Learning Theories/Adult Learning Theories Post-Modern Theories Organizational Learning: Contributions by Discipline < Learning Theories Contents [hide]

de] 1 Overview 2 Andragogy 3 Multiple Intelligences 4 Conditions/Environment 5 Experiential learning 6 Anxiety and the Adult Learner 7 Jarviss Learning Process and Adult Learning Theory 8 Case studies & workplace examples [edit]Overview

Typical adult learning theories encompass the basic concepts of behavioral change and experience. From there, complexities begin to diverge specific theories and concepts in an eclectic barrage of inferences. Up until the 1950s basic definitions of learning were built around the idea of change in behavior (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). After this point more complexities were introduced such as whether one needs to perform in order for learning to have occurred or whether all human behavior is learned (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999, p. 249). Jean Piaget states that there are "four invariant stages of cognitive development that are age related" (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999, p. 139). According to the authors, Piaget contends that normal children will reach the final stage of development, which is the stage of formal operations, between the age of twelve and fifteen. As cited by Merriam and Caffarella (1999), Arlin (1975, 1984), established from the work of Gruber (1973)on the development of creative thought in adults, has attempted to identify a fifth stage of development, in addition to Piaget's formal operations. "She [Arlin] contends that formal thought actually consists of two distinct stages, not one, as Piaget proposed" (p. 141). Arlin (1975) proposes that Piaget's fourth stage, formal operations, be renamed the problem-solving stage. According to Merriam and Caffarella (1999), Arlin's hypothesized fifth stage was the problem-finding stage. This stage focuses on problem discovery. Though Arlin's proposed fifth stage produced more questions than answers, it opens the door to understanding the learning needs of adults; to be approached as thinkers.

According to a literature review by Ross (2002), humanism, personal responsibility orientation, behaviorism, neobehaviorism, critical perspectives, and constructivism are all important facets of, and perspectives on, adult learning theory. The most common treatments of the research of these areas of self-directed adult learning are learning projects, qualitative studies, and quantitative measures. Collins (1991) explores adult learning as the interactive relationship of theory and practice. In basic terms, the adult learner studies a particular theory and then puts it into practice when presented with the opportunity to do so. Thus, the understanding of an adult learning theory can prompt practice and practice can prompt adult learning theory revision. Adult learning theories in and of themselves have very little consensus amongst them. There is great debate on an actual determined amount of theories that are even possible, as well as labeling those theories into groups like Hilgard and Bowers (1966) stimulus-response and cognitive theories as large categories of their eleven theories. Another groups dynamic labels theories as mechanistic and or organismic (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999). Overall it seems that the theory of adult learning is broken down into two elements; 1) a process that creates change within the individual, and 2) a process to infuse change into the organization. Malcolm Knowles might well be considered the founding father of adult learning. He contrasted the concept of andragogy, meaning the art and science of helping adults learn,with pedagogy, the art and science of helping children learn (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999, p. 272). Knowles original studies and writings arose from the assumption that there are significant, identifiable differences between adult learners and learners under the age of eighteen. Primarily, the differences, according to Knowles, relate to an adult learner being more self-directing, having a repertoire of experience, and being internally motivated to learn subject matter that can be applied immediately learning that is especially closely related to the developmental tasks of his or her social role (p. 272). [edit]Andragogy

Knowles (1968) popularized this European concept over thirty years ago. Andragogy, (andr - 'man'), contrasted with pedagogy, means "the art and science of helping adults learn" (Knowles, 1980, p. 43). Knowles labeled andragogy as an emerging technology which facilitates the development and implementation of learning activities for adults. This emerging technology is based on five andragogical assumptions of the adult learner: Self-Concept: As a person matures, he or she moves from dependency to self-directness. Experience: Adults draw upon their experiences to aid their learning. Readiness: The learning readiness of adults is closely related to the assumption of new social roles. Orientation: As a person learns new knowledge, he or she wants to apply it immediately in problem solving.

Motivation (Later added): As a person matures, he or she receives their motivation to learn from internal factors. These five assumptions dovetail with the thoughts and theories of others. Merriam and Caffarella (1999) point to three keys to transformational learning: experience, critical reflection and development. The aspect of experience (the second assumption to andragogy) seems like an important consideration in creating an effective learning opportunity for adults. The learning opportunity needs to be relevant and applicable to a persons set of experiences. Argote, McEvily, and Reagans (2003) point to experience as an important factor in ones ability to create, retain and transfer knowledge. Critical reflection is the second key to transformational learning and part of andragogys self-directed learning. Reflection/think time is yet another essential principle to creating an effective learning experience for adults. Garvin (1993) shares the importance of fostering an environment that is conducive to learning including time for reflection and analysis. Adult learners need time to contemplate the ramifications of the learning experience to their experience and responsibilities. The third key to transformational learning is development (corresponding to the third assumption of andragogy). Merriam and Caffarella state that the ability to think critically, which is mandatory to effecting a transformation, is itself developmental (p. 330). If development is the outcome of transformational learning, then an effective adult learning opportunity needs to be created that will take personal development into consideration Andragogy assumes the following about the design of learning: Adults have the need to know why they are learning something. Adults learn through doing. Adults are problem-solvers. Adults learn best when the subject is of immediate use. According to Knowles ( 1984, Appendix D) an example used to apply the principles to personal computer training: Explain why certain skills are taught (functions, commands). Task oriented instead of memorizing. Tasks should be common tasks . Take diversity into play. Acknowledge different learning levels and experience. Allow adults to learn on their own and from their mistakes. ( M.Knowles) Some would contend that Knowles only introduced a theory of teaching rather than a theory of adult learning. In commenting on this thought, Merriam and Caffarella (1999) referring to Hartree suggest, "that it is not clear whether Knowles had presented a theory of learning or a theory of teaching, whether adult learning was different from child learning, and whether there was a theory at all-perhaps

these were just principles of good practice" (p. 273). It is further contended that Knowles did not establish a proven theory, rather he introduced a "set of well-grounded principles of good practice" (Brookfirle, 1986, p. 98). Within companies, instructional methods are designed for improving adult learners knowledge and skills. It is important to distinguish the unique attributes of adult learners so as to be better able to incorporate the principles of adult learning in the design of instruction (Yi, 2005, p. 34). Within this context, adult learning is aimed at not only improving individual knowledge and skill, but ultimately it is the goal to improve the organizational performance by transfer of learning directly to work applications. Yi suggest three methods to foster learning in adult organizations: Problem-Based Learning which seeks to increase problem-solving and critical thinking skills; Cooperative Learning, which builds communication and interpersonal skills; and Situated Learning, which targets specific technical skills that can be directly related to the field of work (Yi, 2005). Each of these methods support the assumptions about how adults learn; specifically they are more self-directed, have a need for direct application to their work, and are able to contribute more to collaborative learning through their experience. [edit]Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner represents those theorists who have dismissed the idea of one type of intelligence as typically measured by todays psychometric instruments. He posited that there were seven (later eight) types of intelligences (Gardner, 1993): Linguistic intelligence Logical-mathematical intelligence Spatial intelligence or the ability to form a mental model of the spatial world and to maneuver within it using this model. Musical intelligence. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, or the ability to solve problems using ones body as performed by athletes, dancers and other craftspeople. Interpersonal intelligence or the ability to understand other people. Intrapersonal intelligence or the ability to understand ones self. Gardner (1993) maintains that the first two are the types of intelligence commonly measured by IQ tests, and which are commonly accepted as intelligence. Gardner later added an eighth intelligence to his taxonomy, Naturalist Intelligence, which he defined as expertise in the recognition and classification of the numerous species -- the flora and fauna -- of his or her environment (Gardner, 1999, p. 48) Sternbergs Triarchic Theory can be viewed as an interpretation

of intelligence as information processing. Li (1996) provides us with a useful summary of Sternbergs theory. He tells us that: In Sternberg's general theory, there are three subtheories: the componential subtheory, the experiential subtheory and the contextual subtheory, each divided into subdomains of concern. The contextual subtheory deals with the context of intelligence. Intelligence in the real world requiring adaptation, selection, and/or shaping the environment. Measurement of contextual intelligence would relate to the issue of social perception, culture fairness, and cultural relativeness. The experiential subtheory deals with the issue of novelty and automatizing of processing. It is related to the notion of learning and the dynamic interplay between controlled and automated processing in the competition for cognitive resources. Finally, there is the componential subtheory, which is subdivided into (a) metacomponents, (b) performance components, and (c) knowledge acquisition components, which are directly related to learning (p. 38) [edit]Conditions/Environment

