be broken down into the components in the direction of bevel pinion center axis, jrt and in the direction of bevel gear center axis, jr2. jrt = jr2= (12)

6.4. Backlash of a Spiral Bevel Gear Mesh

Figure 11 delineates backlash for a spiral bevel gear mesh.

Figure 11(Backlash of Spiral bevel gear mesh)

In the tooth space cross section normal to the tooth: jnn = jnt cos n (13) On the pitch surface:
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jnt = jtt cos m (14) In the plane perpendicular to the generatrix of the pitch cone: jtn= jn cos jrt = (15)

The radial backlash in the plane of axes can be broken down into the components in the direction of bevel pinion center axis, and in the direction of bevel gear center axis, jr2. jrt = jr2= (16)

6.5. Backlash of Worm Gear Mesh

Figure 12 expresses backlash for a worm gear mesh.

Figure 12(Backlash of Worm gear mesh)

On the pitch surface of a worm: jnt = jtrr sin j tan = jrt2 cos
= tt2 tt1

j /j

(17)

In the cross section of a worm perpendicular to its axis: jtnt = jttt cos jr = jtt2/2tan
t t

(18)

In the plane perpendicular to the axis of the worm gear: jtn2 = jtt2 cos jr = jtt2/2tan
x x

(19)

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7. Tooth Thickness and Backlash

There are two ways to produce backlash. One is to enlarge the center distance. The other is to reduce the tooth thickness. The latter is much more popular than the former. We are going to discuss more about the way of reducing the tooth thickness. In the meshing of a pair of gears, if the tooth thickness of pinion and gear were reduced by DS1 and DS2 they would produce a backlash of s1 + s2 in the direction of the pitch circle. Let the magnitude of s1 s2 be 0.1. We know that a = 20 then: jt = S1+ S2= 0.1 +0.1 = 0.2 We can convert it into the backlash on normal direction: jn = jt cos = 0.2cos20 = 0.1879 Let the backlash on the center distance direction be jn then: jr = = = 0.2747

These express the relationship among several kinds of backlashes. In application, one should consult the JIS standard. There are two JIS standards for backlash - one is JIS B 1703-76 for spur gears and helical gears, and the other is JIS B 1705-73 for bevel gears. All these standards regulate the standard backlashes in the direction of the pitch circle jt or jtt. These standards can be applied directly, but the backlash beyond the standards may also be used for special purposes. When writing tooth thicknesses on a drawing, it is necessary to specify, in addition, the tolerances on the thicknesses as well as the backlash. For example:

Circular tooth thickness Backlash 0.100 ... 0.200

8. Gear Train and Backlash

The discussions so far involved a single pair of gears. Now, we are going to discuss two stage gear trains and their backlash. Sometimes two or more gears are made to mesh with each other to transmit power from one shaft to another. Such a combination is called gear train or train of toothed wheels. The nature of the train used depends on velocity ratio required and the relative position of the axes of shafts. A gear train may consist of spur, bevel or spiral gears. In a two stage gear train, as Figure 13 shows, j1 and j4 represent the backlashes of first stage gear train and second stage gear train respectively.

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Figure 13(Overall accumulated Backlash of 2 stage gear train)

If number one gear were fixed, then the accumulated backlash on number four gear jtT4 would be as follows: jtT4 = j1 + j4 (20)

This accumulated backlash can be converted into rotation in degrees: j = jtT4 (degrees) (21)

The reverse case is to fix number four gear and to examine the accumulated backlash on number one gear jtT1. jtT1 = j4 + j1 (22) This accumulated backlash can be converted into rotation in degrees: j = jtT1 (degrees) (23)

9. Methods Of Controlling Backlash

In order to meet special needs, precision gears are used more frequently than ever before. Reducing backlash becomes an important issue. There are two methods of reducing or eliminating backlash - one a static, and the other a dynamic method. The static method concerns means of assembling gears and then making proper adjustments to achieve the desired low backlash. The dynamic method introduces an external force which continually eliminates all backlash regardless of rotational position.

