Production Resume: The key steps of cement production are quarrying limestone and other raw materials, preparing

the raw mix (dosing, grinding and homogenization of raw materials), calcination and clinkering of the raw mix (chemical reactions which occur between 850C and 1450C in the kiln), cooling the clinker, grinding the clinker with gypsum and other additives to produce cement and finally storing, packaging and transporting the cement to the end user. Basic Chemical Components of Portland cement: Calcium (Ca) Silicon (Si) Aluminum (Al) Iron (Fe) Typical Raw Materials: Limestone (CaCO3) Sand (SiO2) Shale, Clay (SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3) Iron Ore/Mill Scale (Fe2O3) Clinker Chemistry Tricalcium silicate (3CaO.SiO2), (50-70%) Dicalcium silicate (2CaO.SiO2), (15-30%) Tricalcium aluminate (3CaO.Al2O3), (5-10%) Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3), (5-15%) 1. Procurement of raw materials 2. Raw Milling - preparation of raw materials for the pyroprocessing system 3. Pyroprocessing - pyroprocessing raw materials to form Portland cement clinker 4. Cooling of Portland cement clinker 5. Storage of Portland cement clinker 6. Finish Milling 7. Packing and loading 1. Raw Material Acquisition Most of the raw materials used are extracted from the earth through mining and quarrying and can be divided into the following groups: lime (calcareous), silica (siliceous), alumina (argillaceous), and iron (ferriferous). Since a form of calcium carbonate, usually limestone, is the Predominant raw material, most plants are situated near a limestone quarry or receive this material from a source via inexpensive transportation. The plant must minimize the transportation cost since one third of the limestone is converted to CO2 during the pyroprocessing and is subsequently lost. Quarry operations consist of drilling, blasting, excavating, handling, loading, hauling, crushing, screening, stockpiling, and storing.

2. Raw Milling Raw milling involves mixing the extracted raw materials to obtain the correct chemical configuration, and grinding them to achieve the proper particle-size to ensure optimal fuel efficiency in the cement kiln and strength in the final concrete product. Three types of processes may be used: the dry process, the wet process, or the semidry process. If the dry process is used, the raw materials are dried using impact dryers, drum dryers, paddle-equipped rapid dryers, air separators, or autogenous mills, before grinding, or in the grinding process itself. In the wet process, water is added during grinding. In the semidry process the materials are formed into pellets with the addition of water in a pelletizing device. 3. Pyroprocessing In pyroprocessing, the raw mix is heated to produce Portland cement clinkers. Clinkers are hard, gray, spherical nodules with diameters ranging from 0.32 - 5.0 cm (1/8 - 2") created from the chemical reactions between the raw materials. The pyroprocessing system involves three steps: drying or preheating, calcining (a heating process in which calcium oxide is formed), and burning (sintering). The pyroprocessing takes place in the burning/kiln department. The raw mix is supplied to the system as a slurry (wet process), a powder (dry process), or as moist pellets (semidry process). All systems use a rotary kiln and contain the burning stage and all or part of the calcining stage. For the wet and dry processes, all pyroprocessing operations take place in the rotary kiln, while drying and preheating and some of the calcination are performed outside the kiln on moving grates supplied with hot kiln gases. The cement formation process in the kiln may be divided into four stages, correlated with temperature of the materials in the rotary kiln : - Uncombined water evaporates from raw materials as material temperature increases to 100 C (212 F). - As the material temperature increases from 100 C (212 F) to approximately 900 C (1650 F), dehydration and material heating occur. At 900 C (1650 F), calcination occurs in which CO is liberated from carbonates. - Following calcination, a chemical reaction of the dehydrated and decarbonated raw materials occurs in the burning zone of the rotary kiln at temperatures of about 1510 C (2750 F), producing clinker. About 20 to 25 percent of the material is molten. - The cement clinker continues to change in character as it passes the zone of maximum temperature.