Some research suggests that situational circumstances constitute an environment that promotes or discourages learning. Those circumstances may be created by organizational structure, positive or negative environmental situations, or time constraints. Child and Heavens (2003) suggest, "The learning capabilities of organizational members are, at least in part, socially constructed by national, occupational, or other institutions" (p. 310). They further suggest that internal boundaries are established by specialities or departments within the framework of organizations that hinder crossboundary learning. In following the thread of environmental issues within organizations supporting or hindering learning, Starbuck and Hedberg (2003) suggest that positive outcomes are much more apt to result in a positive and successful learning experience. They contend, "Pleasant outcomes (successes) reinforce StimulusResponse links whereas unpleasant outcomes (failures) break Stimulus-Response links. As a result, pleasant outcomes are much more effective at teaching new behaviors" (p. 331). This concept follows the transformational leadership theory providing positive opportunities for individuals to grow within the framework of organizational life. However, it may be contended that learning through failure (i.e. experiments which do not result in the anticipated outcomes) may provide a more thorough and circumspect understanding of the given topic or issue under examination, although this method will generally involve a longer learning curve. --The license to fail is often the surest key towards successful learning which an organization may provide. Weber and Berthoin Antal (2003) suggest, "A key question is how long organizational learning processes take and whether the duration can be externally influenced" (p. 353). They further contend that learning processes that require practice are much slower than those that do not require practice. Time consideration is an important element in considering the process of learning within an organization that must meet specific deadlines or has a client base that needs to be managed continuously. The conditions may not be suitable for an elaborate training or educational program. Organizations must consider time pressure as a tool that can encourage learning and speed up processes. However, Weber

and Berthoin (2003) contend, "Time pressure can both accelerate and slow down learning processes...is experienced as motivating or threatening...if the sense of threat becomes too excessive, however, learning can be slowed or made impossible altogether" (p. 355). In 1998, the American Psychological Associations Media Psychology Division 46 Task Force Report on Psychology and New Technologies broadened the definition of media psychology and included eLearning and distance learning in among array of theoies of learning to be included in research on adult learning. Learning psychologist and media psychology pioneer, Bernard Luskin expanded the understanding of "e" learning beyond electronic to included sensory response in this type of learning whan he interpreted the "e" to mean education, excitement, enthusiasm, enjoyment and energetic, among other perceptions attached to media in the adult learning enviorinment. This expansion added twenty-first century thinking into the theoretical framework comprising theories in adult learning. [edit]Experiential learning

Experiential Learning Theory emphasizes the role that true experiences play in the learning process. It is this emphasis that distinguishes itself from other learning theories. Cognitive learning theories emphasize cognition over affect and behavioral learning theories deny any role for subjective experience in the learning process. Scholars in the field of education have two contrasting views when it comes to the concept of experiential learning. The first view defines experiential learning as a sort of learning which enables students to apply newly acquired knowledge in a relevant setting. The relevant setting can be a sponsored institution of learning with trainers, instructors, teachers, or professors to guide the lesson. The other school of thought defines experiential learning as "education that occurs as a direct participation in the events of life" (Houle, 1980, p. 221). Thus, learning is not achieved in a formal setting, but in the practice of reflection of daily experiences. Kolb furthers the second definition of experiential learning by developing a model which details learning process through experiences. Kolb and Fry's (1975) experiential learning model is a continuous spiral process which consists of four basic elements: Concrete experience Observation and reflection Forming abstract concepts Testing in new situations Immediate or concrete experiences are the basis for observation and reflections. These reflections are assimilated and distilled into abstract concepts from which new implications for action can be drawn (Kolb & Fry).

According to Kolb and Fry (1975), the adult learner can enter the process at any one of the elements. The adult learner moves to the next step once he or she processes their experience in the previous step. [edit]Anxiety and the Adult Learner

An interview with psychologist Edgar Schein, Coutu suggests that more often than not, organizations fail at transformational learning. They rarely fundamentally change the behaviors within the organization. Schein dismisses the notion that learning is fun, especially for adults. He equates adult learning within organizations with that of the brainwashing techniques he observed while studying prisoners of the Korean War (Coutu, 2002). Organizations must find a method to deal with the anxiety adults experience when they are forced to unlearn what they know and learn something new (Coutu, 2002, p. 6). Schein discusses two kinds of anxiety: learning anxiety and survival anxiety. It is in this manner that he draws the parallel to brainwashing; that is learning will only happen when survival anxiety is greater than learning anxiety (Coutu, 2002, p. 6). Each of these anxieties could be managed, for example learning can be constructed in a safe environment where the consequences of failure are minimal. Survival anxiety can obviously be increased by threatening job loss, a lack of security, or recognizing competitive elements of the market. *edit+Jarviss Learning Process and Adult Learning Theory

One of the most significant qualities unique to adult learning as compared to that of children, teens, and traditional college students is life experience. That experience offers adult learners a meaningful advantage in the learning process. The sum of those experiences provides many reference points for exploration, new application, and new learning. Merriam & Caffarella (1999) review Jarviss Learning Process in a wider discussion of adult learning. These authors quote Jarvis (1987a, p. 16) who suggests, All learning begins with experience. Real learning begins when a response is called for in relation to an experience. If an individual is unchanged by a situation, Jarvis questions whether real learning has taken place. He proposes that new experiences need to be experimented with, evaluated, reflected upon and reasoned about for the most effective change and therefore learning to take place. Jarvis continues, suggesting that these post experience behaviors culminate in the best and highest form of learning where change and increased experience have happened. Jarviss model offers an excellent learning model that can assist both facilitators and learners in advancing education and learning situations. A few questions come to mind in light of Jarviss theory. Does Jarviss model reflect a deeply postmodern worldview where experience is either ultimate or paramount? How might this worldview expand or narrow learning theory? Does Jarviss model seem to accept the maxim that experience is the best teacher? We can of course qualify this statement by asking whether there is any learning which

does not consist of experience in some form, whether in the classroom, on the playground or on the battlefield. Is it possible that some hurtful and negative life experiences could be avoided if a person learned from another person who has already encountered and experienced a significantly negative life situation? Learning from an older or more experienced mentor provides an incredibly valuable learning forum and support network. Listening, and learning from a mentors successes, failures, or mistakes can help expand ones knowledge base and shorten learning cycles experience alone would require. It seems that living largely out of ones personal experiences also short-circuits meaningful, relational connections that expand ones horizons and better equip one to succeed in this world and avoid so many of its pitfalls. Yet, it may be reasonably argued, that personal experience provides the most integral and visceral form of learning (and I state this as no objective fact, but rather personal opinion, contrary to how articles are generally written in "Wikeality"). [edit]Case studies & workplace examples

The adult learning experience presented itself in all of its glory and contradictions through a curriculum review taking place in a school setting. The objective was to examine the current school curriculum and evaluate it for strengths and weaknesses. The purpose for this review was to both align the curriculum with current practice and augment the curriculum to enhance student learning. Interestingly, the teachers involved in this process seemed to exhibit all the qualities of adult learners mentioned previously: learning through projects, applying self-direction to the process, challenging the process for purpose, and some approached the process with much anxiety. Engaging in the process illustrated that adult learning is individual and there were as many approaches to adult learning as there were people involved in the process. At GM, there are several examples of learning opportunities in manufacturing operations that fulfill the key criteria of adult learning. That is, they provide adults with the need to know why they are learning something, usually via a review of competitive analysis and the importance of the topic to our improved competitive position. Secondly, they are often done in a workshop-type format, where adults can learn through doing. Next, the format typically will cover an application that will have immediate use and will require the students to bring their experiences to the class to assist and involve themselves with problem solving. Typical courses or learning opportunities cover safety issues, quality improvements, and productivity improvements as they apply to specific departments in the plant. In these workshopstyle classes, actual problems are brought to the class for the students to learn and practice problemsolving skills. The outcomes and recommendations are then immediately applied in the regular operations. At Medical Protective, adult learning has been promoted and encouraged among the entire community. Some learning is required for work-related functions, but other types of courses are intended to benefit professional development. Motivational factors, such as monetary incentives, courses being paid for, recognition, and the hope of advancement have encouraged all employees to participate in a learning

course. By utilizing various information technologies, knowledge programs can be accessed online, downloaded to a PC, or printed off for manual review, depending on the need of the individual learner. Medical Protective employees are constantly adapting to the changing IT environment in the market around them, and are using these systems to become more efficient, knowledgeable workers.