9.1. Static Method

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This involves adjustment of either the gears effective tooth thickness or the mesh center distance. These two independent adjustments can be used to produce four possible combinations as shown in Table 2.
Table 2(Relationship between center distance and gear size)

` Case l By design, center distance and tooth thickness are such that they yield the proper amount of desired minimum backlash. Center distance and tooth thickness size are fixed at correct values and require precision manufacturing. Case ll With gears mounted on fixed centers, adjustment is made to the effective tooth thickness by axial movement or other means. Three main methods are: 1. Two identical gears are mounted so that one can be rotated relative to the other and fixed. See Figure 14a. In this way, the effective tooth thickness can be adjusted to yield the desired low backlash. 2. A gear with a helix angle such as a helical gear is made in two half thicknesses. One is shifted axially such that each makes contact with the mating gear on the opposite sides of the tooth. See Figure 14b. 3. The backlash of cone shaped gears, such as bevel and tapered tooth spur gears, can be adjusted with axial positioning. A duplex lead worm can be adjusted similarly. See Figure 14c.

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Figure centers)

14(Ways of decreasing

Backlash

in gears with

fixed

Case lll Center distance adjustment of backlash can be accomplished in two ways: 1. Linear Movement - Figure 15a show adjustment along the line-of-centers in a straight or parallel axes manner. After setting to the desire value of backlash the centers are locked in place. 2. Rotary Movement- Figure 15b show an alternate way c achieving center distance adjustment b rotation of one of the gear centers b means of a swing arm on an eccentric bushing. Again, once the desired backlash setting is found, the positioning arm is locked.

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Figure adjustment)

15(Ways

of

decreasing

Backlash

in

center

distance

Case IV Adjustment of both center distance and tooth thickness is theoretically valid, but is not the usual practice. This would call for needless fabrication expense.

9.2. Dynamic Methods

Dynamic methods relate to the static techniques. However, they involve a forced adjustment of either the effective tooth thickness or the center distance. 1. Backlash Removal by Forced Tooth Contact This is derived from static Case II Referring to Figure 15a. a forcing spring rotates the two gear halves apart. This results in an effective tooth thickness that continually fills the entire tooth space in all mesh positions. 2. Backlash Removal by Forced Center Distance Closing This is derived from static Case lll. A spring force is applied to close the center distance; in one case as a linear force along the line-of-centers, and in the other case as a torque applied to the swing arm. In all of these dynamic methods, the applied external force should be known and properly specified. The theoretical relationship of the forces involved is as follows: F > F1 + F2 Where: F1 = Transmission Load on Tooth Surface F2 = Friction Force on Tooth Surface If F < F1 + F2, then it would be impossible to remove backlash. But if F is excessively greater than a proper level, the tooth surfaces would be needlessly loaded and could lead to premature (24)

24 |Backlash

wear and shortened life. Thus, in designing such gears, consideration must be given to not only the needed transmission load, but also the forces acting upon the tooth surfaces caused by the spring load. It is important to appreciate that the spring loading must be set to accommodate the largest expected transmission force, F1. and this maximum spring force is applied to the tooth surfaces continually and irrespective of the load being driven.

3. Duplex Lead Worm

A duplex lead worm mesh is a special design in which backlash can be adjusted by shifting the worm axially. It is useful for worm.

10. ANTI-BACKLASH DESIGNS

In certain applications, backlash is an undesirable characteristic and should be minimized.

Gear trains where positioning is key but power transmission is light

The best example here is an analog radio turning dial where one may make precise tuning movements both forwards and backwards. Specialized gear designs allow this. One of the more common designs splits the gear into two gears, each half the thickness of the original. One half of the gear is fixed to its shaft while the other half of the gear is allowed to turn on the shaft, but pre-loaded in rotation by small coil springs that rotate the free gear relative to the fixed gear. In this way, the spring tension rotates the free gear until all of the backlash in the system has been taken out; the teeth of the fixed gear press against one side of the teeth of the pinion while the teeth of the free gear press against the other side of the teeth on the pinion. Loads smaller than the force of the springs do not compress the springs and with no gaps between the teeth to be taken up, backlash is eliminated.

