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Soil stabilization techniques

oil stabilization can be achieved by pulverizing the natural soil or borrow material, mixing in a chemical additive, and thoroughly compacting the mixture. The additive can be either portland cement, lime or salt (sodium chloride). A stabilized soil has increased strength. It has greater bearing capacity, and decreased water sensitivity, which diminishes volume change during wet/dry cycles. Soil stabilization is used to provide a firm base or sub-base for all types of paved areas, to improve foundation conditions, and as a lining for ditches and banked earthworks.

The degree of stability is governed by: a. the physical and chemical properties of the soil. b. the proportion of cement. c. moisture conditions (content, temperature, duration) during both compaction and curing. d. degree of compaction. Almost all soil types can be used, from gravelly and sandy to finegrained silts and clays. Generally, the more granular materials are used because they pulve ri ze and mix readily and require the least amount of cement. Waste and substandard materials found at aggregate plants, old gravel road and street materials, as well as cinders and slag, make excellent soil-cement, if they contain 55 percent or more gravel passing the No. 4 sieve. Materials containing more gra ve l retained on the No. 4 sieve can be used if they are well graded. Stones that are larger than 3 inches and highly organic matter should be removed. Soils have been stabilized with cement contents ranging from 4 to 15 percent by weight of the soil. The majority of work, however, is completed with a cement content of around 6 to 8 percent. Representative soil samples should be identified and subjected to: a. moisture-density tests to determine optimum moisture content and maximum density. b. freeze-thaw and wet-dry tests to determine the lowest cement content that will produce a hard, durable base. (ASTM designations D 558, D 559 and D 560). Short-cut test methods have been developed for use with granular soils. Various bearing capacity tests can be run on subgrades (and some sub-bases) before and after the ce-

ment has been added. When subbases are stabilized with cement, the purpose of the stabilization is to improve the properties of a substandard material. The method calls for these steps: a. Grade area b. Scarify, pulverize and pre-wet soil as necessary c. Regrade d. Spread portland cement and mix e. Apply water and mix f. Compact g. Final grade h. Cure The central-plant-mixed method calls for this procedure: a. Grade and compact subgrade b. Mix soil, cement and water in central plant c. Haul mixed material to area and spread d. Compact e. Final grade f. Cure Pu l ve rization is necessary with heavier-type soils to break up the soil particles and ensure intimate contact with the cement. Optimum moisture is necessary to both hydrate the cement and facilitate compaction. As a rule-ofthumb guide, optimum moisture content can be assumed to be the driest condition at which a 2-inch ball of soil, molded in the fingers, retains its shape. As a further aid, the ball should break into only a few pieces when dropped. Traces of moisture on the fingers means that the optimum content has been exceeded. Proper curing for 7 days is essential. The surface must be sealed to prevent evaporation losses. Stabilization should not be attempted at temperatures below 40 degrees. Compaction should be done to at least 95 percent of maximum density (ASTM D 558).

STABILIZING SOILS WITH CEMENT


Types I and IA, normal and airentraining cements, are most commonly used. All soils can be stabilized with portland cement, provided sufficient quantity is added. Some soils with a high organic content do not react well with cement and hardening may be delayed. As clay content increases, soils become more difficult to pulverize and work, and larger quantities of cement must be added to harden them. The thickness of a cement-stabilized base depends upon the traffic loads and volumes and the stability of the subgrade. Thicknesses greater than 7 inches are built in more than one lift. The thickness of subbase or subgrade stabilization depends upon the nature of the soils and the conditions of the job. Chemical bonds or linkages are developed between adjacent cement grain surfaces and exposed soil particle surfaces. There is also a secondary effect produced when lime, which is formed as the cement hydrates, reacts with the silica and alumina in the clay fraction to produce secondary cementitious material.

Conventional earth moving and compaction equipment is used. Cement spreaders for mixed-in-place construction methods and cement meters for use with central mixing plants are available. Single shaft, multiple shaft and windrow-type mixes are used for mixed-in-place work. The cost of cement stabilization is principally affected by the cement requirement, type of soil, thickness of treatment and size of job. If a soil proposed for use requires a high cement factor, the cost of the job can be kept at a normal figure by using a low-cost borrow material which has a low cement requirement. Strength and modulus of elasticity increase with cement content and age. Unconfined compressive strength of hardened soil-cement at 7 days normally ranges from 300 to 800 psi. Flexural strength is approximately 20 percent of compressive strength. Information available from: Portland Cement Association 5420 Old Orchard Road Skokie, Illinois 60078