Learning Theory 1 ADULT LEARNING THEORIES Learning Theory: Adult Education: Andragogy Selwa Alkadhi California State University Monterey Bay Learning Theory 2 Contents Andragogy ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined. Adult Learners .......................................................................................................... 5 Characteristics of Adult Learners ............................................................................. 6 Instructional Implications of Adult Learning .............................................................. 7 Theory into Practice ................................................................................................. 8 Adult Learning Transformation ............................................................................... 10 Perspectives on Adult Learning ............................................................................ 11 Constraints 16 Technology-based Adult Learning .......................................................................... 18 Adult Learning in Classroom Setting ...................................................................... 20 References.24 Learning Theory 3 Typical adult learning theories encompass the basic concepts of behavioral change and experience. From there, complexities begin to diverge specific theories and concepts of inferences. Andragogy

Andragogy is a fairly new science. Although it has a very long and rich andragogical practice as a theory, its systematic development only began in the 19th century. The second half of the 20th century is looked upon as the period of its most fruitful and most intensive development in which andragogy became a relatively independent scientific discipline. One of the main problems facing andragogy is that its systematic nature is more the result of other theoretical deliberations than those of its own. Different people have different understandings of andragogy. Some consider it a pedagogic discipline, others consider it an autonomous science within the framework of the general sciences of teaching and learning, while others see it as a method, skill, theory or model of adult learning. Malcolm Knowles first began labeling his work in adult education as andragogy in the late 1960s (Knowles, 1980). Knowles discovered through his work with adults that instructors needed to care about the actual interests of learners instead of focusing on what instructors believed were learners interests. In Knowles opinion (1980; 1984), the best educational experiences were cooperative, guided interactions between the teacher and learner with many available resources. During these experiences, the teacher helps guide the learner to develop his or her own potential. Based on his own observations, Knowles developed a set of five assumptions that enveloped his concept of andragogy. The five assumptions of andragogy are that adults are self-directed learners, adult learners bring a wealth of experience to the Learning Theory 4 educational setting, adults enter educational settings ready to learn, adults are problem-centered in their learning, and adults are best motivated by internal factors (Knowles, 1980). Andragogy, the intricate approach to adult education, is a science and an art. This multi-faceted branch of education is defined by the andragogical method coined by Malcolm Knowles in 1968. This division of education is one that has been established decades ago and has since then been built upon. Within the andragogical model, several assumptions about adult learners exist. Primarily, the model recognizes and correlates the notion of self-concept with an adult learners approach to learning. With maturity comes a persons inclination to become a more independent and self-directed human being. In the realm of learning, adults respond to a modified type of teaching. Adult learners take responsibility for their learning process. Hence, teachers must structure their method to foster a learning environment in which adult learners can set goals and evaluate their progress. The second assumption featured in the andragogical model distinguishes that adult learners link new knowledge to their wide range of experience. Past experiences serve as a valuable resource in the classroom. Thirdly, adult learners exhibit an eagerness to learn and to further develop skills. Adult learners recognize the value of new knowledge as a means to develop in all respects. The model also makes the assumption that the orientation to learning is modified with adult learners. Adult learners are more inclined to apply new knowledge and skills without postponing. Lastly, the andragogical model recognizes that adult learners have an innate motivation to learn. Learning Theory 5 Adult Learners

In characterizing the average adult learners profile, the learners actively seek the prospect expanding on their knowledge. While balancing the rigorous and time consuming aspects of learning with the demanding responsibilities of daily life, adult learners perceive learning as neither an inconvenience nor a waste. On the contrary, learning poses as the solution to any shortcomings in their already established routine. Often, adult learners seek opportunities to expand on their knowledge when they are faced with life changes that may challenge them to improve upon themselves. For example, when faced with a divorce or a job termination, learning emerges as a means of resolving such limitations. For this reason, adult learners are motivated and self-directed. Adult learners are characterized as goal-oriented students who choose to learn and value what they learn. Whether they are particularly interested in a topic and are learning for the mere sake of expanding upon their knowledge, or they are learning to acquire a specific skill, mature learners rely on new knowledge to progress themselves towards a purpose. Characteristics of adult learners One of the main distinguishing characteristics of adult learners is that they take responsibility for their learning. From the mature learners perspective, optimal learning does not merely rely on a notable instructor. Learning is inaccessible, no matter what resources are provided, if the student himself does not take responsibility for acquiring the new knowledge. Mature learners assume control over the learning process by evaluating the progression of their learning in respect to their own individual goals. The assessment of why something should be learned and when it can be applied is Learning Theory 6 consistently integrated in the mind-set of self-directed adult learners. The concept of motivation seems to be an umbrella under which the majority of the assumptions of the andragogical model fall under. The integration of developmental psychology is crucial is assessing these assumptions that make up the model when contrasting the features of adult learning and adolescent/youth learning. Adult learners respond to both external and internal motivations. External motivations are often the surface rationale for adults to immerse themselves in the realm of education again. Whether it is to solidify a better job or a higher salary, an improvement in education is defined as the most straightforward route towards achieving these concrete objectives. An expansion on a degree leads to a higher position. This direct relationship is motivating in itself. It unofficially provides the learner with some assurance that the dedicated time and energy into learning will outcome in tangible achievement. To adult learners, however, it is the internal motivations that prove to be most compelling. Internal motivations adhere to adults basic drive to progress as a being. Learning serves as a means of providing an adult with fulfillment, whether it is in terms of job satisfaction or self-esteem. It is a tool to improve the quality of life in an immeasurable manner. The expansion of an adults knowledge grants the adult a sense of competence, which is invaluable. Adult learners need to know why they need to learn what they are learning. Does the reason correlate with their external and internal motivations? It is crucial that adult learners discover the value of what they are learning or the consequence of not learning what they are learning. There is a coherent relationship between motivation and the recognition of why material is

important. From an instructors perspective, it is pertinent to present new material in a manner so that it is connected to the learners individual Learning Theory 7 values and objectives. If adult learners value what they are learning, they are further motivated. This concept is exhibited in the notion that adult learners choose what they study. Their motivation is partly due to the fact that they have discovered the value of learning a particular topic. Instructional implications of adult learning The theory of andragogy introduces several instructional implications in order to achieve optimal educational results. As a means of approaching adult learners self-directed nature, instructors must assume the role of the facilitator rather than a lecturer since an interactive learning environment is crucial to the adult learning process. The instructors role to the adult learner is that of a mentor as well as an accessible reference. The instructor provides the adult learner with a support system, whose input lessens with time. With this approach, self-reliance is emphasized while refraining from isolating the student in the process. The gradual diminishing of the instructors support effectively fosters an environment in which the learner achieves a sense of autonomy. The instructor poses as an expert to whom the student has adequate access yet allows the student to learn with independence. With the instructors minimum yet available input, the student is not isolated when faced with the frustration of the learning process. Adult learners benefit significantly from self-designed learning projects. Again, the instructors role as a resource and encourager is invaluable to such an active learning process. With selfdirected learning projects, adult learners are able to control their learning pace to cohere to their individual learning style. Knowles valued the experience learners brought to the educational environment. He viewed it as an important resource for both learners and the facilitators (Knowles, Learning Theory 8 1980). He differentiated the quality of experiences of adults versus children based on the different types of roles they occupied in society. However, he also defined an adult in social and psychological terms (Knowles, 1980). Knowles acknowledged that in many instances adults were the best resources for one another, thus he encouraged and emphasized group discussion and collaborative assignments that would rely on the expertise within groups. Although Knowles first viewed andragogy as being a separate entity from pedagogy, he revised his views over time and stated the viewpoint that andragogy and pedagogy as being on a continuum, noting that there were times when either approach might be appropriate based on circumstances and needs of the particular learner (Knowles, 1984). Theory into practice Knowles (1980) called upon educators to employ a seven step process in order to implement and capitalize upon the assumptions of andragogy. These steps included creating a cooperative learning climate; planning goals mutually; diagnosing learner needs and interests; helping learners to formulate

