THE HISTORICAL,SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONTEXT In the period between the end of the reign of Elizabeth I in 1603 and

the later years of the reign of Elizabeth II at the start of the twenty-first century, the number of speakers of English increased, English was spoken in almost every country of the world. There are approximately seventy-five territories were English is spoken either as a first language (L1) or as an official (institutionalized) second language. Crystal lists the territories along with their approximate numbers of English speakers. Crystals analysis is that there are a group of English speakers who have bilingual competence , are described as a speakers of English as a foreign language (EFL) to distinguish them from speakers of English as a second language (ESL). Since the mid-1990s it has become common the use of English as a lingua franca (ELF) and English as an international language (EIL). Crystal suggests that there are about two billion English speakers in the world. The negative attitude which persist today towards certain variety of English have their roots in the past, in the two diasporas of English. The first Diaspora involved migrations of mother-tongue English speakers from England, Scotland, Ireland to America, Australia and New Zealand. The varieties of English spoken in modern North America and Australia are different to their colonizers, have changed sociolinguistic contexts because of migrants. The voyagers landed on the coast of North Carolina, Virginia, Massachusetts. Because of their different linguistic background, there were immediately certain differences in the accents between the group of settlers. English spread to the South of America is a result of slave trade. Slaves were transported from West Africa and exchanged for sugar and rum, and there were a large-scale of immigration. The result was a situation of dialects mixing which was further influenced by the indigenous aboriginal languages. South Africa was colonized by Dutch, the British did not arrive until 1795 when they annexed the Cape. From 1822, English was declared the official language, and became the second language of blacks and Afrikaans speakers and, by Indian immigrants. The second Diaspora involved immigrations from England to West Africa where English was employed as a lingua franca both among the indigenous population an between these people and the British traders. In East Africa English was playing an important role in the major institutions such as government, education, and the law. English was introduced also in India where became the official language for the educational system. British influence in Asia and in the South Pacific was the result of the expeditions of James Cook, who discovered Australia, and Stamford Raffles who played an important role in the founding of Singapore where the use of English, in the recent years has increased. Since 1945, most of remaining colonies have become independent states, with English often being retained neutral lingua franca.

THE ORIGINS OF PIDGINS AND CREOLE LANGUAGES Until very recently pidgins and creoles were regarded as bad languages. Pidgin is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between groups that no have a language in common. Its employed to trade, or where groups speak languages different from the country in which they reside. There are several hypotheses as to origin of the term pidgin: From the Hebrew word pidjom(meaning trade) From the word pidian(meaning people) Pidgins languages that become mother tongue are called Creoles, natural languages developed from the mixing of parents languages. The origins of the term creole are less obscure: According to Holm the word comes from the Portuguese word Crioulo, a diminutive suffix to mean an African slave born in the New Word in Brazilian usage. According to Mc Arthur pidgins are simple, clumsy languages incapable of nuance, detail, abstraction and precision. According to Wardhaugh a pidgin is a language with no native speakers: its a contact language. In contrast to a pidgin,a creole, is often defined as a pidgin that has become the first language of a new generation of speakers.(Creolisation)

WHO SPEAKS ENGLISH TODAY? ENL, ESL AND EFL English as a Native Language (ENL) or English as a mother tongue is the language that raised in one of the countries where English is historically the first language to be spoken. Kachru refers to these countries(the UK,USA,Canada,Australia,New Zealand ) as a traditional cultural and linguistic bases of English. English as a Second Language(ESL) refers to the language spoken in a large number of territories such as India,Bangladesh,Singapore, which were colonized by English. English as a foreign language (EFL) is the language of those for whom it serves no purposes within their own countries. Historically, EFL was learned to use the languages with its native speakers in the US and UK. The distinction between native-speakers and non-native speakers is that the first group is considered superior regardless of the quality of their language. Some of countries purpose is the use of English as a medium of instruction above all in the school. Models of the spread of English Strevens shows a map of the world on which is superimposed an upside-down tree diagram demonstrating the way in which, since American English became a separate variety from British English. To better understand the use of English in different countries, Kachru conceived the idea of three concentric circles of the language. The inner circle represents the traditional bases of English: the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, Canada and South Africa, and some of the Caribbean territories. Next comes the outer circle, which includes countries where English is not the native tongue, but is important for historical reasons and plays a part in the nation's institutions, either as an official language or otherwise. This circle includes India, Nigeria, the Philippines, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Malaysia, Tanzania, Kenya, non-Anglophone South Africa and Canada, etc. Finally, the expanding circle includes those countries where English plays no historical or governmental role, but where it is nevertheless widely used as a foreign language or lingua franca. This includes much of the rest of the world's population: China, Russia, Japan, most of Europe, Korea, Egypt, Indonesia, etc. The total in this expanding circle is the most difficult to estimate, especially because English may be employed for specific, limited purposes, usually business English. McArthur's 'wheel model' has an idealized central variety called 'World Standard English', which is best represented by 'written international English'. The next circle is made of regional standards or standards that are emerging. Finally, the outer layer consists of localized varieties which may have similarities with the regional standards or emerging standards. Firstly, the three different types of English - ENL, ESL and EFL, are conflated in the second circle. Secondly, the multitude of Englishes in Europe are also missing in this layer. Finally, the outside layer includes pidgins, creoles and L2 Englishes. Most scholars would argue that English