STABILIZING SOILS WITH LIME


Hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide) is mainly used. There are two basic types of lime: high calcium and high magnesium. Their soil-stabilizing ability is roughly equal. Quicklime is occasionally used to stabilize heavy clays. Quicklime is a strong caustic and requires the use of goggles and protective clothing. Use of a non-dusting granulated product reduces the danger slightly. Principal advantage is a saving in shipping costs: hydrated lime is about one-fourth chemically combined water; quicklime is free from water. Lime reacts readily with most plastic soils containing clay. Soils containing more than 3 percent organic matter cannot be stabilized readily. Non-plastic soils and soils with a low Plasticity Index (under 10) may also need the presence of a pozzolan, such as fly-ash, to initiate

the stabilizing reaction of the lime. Lime does not improve sands or other cohesionless granular materials. Thickness can be any economically practical depth. Work normally proceeds in 6-inch layers. Depths down to 5 feet, built up in lifts, have been successfully stabilized. Depths down to 2 feet can be stabilized in a single lift by first scarifying with a back ripper. Base-exchange first agglomerates the fine clay into coarse friable particles. This is accompanied by a marked drying-out action. A chemical reaction then takes place with available silica and alumina in the soil to harden the mass. Stability is governed primarily by the plasticity of the soil (which is a measure of its clay content), by the amount of lime used and by the degree of compaction and curing. Soils ranging in Plasticity Index from 10 to 50+ are suitable for lime stabilization. If the soil has a low Index value, it is essential for the soil to contain at least 15 percent of material passing a minus No. 200 mesh. Stones larger than 3 inches and other foreign matter must be removed. The amount of time to be used may range from 2 to 6 percent by weight of the dry soil, depending on the nature of the soil. Increasing the lime content above optimum does not substantially improve the final properties of the soil. Representative soil samples should be obtained and their Plasticity Index and gradation determined (ASTM designation: D 422 D 424). If a high proportion of organic matter is suspected, its content should be determined (ASTM C 40). The bearing capacity of the soil should be determined before and after laboratory stabilization to determine the optimum amount of lime acceptable for the job. The Standard or Modified Proctor test can be used for this purpose. (ASTM designation: D 698 or D 1557). Several techniques have been developed for lime stabilization. Conventional large-area stabiliza-

tion calls for these steps: a. Grade area b. Scarify and pulverize c. Spread lime d. Add water during preliminary mixing e. Rough grade with light compaction f. Preliminary cure g. Final rotary mix and pulverize h. Compact i. Final cure Lime should not be spread dry during windy weather because it will create dusting problems. A sprinkling with water will reduce dusting. Lime applied as a slurry will eliminate the dusting problem entirely. Bag-dumped lime should be leveled with a rake before mixing. To minimize carbonation and wind losses, all lime should be mixed into the base within 6 hours of spreading. Heavy watering (to at least 5 percent above optimum moisture content) is recommended. Preliminary mixing should distribute the lime to the correct depth and pulverize the soil. Rotary mixing is desirable. Preliminary curing from 0 to 48 hours permits the lime and water to break up the clay clods. Rough grading and light compaction before curing minimizes evaporation and carbonation losses. Longer curing periods may be necessary for very heavy clays. Final mixing should continue until all clods are pulverized to pass a 1-inch screen with at least 60 percent passing a No. 4 sieve. Compaction should be done to at least 95 percent of maximum density. If necessary, more water should be added before compaction begins to reach optimum moisture content. Final curing for from 3 to 7 days is necessary to allow the soil to harden. Moist curing involves sprinkling and light rolling. Membrane curing uses a bituminous coating. Highly expansive clays are sometimes ponded for 30 days. This helps the soil attain its maximum volume before stabilizing the upper layer.

Lime modification: where complete stabilization is not required (i.e., where lime is used to dry up a wet area), lesser quantities of lime may be used, and the construction procedure is simpler. Steps include spreading, mixing, and compaction. Pulverization requirements can be waived, so two-stage mixing may not be necessary. In place or post-treatment: In this procedure, the lime is introduced to the soil to be stabilized without the need for mixing and compaction. The procedure is most suited to smaller areas such as building sites. The lime can be introduced by drilling, trench irrigation or pressure-injection. The stabilizing effect naturally diminishes as the distance from the lime source increases. Trench irrigation consists of digging a network of interconnected trenches over the site. The trenches are filled with lime topped with a layer of clean gravel. Sufficient water is passed through the trenches to keep them thoroughly wet without overflowing. An industrial detergent can be added as a wetting agent to speed dispersion of the lime. The spacing of the trenches and the length of exposure depends on the nature of the soil. Drilling is inexpensive, but allows only very limited lime exposure (less than 1 percent) unless a very close pattern of hole spacing is used. Pressure injection greatly increases the exposure possibility (up to 3 percent). A slurry of from 20 to 30 percent solids is forced into the drill holes at pressures from 150 to 600 psi. Pressure injection forces the lime over an area of several feet. Conventional earth-moving equipment is used for mixing, pulverizing and compaction. Special vehicles have been developed to assist the bulk spreading of lime. The cost of lime stabilization is primarily governed by: a. The procedure chosen, which depends on the nature of the site, the performance characteristics desired, and the time available for treatment.