learning objectives based on their needs and individual interests; designing sequential activities to achieve these objectives; carrying out the design to meet objectives with selected methods, materials, and resources; and evaluating the quality of the learning experience for the learner that included reassessing needs for continued learning. This assumption implies that curriculum should be process based rather than content based to allow learners to develop content in accordance with their specific needs. The ability to make a connection between every day life and learning in the virtual classroom validates learners as individuals who possess knowledge that can be applied in other situations. Learning Theory 9 This is supported by Robinson (1992) who surveyed adult learners regarding the applicability of Knowles assumptions to a distance education program. Participants reported that they valued utilization of their life experiences in the learning process and they enrolled in online courses because they felt a need to learn more information about a particular subject so that they could perform more effectively by using the information learned in some aspect of their lives (Robinson, 1992, p. 12). Online facilitators must release control of the virtual classroom to learners and allow them to apply their experience and knowledge to learning, while remaining cognizant of learner needs for guidance. Likewise, learners must be willing to draw on available resources and exercise self-responsibility to seek help when needed (Burge, 1988,p. 15). In order to structure an online class to meet individual learner needs, the suggestions for helping learners identify their personal objectives discussed above should be employed. In addition, a variety of the course assignments and group projects should seek to have learners draw on their personal experiences and needs, requiring learners to apply the theoretical concepts of the course to their real-life situations. For example, there are numerous theories that deal with bringing about effective change in organizations of all sizes. An assignment requiring learners to discuss theoretical application of one of these theories to a current or past life situation would help the learner apply theory to practice while also encouraging the learner to share individual experiences. Andragogical assumptions should be utilized in moderation based on the type of course and student preferences. Online course facilitators should know their audience as well as understand their needs, backgrounds, characteristics, and expectations. Online courses must be carefully structured to allow flexibility with learner input regarding Learning Theory 10 course goals and assignments, draw on learner experiences, and increase course value to the participants while staying in harmony with institutional regulations and requirements. Learners must be provided with clear expectations regarding online communication to foster interaction in the online environment. High levels of interactivity and interdependence should also be encouraged. Facilitators must be accessible for guidance so that learners receive direction on an individual basis. Feedback from both the facilitator and peers must be frequent and sincere to foster an educational environment of trust, mutual respect, and collaboration. Such an approach to learning online is consistent with Knowles (1984) andragogical assumptions and the process he suggested for implementation. Adult learning transformation

Adult learning is a vast enterprise with activities exceeding the combined total of those taking place in elementary, secondary and post secondary institutions. Adults learn in a multitude of settings including the home, the workplace, and a variety of community agencies. The objective of this learning is rooted from a variety of goals; personal development, increased job knowledge, and community problem solving (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999, P.318). Understanding the dynamics of learning continues to be of interest to educators, philosophers, psychologist and scientists. Learning has been described as the process of acquiring relatively permanent changes in understanding, attitude, knowledge, information, ability and skill through experience (Wittrock, 1977). Learning involves both the acquiring of the new and progressing from the old. Whether one does so intentionally or unintentionally, adult learners change in their awareness, perceptions, behavior and/or ways of knowing. Unique life Learning Theory 11 experiences, barriers, personality traits, learning style preferences and attitudes influence an individuals capacity for and involvement with learning. Technological innovations, the restructuring of the family and sociocultural diversity are a few of the social changes that have influenced how and what adults will learn. An understanding of the social context and the bigger picture is critical to any discussion of adult learning. Significant adult learning can occur in many contexts, other than in an educational institute. Through relationships with others, the media, travel, books and other sources, people can broaden their perspectives, adapt to or restructure their environment. There exists a reoccurring issue in the link between learning and experience within the theories and views of adult learning. Learning is often connected to discovery, transformation and the pursuit of making life more meaningful. It is the learners experience that should be the resource of highest value in adult education. To be educated is not to be informed but rather to find illumination in informed living. Educators sometimes get caught up in mastering the techniques of teaching rather than pausing to reflect on understanding the process of learning whether it is that of their own or their students. One way to reflect on ones understanding about learning is by closely exploring what different theories/theorists state about the concept and process of learning in adulthood. Perspectives on adult learning To understand different theories and theorists perspectives on adult learning, one must explore their insight. A behaviorists orientation in adult education focuses on skills development and behavior change. The behaviorists emphasize on environmental manipulation and observable behavioral change as key elements in the learning Learning Theory 12 process. Learning is viewed as a hierarchical process during which one step is mastered before the next step is attempted. The teachers role is to manage and control the learning environment by setting specific expectations and then monitoring the learners progress. This notion is particularly evident in computer based instruction, competency-based education and demonstration and practice. As for teaching strategy applications, the behaviorists emphasize the importance of clearly defined language objectives and a breakdown of specific strategies that would lead to the desired goal. Positive

reinforcement and the teacher being able to provide frequent feedback to learners with respect to their progress are a few examples. Merriam and Caffarella (1991, P. 28) note that the behaviorist orientation to learning underlies much educational practice, including adult learning. Skinner, in particular, has application of his theory to educational issues. As he sees it, the ultimate goal of education is to bring about behavior that will ensure survival of the human species, societies and individuals. The teachers role is to design an environment that elicits desired behavior toward meeting these goals and to extinguish behavior that is not desirable. Cognitive and constructivist perspectives of adult learning emphasize the importance of understanding the process of learning from the learners perspective. Jean Piaget, George Kelly, Bruner, Gagne and Briggs are key figures in the cognitivists approach where the importance of the learners mental processes are emphasized. Piaget postulates that individuals move through qualitatively different ways of thinking from sensor motor to formal operations that include metacognition. Kellys (1955) theory on personal constructs recounts the idea of the person as a scientist. Individuals understand themselves and the world around them by constructing personal and Learning Theory 13 tentative theories and models which serve as guides to predict and control events. For this reason, new experiences may lead to changes in the individuals perspective. It is a process of reorganizing experience in order to make sense of new information from the environment. The teachers should be able to help their learners build bridges by linking new ideas to the learners prior knowledge and experience. Teachers are to construct activities and guide the learners mental processes so that a balance or equilibrium is reached between the new knowledge and the underlying conceptual structures. Instructors may use schemata, which are general explanations given in advance of the main source of information, as a means to help learners find reference points for linking prior knowledge to new knowledge. This approach creates a deeper level of learning which involves understanding new material through critical reflection, questioning and discussing implications in different contexts. Briggs (1988 P. 187) notes that if the deeper level learning is to be fostered, students must first be aware of their motives and intentions, their own cognitive resources, and of the demands of the academic tasks; and second, that they are able to control and monitor their consequent performance. He suggests that learners need to be given opportunities to interpret and encode information in their own words, develop questions and test themselves to see if they have attained their goals. The cognitivist and constructivist perspective of learners highlight the importance of the learners readiness to learn and the relationship between their prior knowledge and the way in which they construct and try to find meaning from new information. Educators are viewed as those possessing the need to understand the way individual students perceive or interpret the task at hand, which consequently will help influence the way they approach the task. Learning Theory 14 The social learning theory integrates many of the ideas mentioned in the behavioral and cognitive views of adult learning. In Albert Banduras (1977,1986) social learning theory, a synthesis of ideas about