Leadscrews where positioning and power are both important

Another area where backlash matters is in leadscrews. Again, as with the gear train example, the culprit is lost motion when reversing a mechanism that is supposed to transmit motion accurately. Instead of gear teeth, the context is screw threads. The linear sliding axes (machine slides) of machine tools are an example application. Most machine slides for many decades, and many even today, were simple-but-accurate cast iron linear bearing surfaces, such as a dovetail slide or box slide, with an Acme leadscrew drive. With just a simple nut, some backlash is inevitable. On manual (non-CNC) machine
25 |Backlash

tools, the way that machinists compensate for the effect of backlash is to approach all precise positions using the same direction of travel. This means that if they have been dialing left, and now they want to move to a rightward point, they move rightward all the way past it and then dial leftward back to it. The setups, tool approaches, and toolpaths are designed around this constraint. The next step up from the simple nut is a split nut, whose halves can be adjusted and locked with screws so that one side rides leftward thread faces, and the other side rides rightward faces. Notice the analogy here with the radio dial example using split gears, where the split halves are pushed in opposing directions. Unlike in the radio dial example, the spring tension idea is not useful here, because machine tools taking a cut put too much force against the screw. Any spring light enough to allow slide movement at all would allow cutter chatter at best and slide movement at worst. These screw-adjusted split-nut-on-an-Acme-leadscrew designs cannot eliminate all backlash on a machine slide unless they are adjusted so tight that the travel starts to bind. Therefore this idea can't totally obviate the always-approach-from-thesame-direction concept; but backlash can be held to a small amount (1 or 2), which is more convenient and in some non-precise work is enough to allow one to ignore the backlash (i.e., act as if there weren't any). CNCs can be programmed to use the always-approach-from-the-same-direction concept, but that is not the normal way they are used today, because hydraulic anti-backlash split nuts and newer forms of leadscrew other than Acme/trapezoidal, such as recirculating ball screws or duplex worms gear sets, effectively eliminate the backlash. The axis can move in either direction without the go-past-and-come-back motion. The simplest CNCs, such as microlathes or manual-to-CNC conversions, use just the simple old nut-and-Acme-screw drive. The controls can be programmed with a parameter value entered for the total backlash on each axis, and the machine will automatically add that much to the program's distance-to-go when it changes directions. This [programmatic] "backlash compensation", as it's called, is a useful trick for capital-frugal applications. "Professionalgrade" CNCs, though, use the more expensive backlash-eliminating drives mentioned above. This allows them to do 3D contouring with a ball-nosed endmill, for example, where the endmill travels around in many directions with ease and constant rigidity.

26 |Backlash

In mechanical computers a more complex solution is required, namely a frontlash gearbox. This works by turning slightly faster when the direction is reversed to 'use up' the backlash slack. Some motion controllers include backlash compensation. Compensation may be achieved by simply adding extra compensating motion (as described earlier) or by sensing the load's position in a closed loop control scheme. The dynamic response of backlash itself, essentially a delay, makes the position loop less stable and prone to oscillation.

11. Applications of Backlash

Gear Couplings use backlash to allow for angular misalignment. Backlash is undesirable in precision positioning applications such as machine tool tables. It can be minimized by tighter design features such as ball screws instead of leadscrews, and by using preloaded bearings. A preloaded bearing uses a spring or other compressive force to maintain bearing surfaces in contact despite reversal of direction. There can be significant backlash in unsynchronized transmissions because of the intentional gap between dog gears (also known as dog clutches). The gap is necessary so that the driver or electronics can engage the gears easily while synchronizing the engine speed with the driveshaft speed. If there was a small clearance, it would be nearly impossible to engage the gears because the teeth would interfere with each other in most configurations. In synchronized transmissions, synchromesh solves this problem.

27 |Backlash

CONCLUSION
Backlash is the error in motion that occurs when gears change direction. It exists because there is always some gap between the trailing face of the driving tooth and the leading face of the tooth behind it on the driven gear, and that gap must be closed before force can be transferred in the new direction. Theoretically, the backlash should be zero, but in actual practice some backlash must be allowed to prevent jamming. It is unavoidable for nearly all reversing mechanical couplings, although its effects can be negated. Depending on the application it may or may not be desirable. Reasons for requiring backlash include allowing for lubrication, manufacturing errors, deflection under load and thermal expansion. The report concludes the understanding of backlash error in different cases of gear motion.

28 |Backlash

REFERENCES
GEAR DESIGN AND APPLICATIONS Nicholas P. Chronis(Mc Graw Hill Book Company). Handbook of gear design BY Gitin M Maitra. http://en.wikipedia.org

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