pidgins and creoles do not belong to one family: rather they have overlapping multiple memberships. Manfred Grlach's and McArthur's models are reasonably similar. Both exclude English varieties in Europe. As Grlach does not include EFLs at all, his model is more consistent, though less comprehensive. Outside the circle are mixed varieties (pidgins, creoles and mixed languages involving English), which are better categorized as having partial membership. In Modiano's model of English, the center consists of users of English as an International Language, with a core set of features which are comprehensible to the majority of native and competent non-native speakers of English. The second circle consists of features which may become internationally common or may fall into obscurity. Finally, the outer area consists of five groups (American English, British English, other major varieties, local varieties, foreign varieties) each with features peculiar to their own speech community and which are unlikely to be understood by most members of the other four groups.

VARIATION ACROSS OUTER CIRCLE ENGLISHES The Outer and Inner Circle English belong to one of two groups the new Englishes which resulted from the first Diaspora ,or New Englishes which resulted from second Diaspora. The first group consists of North America, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. The Englishes in these territories developed independently of and differently from English in Britain, because of the mixtures of dialects and accents among people settled in these areas or the influence of indigenous populations. The second group of Englishes, were and still are learnt as a second languages or as one language within a wider multilingual repertoire of acquisition. This group includes, Indian , Philippine, Nigerian, Singapore English. New English has been taught as a subject, medium of instruction; it has developed in an area where a native variety of English was not the language spoken by most of population. The main levels on which the new and the New Englishes differ from English are: Pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary/idiom, and discourse style. STANDARD LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGE STANDARDS Standard language is the term used for the variety of a language which is considered to be the norm, spoken by a minority of those occupying positions of power within a society. Language standards: perspective language rules which constitute the standard to which all members of a language community are exposed and urged to conform during education. Because a living language is by definition dynamic, these rules are subject to change over time; and language change is regarded as error by promoter of standard language ideology. Standard languages are the result of a direct and deliberate intervention by society. This process of intervention provides four stages: Selection: Modern standard English derives from the East Midlands dialect favored by the educated in London. The process could involve the selecting of features from several varieties. Codification: The standard has to be fixed in grammar books and dictionaries to use the language correctly. Elaboration of function: The standard variety has to be capable of performing a wide range of institutional and literary functions. Acceptance: The standard variety serves as a strong unifying force for the states, as a symbol of its independence of the other states. Standard English is a dialect that differs from other dialects in that it has greater prestige, that not have an associated accent, that does not form part of a geographical continuum. It can be spoken in formal, neutral and informal styles. Non-standard Englishes refers to use of English, especially regarding grammar, but also including other aspects of language, that is considered by convention to be sub-standard or not "proper". Three Standard Englishes: American British Australian