learning, motivation and cognitive mediations is presented. The theory stresses that learning is the reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral and environmental factors. He emphasizes that learners anticipations and cognitive mediation of their environments also determines their attention or focus on what they will learn. Bandura recognizes how specific beliefs that individuals have about their abilities influence their approach to learning and their learning outcomes. Bandura emphasized the importance of educators being able to understand their students own beliefs about their ability as learners. Bandura also stresses that individuals learn through observing others. It is where individuals learn attitudes, beliefs and behaviors. The most important dynamic lies in the process of cognitive mediation where individuals construct cognitive models of social awareness and reality based on their social experiences in order to guide their decision-making and thinking about social behavior. They learn possible actions and their probable consequences. Two of these concepts gained prominence in the development of adult learning; situated cognition and cognitive apprenticeship. Situated cognition is when a skill or concept is used in a specific situation and requires meaning which it did not possess before, such as adopting a behavior or belief systems of a new social group. The cognitive apprenticeship approach to teaching involves six elements; modeling, coaching, scaffolding, articulating, reflecting and exploring. The humanist approach to learning highlights the significance of the effective domain as it influences learning. Learning is neither solely a behavioral nor cognitive Learning Theory 15 process, but rather a process of personal growth and development. Humanist psychologists such as Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers emphasize choice, freedom, creativity and self-realization as essential aspects of meaningful learning. In contrast to conceptualizing individuals in a mechanistic view, humanistic theory recognizes the complexity of individuals and the importance of an individuals perceptions that are rooted in the experience. Maslow (1954) developed a theory of human motivation based on a hierarchy of needs. Maslow emphasizes that the fulfillment of lower level needs is necessary if higher level needs are to be fulfilled. He views the need for self-actualization as the individuals desire to their fullest potential. Many ideas that surface in the writing of adult education, such as Kidd (1974), Knowles (1980), Freire (1970), Cross (1981) and Mezirow (1981) can be traced to humanistic psychology and philosophy. Collectively, these theorists emphasize a collaborative teaching approach that is grounded in the needs and interests of the students. Transformational learning has become a focal point of theoretical and practical study in adult education over the last twenty years. It involves deep level changes in the existing values, attitudes, beliefs and ultimately the actions of individuals. The critical education theory of Paulo Freire (1970), Jack Mezirows (1978, 1981) theory of transformation and Dalozs (1984) holistic perspective, have analyzed different dimensions of transformative learning in adults. Their ideas have been applied to adult education contexts that include literacy education, social change movements, environmental education, womens consciousness raising groups in the workplace, and critical media literacy. Learning Theory 16

Mezirows transformational theory provides empirical work which he considers the foundation for formulating a comprehensive theory of adult education since it is considered a theory unique to adults. He promoted critical reflection as central to transforming our learning from experience. His thinking provided a significant challenge to academic beliefs by making the central task of adult education the critique of assumptions through critically reflective learning. His theoretical proposals were primarily tagged to andragogy, which initiated a series of attacks on the adragogists. Whether one is involved in undergraduate, graduate, or continuing professional education, the learning transaction can be enhanced by understanding how adults learn and the conditions under which adults learn most effectively. Andragogy, self-directed learning, and transformational learning are three major contributions to the growing knowledge base of adult learning theory. Several new perspectives on adult learning in particular, consciousness and learning, situated cognition, and feminist pedagogy are examined for what they can contribute to adult learning theory. Several conclusions are advanced about the state of adult learning theory, and implications are drawn for continuing education in the health professions. Freud once wrote that education, like psychoanalysis and government is an impossible profession, as we can never know beforehand the outcomes of our endeavors. This is true for radical adult educators as it is for liberal educators, human resource developers, academics, etc. Constraints Although the principles behind andragogy are very applicable in most adult learning situations it is not necessarily limited to implementation within adult learning. Learning Theory 17 Historically, andragogy has been hard to classify. It has been referred to as "a theory of adult education, theory of adult learning, theory of technology of adult learning, method of adult education, technique of adult education, and a set of assumptions." The position of adult education within a post-modern landscape has been and continues to be a troubled one. In recent years, there has been much discussion about the significance of post-modernism and post modernity on the study and practice of adult education. There are complications of lifelong learning dealing with some of the changes that occurred between those times. In particular, the growth the performance of knowledge based on social norms or habits which has created a loss of mastery due to disbelief and confusion. Lifelong learning can be constructed as a post modern condition of education. There lies a debate concerning the significance of the post modern frame in the study of the education of adults. Many perceive it as the globalization of capitalist economic relations and the growth of postindustrial consumer oriented society within an information rich environment led by new technologies (Harvey, 1989). Others believe it to be a form of analysis associated with deconstruction and post structuralism which places it as a challenge to foundational certainties in thoughts and actions (Lemert, 1997). Further, others view it as promoting individualism and lifestyle practices of a consumer society (Featherstone, 1991). Some believe it provides a space for forms of radical and emancipator politics associated with new social movements and issues of gender, race, ethnicity, and sexuality. For many, postmodern undermines adult educations traditional commitment to social action and its historical alignment with working class

organizations and other marginalized groups in society. For others, it undermines the commitment to liberal education of learning for its own sake and for Learning Theory 18 personal development. However, others believe that postmodern provides a conceptual and practical space for understanding and engaging with a fuller range of adult learning practices. It is a space that opens up possibilities for recognizing adult education as encompassing the multiplicity and diversity of practices of adult learning that are a characteristic of the contemporary scene which is suggestive of the post-modern condition. Technology-based adult learning According to the Trends and Issues Alerts New Views of Adult Learning, by Susan Imel (1999), three areas have shown recent activity in adult learning; transformational learning, adult learning related to technology, and collaborative learning. Since the late 1980s, research and theory development in transformative learning have been a main focus. Some recent publications include a critical review of the literature (Taylor 1998), discussions of theoretical perspectives (Dikx 1998), transformative learnings relationship to adult development (Hopson and Welbourne 1998) and a description of transformative learning in practice (Livingston and Roth 1998). Technology developments have also affected adult learning research and theory building where technology is emerging as both a delivery system and a content area. The principles of adult learning theory can be used in the design of technology-based instruction to make it more effective. To facilitate the use of andragogy while teaching with technology we must use technology to its fullest. Arguments for the use of technology many times include statements about its flexibility and the ability of the learner to move through lessons anytime, anywhere, and at their own pace. These arguments also include Learning Theory 19 logical explanations of how a learner may adapt the lessons or material to cover what they need to learn and eliminate the material that is not appropriate or that they have already learned. To adapt to the needs of adult students, these definitions of technology-based learning must be utilized to make its design interactive, learner-centered and to facilitate self-direction in learners. Educators who are using adult education concepts in the development of their lessons must also become facilitators of learning. They must structure student input into their design and create technology-based lessons which can easily be adapted to make the presentation of topics relevant to those they teach. If these guidelines are followed, the instruction that is developed will be not only technologically workable but also effective from a learners perspective. Malcolm Knowles theory of andragogy allows teacher/facilitators to structure lessons which are part of a relevant learning environment for adult students. Although learning in groups has had a long history in adult education, the focus has been on group process; helping learners think about group as opposed to individual learning. The effect of technology on group learning has also been established. Transformative learning in adult, higher and continuing education has been around for over 25 years and continues to be the most researched and discussed