b. The type of soil. Heavier clays require longer and more extensive treatment. Low plasticity soils may need a pozzolan. c. The cost of spreading. d. The quantity of water to be added. Lime stabilization decreases PI and volume change, and increases the compressive strength of a soil considerablyup to 250 psi. for clays and to 600 psi. for clay-gravels. Bearing capacity is improved from 5- to 20-fold. Information available from: National Lime Association 4000 Brandywine St. N.W. Washington, D.C. 20016 stabilizing soils with salt Salt stabilization applies to treating base aggregates for road work or parking lot areas. It has not yet been tried for improving foundation soil. Common salt (sodium chloride) of any type and from any source is suitable. A pure grade of salt is not necessary and up to 5 percent chemical impurities is not detrimental. Coarse, crushed rock salt that will pass a 3/8-inch sieve is normally used. Successful stabilization requires a well-graded soil. Clay, loam or limestone fines must be present to serve as a binder. Silt and sand are not suitable binders. Economic considerations normally restrict the thickness of the stabilized section to a 12-inch layer. During compaction, salt and water exert a flocculating action which creates a colloidal binder. This changes the structural arrangement of the particles to provide a mass of maximum stability. After curing, no salt crystals can normally be found. The grading of the soil is an important factor governing salt stabilization. It is also believed that at least 7 to 8 percent clay, and some limestone, must be present to make salt stabilization function. Particles larger than 1 inch maximum size should be removed. Gravels should contain 8 to 12 percent binder clay; limestones should contain 5 to 15 percent dust. Sands

must have 35 to 40 percent clay loam added before they can be stabilized. Best results are obtained if the overall grading condition of the soil meets ASTM designation: D1241. Quantities depend on the nature of the soil and the bearing strength desired. The optimum amount ranges between 0.5 and 1 percent by dry weight of the soil. Excessive quantities may have a detrimental effect on strength and lead to surface slipperiness. Representative samples of the soil should be obtained and inspected to make sure they meet the qualifications. A sieve analysis should be conducted to ensure that adequate binder material in the form of fines is present. If desirable, bearing capacity values should be determined for test areas in the compacted state before and after stabilization (ASTM designations: D 1195, D 1196, D 1194 or similar). Sodium chloride can be added to the soil either dry or as a brine. Mixing can be done in place or with a stationary plant. The site to be stabilized must be adequately drained to remove excess and surface water before work begins. Subgrade weak spots must be removed and firmly compacted; otherwise they will affect the bearing ability of the stabilized surface layer. The proper procedure to follow for in-place stabilization with salt is as follows: a. Scarify to desired depth b. Apply salt c. Apply water d. Mix e. Compact f. Grade g. Water and roll h. Cure Salt must be spread evenly. Salt can also be applied as a brine and by doing this, a separate watering stage can be avoided. Adequate water must be present to dissolve the salt. The content should be 1 or 2 percent in excess of optimum. Thorough mixing is essential to prevent the formation of non-stabilized pockets.

Salt actually facilitates compaction. Particles are coated with a film of moisture that remains intact under pressure, and is unaffected by temperature changes. During the early stages of compaction, the mass interlocks to provide maximum density. Further compaction forces a salt-soil mortar to the surface and this gives a very smooth finish. The curing period depends on the weather. Maximum strength is usually achieved in from 10 to 14 days. Plant mixing should be done with

a pugmill type mixer. The method is more expensive but gives maximum assurance of uniform distribution of the salt. It is most practicable when imported fill must be added to the site soil. Pre-mixed soils should be spread to a depth not greater than 5 inches before in-place wetting. Chief factor governing the cost of salt stabilization is the type of soil. The need for imported material, with consequent extra handling, will greatly increase costs. Material and compaction costs are relatively low.

Salt stabilization ensures maximum compaction. Bearing capacity is increased from 3- to 5-fold. Frost damage is minimized because salt lowers the freezing point of the soil. Information available from: Salt Institute 206 North Washington Street Alexandria, Virginia 22314

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