Potentiometer

Contents
1 Potentiometer construction 2 Resistanceposition relationship: "taper" 3 Linear taper potentiometer 4 Logarithmic potentiometer 5 Digital potentiometer 6 Membrane Potentiometer 7 Potentiometer applications 5.1 Audio control 5.2 Television 5.3 Transducers 5.4 Computation 6 Potentiometric sensor 7 Theory of operation

Introduction The humble potentiometer (or pot, as it is more commonly known) is a simple electromechanical transducer. It converts rotary or linear motion from the operator into a change of resistance, and this change is (or can be) used to control anything from the volume of a hi-fi system to the direction of a huge container ship. The pot as we know it was originally known as a rheostat (or reostat in some texts) - essentially a variable wirewound resistor. The array of different types is now quite astonishing, and it can be very difficult for the beginner (in particular) to work out which type is suitable for a given task. The fact that quite a few different pot types can all be used for the same task makes the job that much harder - freedom of choice is at best confusing when you don't know what the choices actually are, or why you should make them. This article is not about to cover every aspect of pots, but is an introduction to the subject. For anyone wanting to know more, visit manufacturers' web sites, and have a look at the specifications and available types. The very first variable resistors were either a block of carbon (or some other resistive material) with a sliding contact, or a box full of carbon granules, with a threaded screw to compress the granules. More compression leads to lower resistance, and vice versa. These are rare in modern equipment, so we shall limit ourselves to the more common types

A potentiometer informally, a pot, is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used (one side and the wiper), it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat. Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices such as volume controls on audio equipment. Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can be used as position transducers, for example, in a joystick. Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control significant power (more than a watt), since the power dissipated in the potentiometer would be comparable to the power in the controlled load (see infinite switch). Instead they are used to adjust the level of analog signals (e.g. volume controls on audio equipment), and as control inputs for electronic circuits. For example, a light dimmer uses a potentiometer to control the switching of a TRIAC and so indirectly to control the brightness of lamps. Potentiometer construction A potentiometer is constructed with a resistive element formed into an arc of a circle, and a sliding contact (wiper) travelling over that arc. The resistive element, with a terminal at one or

both ends, is flat or angled, and is commonly made of graphite, although other materials may be used. The wiper is connected through another sliding contact to another terminal. On panel potentiometers, the wiper is usually the center terminal of three. For single-turn potentiometers,

this wiper typically travels just under one revolution around the contact. "Multiturn" potentiometers are usually constructed of a conventional resistive element wiped through a worm gear, although other types exist with a helical resistive element and a wiper that turns through 10, 20, or more complete revolutions. Besides graphite, materials used to make the resistive element include resistance wire, carbon particles in plastic, and a ceramic/metal mixture called cermet. A string potentiometer is a multi-turn potentiometer operated by an attached reel of wire turning against a spring, enabling it to convert linear position to a variable resistance. In a linear slider potentiometer, a sliding control is provided instead of a dial control. The resistive element is a rectangular strip, not semi-circular as in a rotary potentiometer. Due to the large opening slot for the wiper, this type of potentiometer has a greater potential for getting contaminated. Conductive track potentiometers use conductive polymer resistor pastes that contain hardwearing resins and polymers, solvents, lubricant and carbon the constituent that provides the conductive properties. The tracks are made by screen printing the paste onto a paper-based phenolic substrate and then curing it in an oven. The curing process removes all solvents and allows the conductive polymer to polymerize and cross-link. This produces a durable track with stable electrical resistance throughout its working life

Potentiometer Types "But we already covered that, didn't we?" Not really - I merely glossed over the basics. Now, we shall look at a few examples of pots you may come across. Firstly, there is the resistive material and some typical characteristics ...
Material Carbon Common uses Power (Typ) Most common material, especially for cheap to 0.1 to 0.5W Deposited as a carbon average quality pots. Has a reasonable life, and composition ink on an noise level is quite acceptable in most cases. insulating (usually a phenolic (DC should not be allowed to flow through any resin) body pot used for audio control) Cermet High quality trimpots, and some conventional Ceramic/metal composite, panel mount types (not very common). Low 0.25 to 2W using a metallic resistance noise, and high stability. Relatively limited life (or more) element on a ceramic substrate (200 operations typical for trimpots) Conductive Plastic Special impregnated plastic High quality (audiophile and professional) 0.25 to 0.5W material with well controlled pots, both rotary and linear (slide). Excellent resistance characteristics life, low noise and very good mechanical feel Wire wound High power and almost indefinite life. 5 to 50W Insulating former, with Resistance is "granular", with discrete small (or more) resistance wire wound around steps rather than a completely smooth it, and bound with adhesive to transition from one resistance winding to the prevent movement next. Low noise, usually a rough mechanical feel. Manufacturing Method