theory in the field of adult education. Most significant is the predominance of literature, both conceptual and empirical, framed within the influential work on transformative learning theory by Jack Mezirow (2000, 1991). Transformative learning offers a theory of learning that is uniquely adult, abstract and idealized, grounded in the nature of human communication. It is a theory that is partly developmental, but even more it is about where learning is understood as the process of using a prior interpretation to construe a Learning Theory 20 new or revised interpretation of the meaning of ones experience in order to guide future action (Mezirow 1996: 162).Transformative learning theory continues to be a popular area of research in the field of adult education as indicated by an increase in the number of peer-review journal publications and the initiation of a bi-annual international conference specifically on the study of transformative learning. Theoretical frameworks for second language learning present a number of different perspectives. Analysis of errors made in language learning reveals the development of an inter language -- a set of rules made up by the learner that map the new language onto their native language. Correction of errors is important in helping the student understand the grammar of the new language. Theories of adult learning and literacy are more likely to provide an appropriate framework for second language learning compared to those concerned with child development. Acquisition and learning processes; the former involve understanding and communication while the latter are concerned with the conscious monitoring of language use (metacognition). Acquisition processes are more critical than the learning processes and should be encouraged through activities that involve communication rather than vocabulary or grammar exercises. Many language researchers emphasize the inter-relationships among listening, speaking, reading, and writing processes. Adult learning in classroom setting Theories of adult learning (e.g., Cross, Knowles, Rogers) that emphasize experiential learning, as well as theories of social learning (e.g., Bandura, Vygotsky), are important to military training because of the extensive interpersonal interaction involved, Learning Theory 21 particularly in the context of team performance. Training, TRADOC, the new center's mission is to identify, test, and evaluate, under controlled conditions, new methods of language instruction, and to apply in the institute's language courses the results of these activities. By working in survival language instruction, immediate needs arise for the status of military language instruction, its use, and sustainment problems. It is upon the instructor to create learning situations that are practical and problem centered to promote positive self-esteem. Military personnel of all ages, ranks and backgrounds attend language class which calls for providing a quality, well organized experience that uses time effectively while maintain respect to the individual learner. As the language instructor, I must validate and affirm their knowledge, contributions and successes. What the students know is a resource

for me and can be integrated to the new ideas and concepts to be learned. I consistently try to build my plans around their needs by sharing my class agenda and assumptions and asking for input on them by using how students learn as a guide to their teaching practices constructivist epistemology is useful to teachers if used as a referent; that is, as a way to make sense of what they see, think, and do. Beliefs about how people learn whether verbalized or not, often help make sense of, and guide, our practice as teachers. The only tools available to a knower are the senses. It is only through seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, and tasting that an individual interacts with the environment. With these messages from the senses the individual builds a picture of the world. Knowledge cannot be transferred intact from the head of a teacher to the heads of students. The student tries to make sense of what is taught by trying to fit it with his/her experience. By consistent observation of the learning process in the classroom, learning is defined as adaptations Learning Theory 22 made to fit the world they experience. Students need to be given opportunities to make sense of what is learned by negotiating meaning; comparing what is known to new experiences, and resolving discrepancies between what is known and what seems to be implied by new experience. Generally speaking, the use of technology inside or outside the classroom tends to make the class more interesting. However, certain design issues affect just how interesting the particular tool creates motivation. One way a program or activity can promote motivation in students is by personalizing information, for example by integrating the students name or familiar contexts as part of the program or task. Others include having animate objects on the screen, providing practice activities that incorporate challenges and curiosity and providing a context (real-world or fantasy) that is not directly language-oriented. Language learning is a highly cumulative process. It is like making a tower out of blocks: you keep building on top of what you did the day before. If you don't keep at the job steadily, pretty soon you're trying to put new blocks on top of empty space. Thus it is important to keep up with and learn what is being presented to you about a language day by day. Foreign-language instruction emphasizes spoken vocabularies and pronunciation, covering grammar and written language only when required through a self-paced foreign-language training course that uses numerous research-based pedagogic and technologic innovations including interactive 3D video game simulations to teach what to say, how to say it, and when to say it. After just a few hours of study, anyone from beginners to advanced students learn and retain spoken communication skills regardless of their self-perceived learning aptitude or prior knowledge of the language. This is accomplished with three main pedagogic objectives: reduce trainees' frustration Learning Theory 23 and boredom, sustain their motivation even after hours of intense practice, and promote the quick transfer of acquired communication skills to the real world. The application of the course include mission rehearsals. Learning Theory 24

References Bandura, A. 1977. Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall _ 1986. Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall Burge, L. (1988). Beyond andragogy: Some explorations for distance learning design [Electronic version]. Journal of Distance Education, 3(1), 5-23. Clark, D. (1999). Andragogy. Retrieved October 20, 2008, from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/history/ andragogy.html Dirx, J. 1997, 1998. Nurturing soul in adult learning. In Transformative learning in action, edited by V. Grabove (pp.83-92). San Francisco: Jossy-bass Featherstone, M. (1991), Consumer culture and postmodernism. London: Sage Gagn, R. (1962, February). Military training and principles of learning. American Psychologist, 17(2), 8391. Retrieved October 22, 2008, doi:10.1037/h0048613 Gagn, R. (1984, April). Learning outcomes and their effects: Useful categories of human performance. American Psychologist, 39(4), 377-385. Retrieved October 21, 2008, doi:10.1037/0003-066X.39.4.377 Harvey, D. (1989). The condition of postmodernity. Oxford. UK: Basil Blackwell Imel, S. How Emancipatory Is Adult Learning? Myths and Realities no. 6. Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education, 1991. (ED 436 663) http://ericacve.org/fulltext.asp Learning Theory 25 Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy. Chicago: Follett. Knowles, M. S. (1984). Andragogy in action. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Knowles, Malcolm S. and Associates (1984). Andragogy in action: Applying modern principles of adult learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc. Lemert, C. (1997). Postmodernism is not what you think. Oxford. UK: Basil Blackwell

Merriam, S.B., and R.S. Caffarella. 1991. Learning in Adulthood: A comprehensive guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Mezirow, J. 1978 Perspective Transformation. Adult Education 28: 100-110 _1981. A critical theory of adult learning and education. Adult Education Quarterly _1990. Fostering critical reflection in adulthood: A Guide to transformative and emancipator learning. San Francsco: Jossey-Bass _1991. Transformative dimensions of adult learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Mezirow, Jack (1996) Contemporary paradigms of learnings. Adult Education Quarterly 46 (3), 158-173. Piaget, J. 1972. Intellectual Evolution from adolescence to adulthood. Human development. 15:1-12 Robinson, R. (1992). Andragogy applied to the open college learner. Research in Distance Education. 4(1), 10-13 Learning Theory 26 Tallmadge, G. (1968, February). Relationships between Training Methods and Learner Characteristics. Journal of Educational Psychology, 59(1), 32-36. Retrieved October 22, 2008, doi:10.1037/h0025463 Taylor, E. (2000). Analyzing research on transformative learning theory. In J. Mezirow & Associates, Learning as transformation (pp. 285-328). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Tennant, M. (1997). Psychology and adult learning. London: Routledge. Wittrock, R., ed. 1977. Learning and Instruction. Berkeley, Calif.: McCutchan Publishing Company Adult Learning Julie Conlan, Sarah Grabowski, Katie Smith Department of Educational Psychology and Instructional Technology, University of Georgia Review of Adult Learning

Contents [hide]

1 Introduction 2 Andragogy 3 Variables Affecting Adult Learning 4 Toolkit for Facilitators of Adult Learning 5 Learning Theories Related to Adult Learning
o o o o

5.1 Action Learning 5.2 Experiential Learning 5.3 Project Based Learning 5.4 Self-Directed Learning

6 Adults Are Students Too 7 Conclusion

o o

7.1 Adults are students too 7.2 Training strategies

8 Biography - Malcolm Knowles 9 Resources 10 Bibliography 11 References 12 Citation

Introduction There are conflicting perspectives on adult learning as it relates to and separates itself from early childhood development practices and overall approaches to learning. It is the belief of the authors that all styles of learning are applicable to both early childhood and adult learning, with differences presenting themselves in regard to the use of the style based on the learning environment. Topics discussed:

Andragogy Variables Affecting Adult Learning Toolkit for Facilitators of Adult Learning Learning Theories Related to Adult Learning:

1. Action Learning 2. Experiential Learning 3. Project Based Learning 4. Self-Directed Learning Click Here to Play the Presentation Caption: In this narrated PowerPoint presentation, we have explored the theory of the Adult Learning environment by including examples of teaching assistants, e-learning in technical colleges, and self-directed learning. Click here for a paraphrased script of the narration. Mara del Puig Andrs, Jennifer Buoy, Margaret Daigle-Riley, and Mervine S. Jordan (2005) Andragogy Andragogy is the art and science of helping adults learn. Malcolm Knowles is the father of andragogy as he proposed five factors involved in adult learning. The five assumptions underlying andragogy describe the adult learner as someone who:

