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Understand the manufacture of sulphuric acid. Synthesis the manufacture of ammonia and its salts. Understand alloys. Evaluate the uses of synthetic polymer. Apply the uses of glass and ceramics. Evaluate the uses of composite materials. Appreciate various synthetic industrial material.

sulphuric acid (H4SO4)

USES OF SULPHURIC ACID
1. Sulphuric acid is used to produce chemical fertilizer such as ammonium sulphate and potassium sulphate, which are highly soluble in water and can be easily absorbed by plant. 2. Car batteries contain sulphuric acid which is used as the electrolyte. 3. Sulphuric acid also used in the making of artificial silk-like fibres and rayon. 4. Chemical like paints, dyes and drug use sulphuric acid as one of their component materials.

MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID

1.Sulphuric acid is manufactured in industry though contact process 2. The process contain three stages STAGE1: Production Of Sulphur Dioxide From Sulphur i. Combustion of sulphur or sulphide ores in the air produce sulphur dioxide SO 2. S(s)+O2(g) SO2(g) sulphur ii.sulphur dioxide is dried and purified.

STAGE2: Production Of Sulphur Trioxide From Sulphur Dioxide i . T h e p u r i f i e d s u l p h u r d i o x i d e S O 2 and excess air are passed over vanadium(V) oxide V2O5at controlled optimum condition optimum condition to produce sulphur trioxide SO3. 2SO2(g)+O2(g) 2SO3(g) ii.The optimum used are a) Temperature:450-500C b) Pressure: 2-3 atmospheres c ) C a t a l ys t : V a n a d i u m ( V ) o x i d e iii. Under controlled optimum conditions, 98% conversion is possible. S u l p h u r d i o x i d e and oxygen that have not reacted are allowed to flow back again over the catalyst in the converter.

STAGE3: Conversion of trioxide to sulphuric acid i.Sulphur trioxide SO 2is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid H2SO4 to form oleum H2S2O7 which is then diluted with water to form sulphuric acid H2SO4. SO3(g)+H2SO4(l) H2S2O7(l)
Oleum

H2S2O7(l)+ H2O(l)

2H2SO4(aq)

ii.The two reactions in stage3 are equivalent to adding sulphur trioxide directly into water. SO3(g)+H2O(l)H2SO4(aq) iii.The addition of sulphur trioxide directly into is not carried out because the reaction isv a r y v i g o r o u s ; a l o t o f h e a t i s g i v e n o f f . A s a r e s u l t , a l a r g e

c l o u d o f s u l p h u r i c a c i d fumes is produced, which is corrosive and causes severe air pollution.In the converter 4Sulphur OxygenS(s) +O 2 (g) SO 2 (g)SO 2 (g) +H 2 SO 4 (aq) H 2 S 2 O 7 (l)H 2 S 2 O 7 (l) +H 2 O(l) 2 H 2 SO 4 (aq)2SO(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)Temperature: 450-500CPressure: 2-3 atmospheresCatalyst: Vanadium(V) oxideOxygeUnreacted2%so 2 isflowed back to converter together with The Contact ProcessOutline Of Contact process

SULPHUR DIOXIDE AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION 1.Sulphur dioxide is one of the by-product of contact process. It is a colourless and poisonous gas with a vary pungent smell.2.Sulphur dioxide which escape into the air causes air pollution.3.Sulphur dioxide is an acidic which dissolves in water to form sulphurous acidic, H 2 SO 3 .In the atmosphere, sulphur dioxide dissolve in water droplets to form sulphurous acidic.SO 2 (g) + H 2

O(l) H 2 SO 3 (aq)4.Oxidation of sulphur acid by oxygen produce sulphuric acid, H 2 SO 4 , which falls to theearth as acid rain. Sulphur trioxide is also easily oxidised in the air to form sulphur trioxide. Sulphur trioxide dissolve in rainwater to produce sulphuric acid.SO 3 (g) + H 2 O(l) H 2 SO 4 (aq) Acid rain and environmental pollution 5

(NH 3 ) USES OF AMMONIA 1.Ammonia that is produce commercially has many uses.2 . I t u s e s : i . I n t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f c h e m i c a l f e r t i l i z e r s s u c h a s a m m o n i u m s u l p h a t e , a m m o n i a nitric, ammonia phosphate and urea.ii.To manufacture nitric acid and explosive.iii.In the making of synthetic fibre and nylon.iv.As a degreasing agent in aqueous form to remove greasy stains in the kitchen. PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA GAS1.The physical properties of ammonia gas include the following:i.It colourless and has a pungent odour. ii.It is vary soluble in water and form a weak alkaline solution.iii.It less dense then water.iv.It easily liquified (at about 35.5C) when cool.2.The chemical properties of ammonia gas:a)Ammonia gas dissolves in water to form a weak alkali. NH 3 (g) + H 2