Resistanceposition relationship: "taper" The relation between slider position, known as the "taper" and resistance is generally either linear or logarithmic (aka "audio taper"). A letter code ("A" taper, "B" taper, etc.) may be used to identify which taper is used, but the letter code definitions are variable over time and between manufacturers. Potentiometer Tapers The taper (also called "law") of a pot is important. We need not worry with trimpots, since they are almost always linear, and I do not know of a supplier of anything other than linear trimpots. For all panel pots, we must be aware of the use the pot will have, and select the correct type accordingly. The most common use of a pot in audio is as a volume control. Since our hearing has a logarithmic response to sound pressure, it is important that the volume control should provide a smooth variation from soft to loud, such that a given change in position of the pot causes the same sensation of volume change at all levels.

Figure - Potentiometer Tapers

First, the term "taper" needs some explanation. In the early days, when an audio taper (logarithmic, or just log) was needed, the resistance element was indeed tapered, so that it provided a different resistivity at different settings. By changing the physical taper, it was possible to make a pot provide the exact gradient of resistance needed. By definition, a linear pot has no taper as such (the resistance element is parallel sided), but the term has stuck, so we might as well get used to it.

The violet curve in Figure 4 shows an antilog or reverse audio taper pot. These are quite uncommon, but used to be used for balance controls using a log/antilog dual section (commonly called dual gang) pot. It is shown on the graph mainly for its interest value, but they are generally an historical component now.

All this tapering proved a rather expensive exercise, so manufacturers economised ("they" won't notice the difference!), and worked out a method of using two resistance elements of differing resistivity, and joining them to create what I referred to as the "Commercial log" taper. In short, it doesn't work (not properly, anyway), and the discontinuity where the two sections join is almost always audible with cheap "log" pots. Project 01 showed how this can be fixed, and I will explain the logic a little more as we progress. In the meantime, I suggest that you get an old pot and dismantle it so that you can see exactly what is inside. I could show you some photos, but there is nothing like doing it yourself to really get to know the subject. Potentiometric sensor A potentiometric sensor is a type of chemical sensor that may be used to determine the analytical concentration of some components of the analyte gas or solution. These sensors measure the electrical potential of an electrode when no current is flowing. Principle The signal is measured as the potential difference (voltage) between the working electrode and the reference electrode. The working electrode's potential must depend on the concentration of the analyte in the gas or solution phase. The reference electrode is needed to provide a defined reference potential. Classification of sensors Potentiometric solid state gas sensors have been generally classified into three broad groups.

Type I sensors have an electrolyte containing mobile ions of the chemical species in the gas phase that it is monitoring. The commercial product, YSZ oxygen sensor,[1] is an example of type I. Type II sensors do not have mobile ions of the chemical species to be sensed, but an ion related to the target gas can diffuse in the solid electrolyte to allow equilibration with the atmosphere. Therefore, type I and type II sensors have the same design with gas electrodes combined with metal and an electrolyte where oxidized or reduced ions can be electrochemically equilibrated through the electrochemical cell. In the third type of electrochemical sensor, auxiliary phases are added to the electrodes to enhance the selectivity and stability. Type III sensors make the electrode concept even more confusing. With respect to the design of a solid state sensor, the auxiliary phase looks as part of the electrode. But it cannot be an

electrode because auxiliary phase materials are not generally good electrical conductor. In spite of this confusion, type III design offers more feasibility in terms of designing various sensors with different auxiliary materials and electrolytes.

Basic Pots and Knobs It is worthwhile to have a look at a few of the common pot types that are available. Figure 1 shows an array of conventional pots - both PCB and panel mounting.