Has an independent self-concept and who can direct his or her own learning Has accumulated a reservoir of life experiences that is a rich resource for learning Has learning needs closely related to changing social roles Is problem-centered and interested in immediate application of knowledge Is motivated to learn by internal rather than external factors (Merriam, 2001, p.5)

Knowles used these principles to propose a program for the design, implementation and evaluation of adult learning. Since the development of his theory, Knowles has acknowledged that the principles he outlined did not apply solely to adult education. The development of the theory simply illustrates that the designer "should involve learners in as many aspects of their education as possible and in the creation of a climate in which they can most fruitfully learn" (Merriam, 2001, p.7). Knowles' main focus with the development of andragogy was the notion of the material being very learner centered and the learner being very self-directed. Principles:

Adults need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction Experience (including mistakes) provides the basis for learning activities Adults are most interested in learning about subjects that have immediate relevance to their job or personal life Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented

Case Study: The adults are first given an introduction to the class in personal computer training. They are told what they are going to learn and more importantly, why they are learning specific operations (functions, etc.). The learners are given task-oriented instruction as well as real-world assignments to test their skills such as creating a basic resume or a to-do list in Microsoft Word. The instructor will take into account the wide range of backgrounds of learners. The learning materials and activities should allow for different levels/types of previous experience with computers. Attention will be paid to individual levels and goals. The instructor's role is as facilitator and expert to present the tasks and assist the learners if mistakes are made or help is requested. Advantages/Strengths:

Andragogy is very self-directed and allows the learner to take control of his or her learning Andragogy is very broad based and the method can be implemented in a variety of educational situations

Disadvantages/Weaknesses:

Although the principles behind andragogy are very applicable in most adult learning situations it is not necessarily limited to implementation within adult learning Historically, andragogy has been hard to classify. It has been referred to as "a theory of adult education, theory of adult learning, theory of technology of adult learning, method of adult education, technique of adult education, and a set of assumptions."

Variables Affecting Adult Learning Learning opportunities for adults exist in a variety of settings ranging from a formal institution to a place of employment. It is important to acknowledge prior knowledge and experiences of learners, including their ability to recognize their own skills as lifelong learners. (Merriam, 1999). Considerations for adult development and learning include biological and psychological development (including deterioration and disease processes that may occur) and sociocultural and integrative perspectives on development (Merriam, 1999). While the most common reason for adults to place themselves in a learning environment is a life-changing event, once in that environment there are many

factors that affect the learning experience. The most significant is referred to here as the briefcase brought with them. Briefcase may include:

Life experience (including life altering events that affect cognitive abilities) Work experience (including development of thinking patterns based on this experience) Positive/negative previous adult learning experiences Performance affectors, including cognitive abilities Time between learning interactions Aging factors

Toolkit for Facilitators of Adult Learning Much of adult learning occurs in a corporate environment involving a variety of training processes. In addition to applying the various learning styles discussed in previous ebook chapters, trainers/facilitators in such environments need to have a working skill set to meet the demands of fastpaced, changing environments. New trends involve instructional designers and facilitators becoming long-term assets to training departments. Expectations are for trainers to arrive not only with delivery skills, but also with design experience and application of learning theories in a variety of settings (Meyer, 2003). The most significant trend that continues to make an impact on facilitators is the demand for the incorporation of technology into the content and delivery of professional development (King, 2003). The professional development toolkit for trainers should include:

The basics of design and delivery - needs assessment, developing objectives, creating an agenda, selecting appropriate activities, providing for transfer, and designing and conducting evaluation activities An understanding of diverse clients and their different learning styles The ability to read the context, assess needs, and select or create appropriate mini-learning sessions that are often delivered as just in time learning The use of reflective practice skills to make sense of their situation, tailoring learning solutions to their own and other local learning needs, developing and nurturing collaborative communities of practice The ability to coordinate university-based, certificate, and in-service programs designed as learning laboratories

The ability to develop activities that increasingly involve active experiential learning and debriefings The ability to use more than one delivery system, particularly online and eLearning The use of learner-centered instruction, especially self-directed learning, means trainers will need to create better ways to include opportunities for reflection, clarification, and guidance

Professional development of facilitators of adults should promote dialogue, reflection, and quality. The integrative approach to professional development involves key elements (Lawler, 2003). Professional development:

Is adult education Is learner centered Is transformative learning Needs to address motivation Needs to address technology learning

Training is critical in five areas today (Riddle, 2000). These areas - stimulating creativity, assessing innovation options, focusing on the customer, designing new services, and implementing change require a broad range of skills on the part of the trainer. Development of trainers should include demonstrating multiple approaches to delivering the same information. Learning Theories Related to Adult Learning Caption: The Flash animation above provides an overview of four Learning Theories related to Adult Learning. They are Action Learning, Experiential Learning, Self-Directed Learning, and Project-Based Learning. In each section, you can see a brief introduction and pros and cons of each theory. The animation was designed and developed by Cheng-Yu Tsai and I-Yung Hou (2007).

Action Learning "Emphasize action learning. Classroom training is inefficient. Half the people in the room are secretly working on their "real" jobs; half are so relieved not to be doing their real jobs, they've turned their minds entirely off. Half already know half the stuff being taught and are playing Buzzword Bingo on their Palms; half will never need to know more than half of it (Stewart, 2001, p.184)." Action learning is a commonly used term in many discussions regarding adult learning in a variety of business settings. It holds many similarities to learning communities, discussed at length in the ebook

chapter on Learning Communities. If it is to be distinguished, action learning is basically the small components that create the main team involved in a learning community. Action learning has been compared with project work, learning communities and various forms of simulation used in management development. It has been more widely used recently for organizational problems (Yorks, 2000). "Action learning is defined as an approach to working with, and developing people, which uses work on a real project or problem as the way to learn. Participants work in small groups or teams to take action to solve their project or problem, and learn how to learn from that action. A learning coach works with the group in order to help them learn how to balance their work, with the learning from that work (O'Neil, 2000, p.44)." Components of Action Learning:

The first part of action learning is creating action groups based on programmed learning, "the expert knowledge" and learning or real world experiences. These are small groups, generally consisting on 3 or 4 people. Emphasis is placed on diversifying these small groups so that each group is best equipped to contribute to the learning community. A learning coach is designated for each group. Together, the learning coaches also form a group. From there, a project group leader is chosen. Both the project group leader and the learning coaches act as organizers, facilitators and overall motivators for the action groups (O'Neil, 2000). Action learning involves learning from experience through reflection and action with the support group. It is important that the groups remain constant and have duration, meaning the opportunity to establish themselves over a solid time period (Wade, 1999).

Caption: In the Flash animation above, action learning is presented using 10 steps. The action group (animals) along with a learning coach (old lady) proceeds through these steps by 1) setting objectives, 2) creating an action group, 3) assigning a learning coach, 4) presenting the challenge, 5) defining the problem, 6) identifying actions, 7) testing out the actions, 8) discussing the results, 9) setting the action plan, 10) and drawing a conclusion. This animation was designed and developed by Minling Hung, Yichun Hong and Julius Gantt (2005).