O(l) NH 4 +( aq) + OH (aq) b)The presence of hydroxide icon causes the aqueous solution to become alkaline. Thusaqueous ammonia solution:i.Turns red litmus paper blue.ii.Reacts with acid to form only salt and waterin neutralization reaction. NH 3 (aq) + HCI(aq) NH 4 CI(aq)2NH 3 +H 2 SO 4 (aq) (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 (aq)iii.Reacts with solution of metallic cations to produce precipitates.Fe + (aq) + 2OH(aq) Fe (OH) 2 (s) (Form ammonia solution) Dirty green precipitate 6 MANUFACTURE OF AMMONIA IN INDUSTRY 1.Ammonia is manufacture on a large scale in industry through the haber process. In this process, ammonia is formed form direct combination of nitrogen and hydrogen gas inthe volume ratio 1:3.2.The gas nitrogen obtain form the fractional distillation of liquefied air. The hydrogengas is obtained form the cracking of petroleum or from the catalysed reaction of naturalgas, CH 4 , with steam.CH

4 (g) + H 2 O(g) CO(g) + 3H 2 (g)3 . T h e m i x t u r e o f n i t r o g e n a n d h yd r o g e n g a s e s i s p a s s e d o v e r a n i r o n c a t a l ys t u n d e r controlled optimum condition as below to form ammonia gas.i.Temperature: 450-500Cii.Pressure: 200-500 atmospheresiii.Catalyst used: Iron fillings N 2 (g) + 3H 2 (g) 2NH 3 (g)4.Under these control optimum condition, only 15% of the gas mixture turn into ammoniagas. The nitrogen and hydrogen that have not reacted are then flow back over the catalystagain in the reactor chamber.5 . T h e a m m o n i a p r o d u c t i s t h e n c o o l e d a t a l o w t e m p e r a t u r e s o t h a t i t c o n d e n s e s i n t o a liquid in the cooling chamber.7 The Haber Process AMMONIUM FERTILIZERS 1.Nitrogen is required in large amount by plant to make proteins which a r e n e c e s s a r y for growth and cell repair.2 . M o s t p l a n t a r e n o t a b l e t o g e t a n i t r o g e n s u p p l y d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e a i r a l t h o u g h i t i s abundant in the air (78%). Plants can only absorb soluble nitrogen compounds fromsoil through their roots.3 . T h e nitrogen compounds are usually soluble nitric salt, ammon ia and ammonia s a l t which are manufacture as chemical fertilizer.4 . R e a c t i o n s o f a m m o n i a w i t h a c i d s p r o d u c e a m m o n i u m f e r t i l i z e r s . NH 3 (aq) + HNO 3 (aq) NH 4 NO 3 (aq) Ammonium nitrate 3NH 3 (aq) + H 3 PO

4 (aq) (NH 4 ) 3 PO 4 (aq) Ammonium phosphate 2NH 3 (aq) +H 2 SO 4 (aq) (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 (aq) Ammonium sulphate 8 N i t r o g e n H d r o g e n N 2 and H 2 are mixed in the proportion of 1:3 N 2 (g) + 3H 2 (g) 2NH 3 (g)Temperature: 450-500CPressure: 200-500 atmospheresCatalyst used: Iron LiquidammoniaIn cooling chamber Unreacted N 2 andH 2 gasesIn the reactor chamber Outline Of Habert process