Figure - Some Examples of Pots

Note that these are not to scale, although the relative sizes are passably close. Apart from the different body shapes and sizes, there are also many "standard" mounting hole and shaft sizes. Probably the most common of all is the one in the centre of the picture. A panel mount, 25 millimetre (1") diameter pot. This uses a 10mm (3/8") mounting hole, and has a 6.35mm (1/4") shaft. These pots have been with us almost unchanged for 40 years or more. The remainder show a few of the many variations available. The fluted shaft types are commonly referred to as "metric", but will accept a standard 1/4" knob - albeit with a little play (it is less than a perfect fit, but is acceptable if the grub screw is tight enough). Metric pots are also available in 16mm round and 25mm round formats. Most rotary pots have 270 degrees of rotation from one extreme to the other. A "single turn" pot is therefore really only a 3/4 turn device, despite the name. There are some other rotary types with only 200 degrees or so, and some specialty types may have less than that again. The standard schematic symbol for a pot is shown to the left (although some people insist on using zig-zag lines for resistors and pots, I don't and never have, so don't expect me to start now . A little later, we shall look at the many ways a standard pot may be wired, as well as some further explanations of the different "law" or taper used. Project 01 has been on this site for a long time now, and is a simple and effective way to create an almost logarithmic taper from a linear pot - but I am getting ahead of myself here. First, we need to continue with the examination of the basic types (and you thought the above small sample was enough Well, as they say ... "You ain't seen nothin' yet!"

Knobs Before we look at other pot types, a quick sample of knobs. Yes, I know that everyone has seen knobs, but a dissertation on pots would be less than complete if I didn't include these.

Figure - Some Examples of Knobs

Of these, only one deserves special mention - the one on the left. This is a multi turn vernier readout (analogue in this case) for a standard pot. Typically used with precision wirewound or conductive plastic pots, these used to be common on equipment where very accurate (and repeatable) settings were required. They are expensive, but in their day were almost indispensable. Now, a digital panel meter is cheaper, and considered much more "high tech" such is progress, but at the expense of the "olde worlde" charm of a mechanical contrivance. And yes, you can still get them! The remainder are perfectly ordinary knobs, and again, are but a very small sample of those available from a multiplicity of manufacturers. Most cheap knobs are plastic, but they are available with brass inserts, in solid aluminium (brushed, anodised, etc.), plastic innards with a thin aluminium outer shell or just an insert. You can even buy audiophool audiophile solid wood knobs, optionally coated with special lacquer that is designed to make you think the sound has improved (nudge-nudge, wink-wink . The list is endless, but I shall end it here. Trimpots Then of course, there are trimpots (aka trimmers) - pots designed for "set and forget" applications. They are used for "trimming" the value of a resistor, and are commonly used for calibrating instruments, setting the bias current on power amplifiers, and a host of other areas where a circuit cannot be relied upon to give an exact gain, output voltage, or current. Naturally, a normal panel pot can be used, but these are very much bigger, and any calibration or setup control should not be made available for everyone to fiddle with as they please.

Figure - Some Trimpot Styles

This is a very small sample of those available. The first and fourth are multi-turn types, and these should be used when a very precise setting is required. Because they are sealed, they are relatively immune from contamination, and for all but the most trivial application, should be