Click Here for a Video on Action Learning Caption: This video depicts an Action Learning group in the process of creating a video to celebrate the centennial of Dacula, Georgia. In the video you will see and hear a written narrative introduction of the four main components of Action Learning along with conversations during each phase of production. The four components are as follows: 1.) the diversity of

knowledge and skills 2.) the learning coach acts as an expert and the group leader acts as a motivator and organizer 3.) learning occurs through ongoing reflection and action 4.) the group remains constant and has duration. In the first scene, the volunteers are introduced and have been selected based upon their diversity of knowledge and skills. Pam owns a travel agency and has excellent planning and organizational skills. The technical coordinator is Dean, who owns a local software consulting business. Connie is the city manager so she has volunteered to be the group leader. The learning coach is Shawn, an expert in creating documentaries, who has agreed to assist the group. The second scene represents the production phase of the video. The learning coach provides some suggestions for improvement, such as incorporating a more humanistic approach by adding stories to the video. Learning is taking place through ongoing action and reflection among the group members. Next, the editing phase depicts the group working on editing the footage for the hamster legend segment. The last segment of the video is the reflection phase. This phase depicts the relevance of reflecting on the process and the importance of the same group members working together over duration. Created by Shawn Parker, Pam Pritchett, Dean Looney, and Connie Derrick (2004). Case Study: Public Service Electric & Gas (PSE&G), the nation's sixth largest combined electric and gas company, developed an action learning program in order to help the distribution department learn how to be successful in the new competitive environment that was quickly replacing its former regulated world. The following objectives were established for the program:

Enhance the way people communicate and interact with one another Weave quality tools and behaviors into the fabric of the organization Develop and use problem-solving and coaching skills Develop an environment of openness and trust, and get conflict on the table

Over two years, there were nine separate sessions with more than 250 participants. Each session averaged 28 participants, formed into four action learning groups of 7 participants each. A learning coach worked with each group. The four learning coaches also formed a learning coach team. Each action learning group addressed an actual business project, sponsored by a senior leader in the organization. During the program, the action learning groups met for a minimum of six and a half days over a six-week period with their learning coach and additional days on their own. At the end of the session, each action learning group proposed recommendations to the entire senior leadership team. Many of these groups were involved in the implementation of their recommendations after the end of the session. Some of the outcomes included savings in the hundreds of thousands of dollars through work restructuring, improved relationships with the community through outreach programs, and a transformed view of company-customer interactions, from providing customer satisfaction to that of building customer loyalty (O'Neil, 2000).

During the beginning of these sessions, participants were overwhelmed and apprehensive about the learning approach. After working through sessions, by the end, participants were surprised at the revelations that occurred during the learning process. They reported being challenged by the learning coach and establishing a rich camaraderie with their team members. Advantages/Strengths:

Process used in forming groups Balanced and diverse groups enhance the learning process and allow significant contributions to the learning community Utilization of group dynamics

Disadvantages/Weaknesses:

Struggle constantly with the balance between accomplishing their task and learning from it Difficult to ensure consistency across groups and across sessions of any program Challenge of group dynamics

Experiential Learning "Tell me, and I will forget. Show me, and I may remember. Involve me, and I will understand." Confucius, circa 450 BC Experiential learning is a learning theory that is learner-centered and operates on the premise that individuals learn best by experience. A good way to describe this theory is "learning by doing". Experiential learning thus has the learner directly involved with the material being studied instead of just thinking and talking about that material. Experiential learning:

Is a cyclic process involving setting goals, thinking, planning, experimenting and making decisions, and finally action, followed by observing, reflecting and reviewing Uses participants' own experience and their own reflection about that experience, rather than lecture as the primary approach to learning. Experiential learning theory allows for the generation of understanding and allows for the transfer of skills and knowledge. Involves doing something and discovering what it is like, how it made the learner feel, what it meant to the learner, i.e. experiential learning is their experience and no one else's. Is, therefore, particularly effective in adult education as it addresses the cognitive, emotional and the physical aspect of the learner

Case Study: A group of oncology nurses is participating in a three day in-service training course. The nurses' training sessions were conducted using the experiential learning theory. The nurses were each presented with a real-life scenario involving a challenge that an oncology nurse might face. The problem is presented to them in a real-life simulation. Once the challenge has been laid out for them each nurse must search out resources for information that might help them deal with the particular situation. Once each nurse has done the research to his/her satisfaction he/she must then face the scenario and deal with the challenge as effectively as he/she can. When each nurse has completed the scenario, the group comes back together for a group discussion about what methods worked and what methods did not work. The nurses then evaluate themselves on the effectiveness of their research as well as the effectiveness of the implementation of the research. On the final day of the in-service each nurse is given the chance to face the challenge again after the discussion and reflection. Advantages/Strengths:

Experiential learning theory builds on experience. This is especially important in adult learning because simply by living, adults bring a wealth of experience to every learning situtation they face. Experiential learning theory is a holistic learning approach Experiential learning theory is most effective when the learning has intrinsic motivation which is a common characteristic in adult learning

Disadvantages/Weaknesses:

Experiential learning theory does not take into account differences in cultural experiences or conditions It is less clear where elements of learning such as goals, purpose and intentions fit into experiential learning theory It may not help us understand and explain change and new experiences

Project Based Learning In Project Based Learning, students work in groups to solve challenging problems that are authentic and often interdisciplinary. Learners decide how to approach a problem and what activities to pursue. This is comparable to the project based learning strategies as discussed in the ebook chapter Constructionism, Learning by Design, and Project Based Learning.

The learners gather information from a variety of sources and synthesize, analyze, and derive knowledge from it. The learning is inherently valuable because it is connected to something real and involves adult skills such as collaboration and reflection.

At the end, the learners demonstrate their newly-acquired knowledge and are judged by how much they have learned and how well they communicate it. Throughout this process, the teacher's role is to guide and advise, rather than to direct and manage student work.

Case Study: The instructor of a pre-GED class wanted to get her students motivated to become involved in their communities. Their first step was to discuss and write about what a community was. They talked about the issues that affected the students' communities. The students took turns stating problems they thought were affecting the community the most. Through group discussion the list was narrowed down the most pressing problems. The class then put together a survey to get input from the community on these topics. This group work helped the students develop not only literacy but also social skills. The class compared the answers from neighborhood to neighborhood, looking for the biggest issues. The students decided that they would like to put together a forum for the junior high school students. Advantages/Strengths:

PBL gives the learner a chance to work on real-life scenarios that would be implausible on a real scale. (i.e. management training in restructuring corporations) It allows for cooperative learning situations which build teamwork and collaboration skills important in many adult learning situations.

Disadvantages/Weaknesses:

PBL might not always be the best learning method when dealing with many different cultures and backgrounds because problem solving methods vary from culture to culture.

Self-Directed Learning "Informal and incidental learning is at the heart of adult education because of its learner-centered focus and the lessons that can be learned from life experience (Marsick, 2001, p.25)." Self-directed learning in an example of informal learning. It is defined as the process in which individuals take on the responsibility for their own learning process by diagnosing their personal learning needs, setting goals, identifying resources, implementing strategies and evaluating the outcomes. In 1999, more than 95% of adults participated in self-directed learning. Typical learners spend an average of 15 hours per week on a self-directed learning project (Rager, 2003). There are three categories involved with self-directed learning: the goals, the process, and the learner. In an adult learning context, the goals are generally self-determined, as is the process. Self-directed learning can be enhanced with facilitation, particularly through providing resources. Motivation is key to a successful self-directed learning experience. This is very similar to the motivation that takes place in children during a self-regulated learning experience as mentioned in the Motivation Chapter of the ebook.

Adult Learners are motivated by the opportunity to:

Gain new skills, knowledge, and attitudes to improve their work performance Improve family life and health, enjoy the arts and physical recreation, participate in a hobby, or simply increase their intellectual capital

Case Study: 183,000 women are diagnosed with breast cancer each year. For many, self-directed learning becomes a means to learn about their condition and provides a method for coping with it. Resources obtained through doctors, support groups, libraries and the Internet facilitate their learning. From this information, the learners gain a sense of control and direction over their own well-being, and are able to make informed decisions about treatment options. Advantages/Strengths:

Integrated with daily routines Triggered by an internal or external motivation An inductive process of reflection and action Linked to learning of others

Disadvantages/Weaknesses:

Learners are self-directed depending on the situation. They will not necessarily be self-directed in all situations. Not all adults prefer the self-directed option, and even the adults who practice self-directed learning also engage in more formal educational experiences such as teacher-directed courses. Because it is unstructured, learners can easily be distracted by their own needs, assumptions, values, and misperceptions. Research has shown that some adults are unable to engage in self-directed learning because they lack independence, confidence, or resources. In recent years, less research has been conducted on self-directed learning.

Adults Are Students Too Learning Theories Related to Adult Learning Conclusion There are a multitude of theories applicable to adult learning. For each theory, there are many independent factors brought to the environment by the learner. Based on the research by the authors,

the theories listed in this chapter were found to be the most relevant for current trends in adult learning. However, all theories should be taken under consideration by facilitators and learners.