fillings

ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS IN MATELS 1 . T h e a t o m o f p u r e m e t a l s a r e p a c k e d t o g e t h e r c l o s e l y. T h i s c a u s e s t h e m e t a l t o h a v e a hight density2 . T h e f o r c e s o f a t t r a c t i o n b e t w e e n a t o m s ( m e t a l l i c b o n d s ) a r e s t r o n g . M o r e h e a t e n e r g y is needed to overcome the metallic bond so that the atoms are further apart during themelting. This is why metals usually have hight melting point.3 . H e a t e n e r g y c a n b e t r a n s f e r r e d e a s i l y f r o m o n e a t o m t o t h e n e x t b y v i b r a t i o n . T h i s make metal good conduct of heat.4.The freely moving outermost electrons within the metals structure are able to conduct electricity. Metal are, therefore, good electrical conductors.5 . S i n c e a t o m s o f p u r e m e t a l a r e o f t h e s a m e s i z e , t h e y a r e a r r a n g e d o r d e r l y i n a r e g u l a r layered pattern. When a force is applied to metal, layer of atom slide easily over oneanother. This make pure metals soft, malleable and ductile.9 Force Layer of atom slide Metals are ductileForceThe shape of themetal change Matel are malleable WHAT ARE ALLOYS 1.Pure metal are usually too soft for most uses. They also have a low r e s i s t a n c e t o corrosion. They rush and tarnish easily.2 . T o i m p r o v e t h e p h ys i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f m e t a l , a s m a l l a m o u n t o f a n o t h e r e l e m e n t (usually metal) is added to form another an alloy.3 . A n a l l o y i s a m i x t u r e o f t w o o r m o r e m e t a l s ( s o m e t h i n g n o n - m e t a l ) i n a s p e c i f i c proportion. For example:a . B r o n z e ( 9 0 % o f copper and 10% of tin) b.Steel (99% of iron and 1% of c a r b o n ) 4.The purposes of making alloys include the following:a)Increase the strengthi.Pure iron is soft and vary malleable. When a small amount of carbon is added toiron, an alloy, steal is formed. The more carbon is added, the stronger the steel becomes.i i . P u r e aluminium is light but not strong. With a small amount of copper andmagnesium are added to aluminium, a strong, light and durable alloy c a l l duralumin is produced. b)Improving the resistance to corrosioni.Iron rust easily but stainless steel which contains 80.6% of iron, 0.4% of carbon,1 8 % o f c h r o m i u m a n d 1 % o f n i c k e l d o e s n o t r u s h . T h e s e p r o p e r t i e s m a k e stainless steel suitable for making surgical instrument and cutlery.ii.Pure copper tarnish easily. When zinc (30%) is added, the yellow alloy which isknown as brass develops a high resistance to corrosion.c)Enhancing the appearancei.Pewter, an alloy of tin (97%), antimony and copper is not only hard but also hasa more beautiful white silvery appearance.i i . W h e n c o p p e r i s m i x e d w i t h n i c k e l t o f o r m c u p r o n i c k e l , a n a l l o y t h a t h a s a n attractive silvery, bright appearance is formed which is suitable for makingcoins.10 A l l o y C o m p o s i t i o n P r o p e r t i e s U s e s H i g h c a r b o n s t e e l 9 9 % i r o n 1% carbonStrong,hard and highwear resistance Making of cuttingtools, hammers andchiselsS t a i n l e s s s t e e l 8 0 . 6 % i r o n 0.4% carbon18%chromium1% nickelDo not rust andtarnish, strong anddurable

 Making of surgicalinstrument, knivesforks and spoonsB r a s s 7 0 % c o p p e r 30% zincHard, do not rust, bright appearance Making of ornaments,electrical wiringand plug.B r o n z e 9 0 % c o p p e r 10% tinHard, do not corrodeeasily and durable For casting bells,medals, swordsand statuesP e w t e r 9 0 % t i n 2.5% copper 0.5% antimonyDuctile andmalleable, whitesilvery appearance Making of ornaments,souvenirs andmugsD u r a l u m i n 9 5 % a l u m i n i u m 4% copper 1%magnesiumLight, strong anddurable Making part of aircrafts and racingcarsC u p r o n i c k e l 7 5 % c o p p e r 25%nickelAttractive, silveryappearance, hard andtough Making of silver coins Composition, properties and uses of alloys The formation of alloy 11 WHAT ARE POLYMER 1.Molecule that consist of a large number of small identical or s i m i l a r u n i t s j o i n e d together repeatedly are called polymer.2.The smaller molecules that make up the repeating unit in polymer are caller monomer.3 . T h e p r o c e s s o f joining together a large number of monomers to form a long chain polymer is called polymerisation.4.Polymer can be naturally occurring or man -made (synthetic). Natural polymer are foundin plant and in animals for example of natural polymers are starch cellulose, protein andrubber.5 . T w o t y p e o f polymerisation in producing synthetic polymer are a d d i t i o n a l polymerisation.6.Double bonds between two carbon atoms usually undergo addition polymerisation. Some Common Addition PolymersN a m e ( s ) F o r m u l a M o n o m e r P r o p e r t i e s U s e s Polyethylene low density(LDPE) (CH 2 -CH 2 )

n ethyleneCH 2 =CH 2 soft, waxy solidfilm wrap, plastic bags Polyethylene high density(HDPE) (CH 2 -CH 2 ) n ethyleneCH 2 =CH 2 rigid, translucentsolidelectricalinsulation bottles, toys Polypropylene (PP) differentgrades [CH 2 -CH(CH 3 )] n propyleneCH 2 =CHCH 3 atactic: soft, elasticsolidisotactic: hard,strong solidsimilar to LDPEcarpet,upholstery Poly(vinylchloride) (PVC) (CH 2 -CHCl) n vinyl chlorideCH 2 =CHClstrong rigid solid pipes, siding,flooring Poly(vinylidenechloride) (Saran A) (CH 2 -CCl 2 ) n vinylidenechlorideCH