used instead of the open types (#2 and #5). Trimpots (as shown) are generally available as vertical or horizontal - the choice is usually made based on ease of adjustment of the final circuit. Power and Voltage Ratings For most audio applications, these are of little on no consequence. In many other applications however, exceeding the specified ratings could lead to the destruction of the pot or yourself! Neither can be considered a good thing. Power - A pot with a power rating of (say) 0.5W will have a maximum voltage that can exist across the pot before the rating is exceeded. All power ratings are with the entire resistance element in circuit, so maximum dissipation reduces as the resistance is reduced (assuming series or "two terminal" rheostat wiring). Let's look at the 0.5W pot, and 10k is a good value to start with for explanation. If the maximum dissipation is 0.5W and the resistance is 10k, then the maximum current that may flow through the entire resistance element is determined by ... P = I * R ... therefore I =P / R ... so I = 7mA In fact, 7mA is the maximum current that can flow in any part of the resistance element, so if the 10k pot were set to a resistance of 1k, current is still 7mA, and maximum power is now only 50mW, and not the 500mW we had before. Voltage - Two separate issues here. One is directly related (in part, at least) to the power rating, and is important to ensure that the life of the pot is not reduced. Knowing about the other might save your life. Voltage across resistance element - The maximum voltage across the example pot from above is 7mA * 10k, or 70V. This will rarely (if ever) be achieved in an audio system, but is easy with many other designs. As the resistance increases, so does the voltage - a 0.5W 1M pot will pass only 700uA at maximum power rating, but the voltage needed to create this current is 700V. Unless the pot is actually rated to withstand 700V across the resistance element (rather unlikely), it will fail - maybe not today, or tomorrow, but it will fail eventually. Special pots are made (custom jobs, of course) for high voltages, and standard pots should never be used beyond their rating - assuming that you can find out what the rating is, of course. Dielectric Voltage - The dielectric (insulation of pot "guts" to the body) rating is especially important if the pot is connected to mains operated, non-isolated equipment. Wall mounted lamp dimmers and such are typical examples. This is not commonly specified, but for safety, should be at least 2.5kV. A common way to achieve this is to use a plastic shaft, with the body of the pot insulated from the chassis, and inaccessible by the user - even if the knob falls off or is removed! This point cannot be stressed highly enough. Most standard pots will safely withstand (maybe) 100V or so between the resistance element and terminals, and the body and shaft. Miniature types will usually be less than this. Never, ever, use a standard pot with a metal shaft to control direct mains operated equipment. Even if the pot case is earthed, the voltage rating between the internal element(s) and terminals to the case is often unspecified, and is almost always completely unsuited to mains voltages.

Changing the Law of a Pot Using pots can be done in the conventional way, or you can get adventurous and achieve a lot more. A good example is the "Better Volume Control" shown in Project 01. The other ideas presented also show how you can make modifications to the way a pot behaves, just by adding a resistor (R). The "ideal" value by calculation is 22k for a 100k pot, and this gives a maximum deviation of +1.58 and -1.7dB from a real log curve. This is contrast to the original article, where 15k was suggested, and although the error is greater (+2.89dB and -1.12dB), the overall behaviour is almost ideal in listening tests.

Figure - A Better Volume Control

Take a look at the balance control (below) as an example. The conventional balance control requires either a log/antilog pot (virtually impossible to obtain), or one of the special types commonly used in Japanese consumer hi-fi gear. About the only way you'll get one of those is to remove it from the equipment - again, they are virtually impossible to get from normal hobbyist suppliers. Add a couple of resistors to a dual gang linear pot, and the problem is solved. Not only is the pot heavily "centre weighted", but will also maintain a relatively constant sound level as the balance is changed from full Left to full Right. The centre weighting means that for most of the pot's travel, the balance is shifted subtly, so it provides a very fine resolution around the central position - there is little requirement for only one channel (other than testing), but that is still available. In short, lots of benefits, and few drawbacks.

+
Figure - Centre Weighted Balance Control

Needless to say there are many other configurations that can be used, and this is but one. The resistor value (RL and RR) is fairly important - it really should be 35k for a 100k pot, but the error when using 33k is minimal (about 0.16 dB at centre position). One of the goals of circuit design is to utilise available components. This is not necessary if you make 10,000 of something, since at these quantities special orders will cost little or no more than the normally available components. When you are making one for yourself (or perhaps two - one for a friend for example), specially designed components are not an option due to the setup costs (this could easily be thousands of dollars / euro / pounds). Even in quantities of several hundred, available components are still (usually) cheaper. The balance control above is an example of a dual log / reverse log pot, created with a standard dual gang pot and a couple of resistors ... and it works better than a commercial offering is likely to - even if you managed to find one. For more information on this configuration, see Project 01. Note that as shown, the balance control here is not optimised for any significant impedance at the output, so its performance will change if you connect a volume control to the output.

Figure - Creating an "S" Curve for Lighting

Another example of modifying a pot to make it do what you want is shown in the LX-800 Lighting Controller. The faders need an "S" curve, to compensate for the non-linear behaviour of lamps and our eye's sensitivity to light levels. This is also achieved with a couple of resistors across a normal linear pot. If you don't like the shape (because of the lamps you use, for example), you can simply change the resistor values and modify the curve to suit your exact needs. Since even ordinary log pots are not actually logarithmic anyway, can you imagine getting a pot that would give you an SCurve? Even worse, if you found that it was not suited to certain lamps, then you would be hard pressed to modify the law to get what you needed. In some cases it would be impossible.