THE SPREAD OF ENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL LINGUA FRANCA (EFL) The most of Englands colonies had become independent states by the mid-twentieth century and so English was placed to become one of the worlds main language of international business and trade. It was adopted as an international lingua franca and its due to the expansion of British colonial power and the emergence of the United States as the leading economic power of the 20th century. ELF is a contact language among speakers from different first languages: it is used in contexts in which speakers with different L1s (mostly, but not exclusively, from Expanding Circle) need it as their means to communicate with each other. ELF is an alternative to EFL rather than a replacement for it depends on speakers (or learners) individual needs and preferences. ELF involves linguistic innovations that differ from ENL and which, in some cases, are shared by most ELF speakers.ELF involves the use of certain pragmatic communication strategies, particularly accommodation and code-switching. ELF forms crucially depend on the specific communication context. According to T.Gimenez having a common language helps us to see ourselves as human beings who live on the same planet. The reasons for the international status of English are: Historical reasons: English is still used institutionally because of the legacy of British or American imperialism. Internal political reasons: English provides a neutral means of communication between the different ethnic groups of a country and may be seen as a symbol of national unity or emerging statehood. External economic reasons: the USAs dominant economic position often acts as a magnet for international business and trade Practical reasons: English is the language of international air traffic control, international tourism, international business and academic conferences. Intellectual reasons: Most of the scientific, technological, and academic information in the world is expressed in English. English is the gateway to Western culture. Entertainment reasons: English is the main language of popular music, sat TV, computers and video games. Personal advantage/prestige: Proficiency in English is often perceived as conferring higher status. The need for intelligibility and the need for identity often pull people and countries in opposing directions (Crystal, 2003) In order to fulfil its role as the international lingua franca, English must be able to achieve mutual intelligibility among its users. Accent differences must decrease. The increase in number of users of ELF has inevitably led to an increase in the range of differences among their Englishes with pronunciation being the most visible level of divergence. Accent differences, that are often strictly linked to personal and group identity, are likely to increase. English used in lingua franca context can be a language of identification and not simply one of communication.

THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM One major legacy of the two diasporas of English is the assumption of the inferiority of the indigenous language, culture, and even character of the colonized, alongside the assumption of the superiority of the colonizers and their language. During the colonial period native populations of colonized lands as savages to their languages as a primitive and to their cultures as barbaric. Fearful indeed is the impress of degradation which is stamped on the language of the savages and above all upon their form. They were weary travelers in a strange landscape without a single reference point; all languages were foreign, all communications difficult. When peoples were colonized they made the effort to communicate in English, their English was denigrated as broken. The phenomenon persists to this day towards the English of non-native speakers, and particularly towards their accents. Non-native speakers suffer from an inferiority complex caused by a defect in our knowledge of English. In the days of the empire, the natives were the indigenous populations and the term itself implied uncivilized, primitive, barbaric, even cannibalisticWith the spread of English around the globe, native in relation to English has acquired newer, positive connotations. Native speakers are assumed to be advanced, civilized and educated. But as NSs lose their linguistic advantage, with English being spoken as an International Language no less, and as bilingualism and multilingualism become the accepted world norm, and monolingualism the exceptionperhaps the word native will return to its pejorative usage. (Jenkins, 2000). A second major legacy of colonialism is the way in which it has led to the destruction of the ethnic identities of many whose land were colonized. This is the loss of indigenous languages, or heritage languages, as markers of identity. This situation is a direct consequence of the history of colonialism and language repression that indigenous have endured. It is not only the language, but also place, which provides people with a sense of identity, its within the places in the stories that the sense of ourselves resides. The English today debate With an ever-growing number of people speaking English, its not surprising that the language is diversifying and English has becoming Englishes. Outer circle Englishes regarded as: Interlanguage, learner language which has not yet reached the target; Fossilized language, language used when learning has ceased short of native-like competence. Non-native Englishes as deficit Quirk : Language varieties and standard language Non native Englishes are inadequately learned versions of correct native English forms and therefore not valid as teaching models. Native and non-native speakers have different intuitions about language, have radically internalizations of the language.

The so-called variety of English is an attempt to justify inability to acquire what they persist in seeing as real English. The English of the teachers acquired deviation from the standard language. Quirk concludes: my goal would be to acquire English precisely because of its power as an instrument of international communication. Non-native Englishes as a difference Kachru: Liberation linguistics and the Quirk concern Criticizes Quirks deficit linguistic position: The solution of constant touch with the native language does not apply to the institutionalized varieties for two reasons: It is simply not possible for a teacher to be in constant touch with the native language; The users of institutionalized varieties are expected to conform to local norms and speech strategies since English is used for interaction primarily in intranational contexts. Quirk seems to perceive the spread of English from the perspective of monolingual societies, and from uncomplicated language policy contexts. Kachru highlights four false assumptions of Quirks argument: English is essentially learnt to interact with the native speakers of language, it has become the main vehicle for interaction among its non-native users. English is essentially learnt as a tool to understand and teach American and British values and to impart local and cultural values. The international non-native varieties of English are essentially interlanguages striving to achieve native-like character. The native speakers of English as teachers are involved in the global teaching of English for the spread of language When an observed feature of language use is indeed an innovation and when it is simply an error. An innovation is seen as an acceptable variant, while an error is a simply a mistake. If innovations are seen as errors, a non- native variety can never receive any recognition.