2 =CCl 2 dense, high-meltingsolidseat covers, films Polystyrene (PS) [CH 2 -CH(C 6 H 5 )] n styreneCH 2 =CHC 6 H 5 hard, rigid, clear solidsoluble in organicsolventstoys, cabinets packaging(foamed) Polyacrylonitrile (CH 2 - a c r y l o n i t r i l e h i g h - m e l t i n g s o l i d r u g s , b l a n k e t s 12 (PAN, Orlon,Acrilan)CHCN) n C H 2 =CHCNsoluble in organicsolventsclothing Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE, Teflon) (CF 2 -CF 2 ) n tetrafluoroethyleneCF 2 =CF 2 resistant, smoothsolidnon-stick surfaceselectricalinsulation Poly(methylmethacrylate) (PMMA, Lucite,Plexiglas) [CH 2 -C(CH

3 )CO 2 CH 3 ] n methylmethacrylateCH 2 =C(CH 3 )CO 2 CH 3 hard, transparentsolidlighting covers,signsskylights Poly(vinyl acetate) (PVAc) (CH 2 -CHOCOCH 3 ) n vinyl acetateCH 2 =CHOCOCH 3 soft, sticky solidlatex paints,adhesives cis-Polyisoprene natural rubber [CH 2 -CH=C(CH 3 )-CH 2 ] n isopreneCH 2 =CH-C(CH 3 )=CH 2 soft, sticky solidrequiresvulcanizationfor practical use Polychloroprene (cis + trans)(Neoprene) [CH

2 -CH=CCl-CH 2 ] n chloropreneCH 2 =CH-CCl=CH 2 tough, rubberysolidsynthetic rubber oil resistant Uses of synthetic polymers SYNTHETIC POLYMERS IN DAILY LIFE 1.Synthetic polymers have many advantages over other type of materials: a . T h e y are cheap, light-weight and translucent. b.They are easily coloured, easily moulded and shaped.c.They are non-corrosive, waterproof and good i n s u l a t o r . d.They are durable and long lasting because they are resistant to decay, rusting andchemical attacks.2.There are disadvantage using synthetic polymer:a.Most of the synthetic polymer are flammable. When a synthetic polymer materialcatches fire, poisonous fumes are produce causing air pollution. b.Synthetic polymers are nonbiodegradable. When there are discharge, they cause litter problem and pollute the environment.c . P l a s t i c c o n t a i n e r t h a t a r e l e f t a s i d e i n a n o p e n a r e a c o l l e c t r a i n w a t e r w h i c h becomes the breeding ground for mosquitoes.d . T h e r e a r e l i m i t a t i o n i n r e c yc l e h a v e t o b e s e p a r a t e d o u t a s t h e a d d i t i o n o f n o n recyclable polymers in the mixture affect the properties of the recycled polymers.13 WHAT ARE GLASS 1.Glass is one of the most useful but inexpensive materials in the world. Many productsare made from glass because of its specials properties.2 . G l a s s i s : a.Transparent, hard but brittle. b.A heat and electric i n s u l a t o r . c . R e s i s t a n t t o c o r r o s i o n . d.Chemical not reaction and therefore resistant to chemical attack. e . E a s y t o m a i n t a i n . T y p e o f g l a s s C o m p o s i t i o n P r o p e r t i e s U s e s F u s e d g l a s s S i O 2 : 100% Transparent High melting point Good heatinsulator

Lens Telescope mirrors LaboratoryapparatusS o d a - l i m e g l a s s S i O 2 : 75% Na 2 O:15%CaO: 9%Other:1% Low melting point,easily molded intodesired shape andsize Low resistant tochemical attacks Brittle Drinking glass, bottles Electric bulbs Window glassB o r o s i l i c a t e g l a s s S i O 2 : 78%B 2 O 3 : 12% Na 2 O: 5%CaO: 3%Al 2 O 3 :2% Resistant chemicalattack and durable High melting point Good insulator toheat Cooking utensils Laboratoryglassware such asconical flaks and boiling tubeLead crystal glass(flint glass)SiO 2 : 70%Pbo/PbO

2 :20% Na 2 O: 10% High refractiveindex High density Attractiveglitteringappearance Lenses and prisms Decorativeglassware and artobject Imation jewellery14 CERAMICS 1.Traditional silicate ceramics are made by heating aluminosilicate clay such as kaolin toa vary high temperature.2.Ceramics have many special properties that make them one of the most useful materialsin our everyday life. That:a.Are hard, strong but brittle b.Have high melting point and remain stable at high temperaturec.Are heat and electric instrumentd.Are resistant to corrosion and wear e.Are chemically not reactivef.Do not readily deform under stress3.Ceramic play important role in our daily life. They are uses asa.Construction materialsi.Ceramic are stron g and hard, uses to make roof tiles, bricks cement, sinks, andtoilet bowls.ii.They are also used to make refractory bricks because high resistant to heat. b.Decorative items i . T o m a k e p o t t e r y, c h i n a p l a t e s , a n d p o r c e l a i n v a s e s s i n c e t h e y d o n o t t a r n i s h easily and are durable.ii.They are used to make bathroom fixture such as floor and wall tiles.c.Electrical insulator i.Ceramic are used to make electrical insulator in electrical items such as toasters,fridges and electrical plug.M a t e r i a l s M e l t i n g p o i n t / C Density/ G cm -3 Elasticmodulus/ GPa Hardness/ mohs Oxide ceramic Alumina,AL 2 O 3 Beryllia, BeOZirconia, ZiO2054257427103.973.015.68380370210988

Non-oxideceramics Boroncarbide,B 4 C 3 Silicon nitride,Si 3 ,n 4 2350283019002.503.163.17280400310999 Metals AluminiumSteel66015152.707.867020535 15 WHAT ARE COMPOSITE MATERIALS 1.A composite materials (or composite) is a structure of materials that is formed by twoor more different substances such as metal, glass, ceramic and polymer.2 . S o m e c o m m o n c o m p o s i t e m a t e r i a l s a r e : a.Reinforces concrete b.Superconductor c.Fibre opticd.Fibre glasse.Photochromic glass REINFORCES CONCRETE 1.Concrete is hard, fireproof, waterproof, comparatively cheap and easy to maintain. It ismore important construction materials.2.The reinforces is a combination of concrete and steel. SUPERCONDUCTOR 1.Metal such as copper and aluminium are good conductor of electricity, but 20% of theelectric energy is lost in the form of heat during transmission.2 . S u p e r c o n d u c t o r a r e m a t e r i a l s t h a t h a v e n o r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e f l o w o f e l e c t r i c i t y a t a particular temperature. Hence, 100% electricity transmission is possible.3 . O n e o f t h e m o s t d r a m a t i c p r o p e r t i e s o f a s u p e r c o n d u c t o r i s i t s a b i l i t y t o l e v i t a t e a magnet. Superconductor are used to build magnetically levitate high -speed train (atabout 552 km/h).4 . S u p e r c o n d u c t o r a r e u s e d t o m a k e c h i p s f o r s m a l l e r a n d f a s t e r s u p e r c o m p u t e r . Superconductor also play an important role in high speed data processing in internet communication. FIBRE OPTIC 1.Fibre optic is a composite material that in used to transmit signals for light wave.2 . F i b r e o p t i c i s u s e d i n a . T e l e c o m m u n i c a t e w h e r e t h e t e l e p h o n e substation are liked by fibre optic cables. b . D o m e s t i c c a b l e t e l e v i s i o n n e t w o r k c.Closed circuit television security s y s t e m . 3.Fibre optic also used in medical fields. It is used in a number o f i n s t r u m e n t w h i c h enable the investigation for internal body part without having to perform surgery.16 FIBRE GLASS

1.Fibre glass is glass in the form of fine threads. Molten gas is dropped onto a refractoryrating disc when the glass flies off the disc glass to form fibre.2.Fibre glass is strong than steel, do not burnt, stretch or rot, resistant to fire and water but is brittle.3 . W h e n f i b r e g l a s s a d d e d t o a p l a s t i c , a n e w c o m p o s i t e m a t e r i a l f i b r e g l a s s r e i n f o r c e s plastic is formed.4.Fibre glass reinforces plastic has more superior properties than glass and plastic. It is a . E x t r e m e l y s t r o n g b . L i g h t w e i g h c.Resistant to fire and water d.Can be molded, shaped and twisted PHOTOCHROMIC GLASS 1.When 0.01 to 0.1% of silver chloride (a type of photochromic substances) and a smallamount of copper (II) chloride are added to molten silicon dioxide, photochromic glassis formed.2 . T h e p h o t o c h r o m i c g l a s s h a s a s p e c i a l p r o p e r t i e s . I t d a r k e n w h e n e x p o s e d t o s t r o n g sunlight or ultraviolet.3.Photochromic glass is suitable for making sunglasses.