4. Clinker Cooling The clinker cooling operation recovers up to 30% of kiln system heat, preserves the ideal product qualities, and enables the cooled clinker to be maneuvered by conveyors. The most common types of clinker coolers are reciprocating grate, planetary (satellite), and rotary (tube). The grate cooler is suited to large clinker capacities (up to 12,000 t of clinker per day). Air sent through the clinker to cool it is directed to the rotary kiln where it nourishes fuel combustion. The fairly coarse dust collected from clinker coolers is comprised of cement minerals and is restored to the operation. Based on the cooling efficiency and desired cooled temperature, the amount of air used in this cooling process is approximately 1-2 kg/kg of clinker. The amount of gas to be

cleaned following the cooling process is decreased when a portion of the gas is used for other processes such as coal drying. Electricity consumption of the modern grate cooler ranges from 4 to 8 kWh/t of clinker. The economical lifetime is estimated at more than 10 years. 5. Clinker Storage Although clinker storage capacity is based on the state of the market, a plant can normally store 5 - 25% of its annual clinker production capacity. Equipment such as conveyors and bucket elevators is used to transfer the clinkers from coolers to storage areas and to the finish mill. Gravity drops and transfer points typically are vented to dust collectors. 6. Finish Milling During the final stage of Portland cement production known as finish milling, the clinker is ground with other materials (which impart special characteristics to the finished product) into a fine powder. Up to 5% gypsum and/or natural anhydrite is added to regulate the setting time of the cement. Other chemicals, such as those which regulate flowability or air entrainment, may also be added. Many plants use a roll crusher to achieve a preliminary size reduction of the clinker and gypsum. These materials are then sent through ball or tube mills (rotating, horizontal steel cylinders containing steel alloy balls) which perform the remaining grinding. The grinding process occurs in a closed system with an air separator that divides the cement particles according to size. Material that has not been completely ground is sent through the system again. 7. Packing and Loading Once the production of Portland cement is complete, the finished product is transferred using bucket elevators and conveyors to large, storage silos in the shipping department. Most of the Portland cement is transported in bulk by railway, truck, or barge, or in 43 kg (94 pound) multiwalled paper bags. Bags are used primarily to package masonry cement. Once the cement leaves the plant, distribution terminals are sometimes used as an intermediary holding location prior to customer distribution. The same types of conveyor systems used at the plant are used to load cement at distribution terminals.

Diagram of cement production

Environmental Impact

Dust Dust may be generated during construction of and in the operation of a cement manufacturing plant. During construction dust most often arises from vehicle movements on unsealed roads and from earthmoving operations using construction plant such as excavators. During operation of cement manufacturing plant dust particles may be emitted from the following processes/activities: Quarrying operations of raw materials Grinding and blending operations Stacks from the kiln operation Raw material storage Packing Transport between the processes Transport to and from the site However, the largest emission source, is the kiln operation, which includes the feed system, the fuel firing system, the clinker burning, cooling and hauling system. Water Including Hydrology, Groundwater and Water Quality Cement manufacturing plant development may have impact on the hydrology of an area and waterborne emissions may place the quality of both surface water and groundwater at risk. There is a need to understand the surface water drainage in the area even if this is very intermittent, e.g. flash floods every 50 years. As the cement dust comes in contact with water, hydroxides are formed that impair natural water alkalinity. A fine layer of cement covers the surface of wells and ponds. The addition of salts of Ca, Na, K, Mg and Al as hydroxides, sulfates and silicates affect the hardness of the water that subsequently are responsible for the respiratory and gastro-intestinal diseases in the area (Mishra 1991). Landscape Character Landscape quality may be affected by intrusion by industrial development and by loss of attractive features such as vegetation and hills. Construction works which directly damage the existing landform and add to the impacts by landtake. Flora and Fauna Flora and Fauna can be affected by emissions from cement manufacturing plants and by loss of habitats such as vegetation and water bodies.

Gaseous Emissions to Air Gaseous emissions to the atmosphere may be generated both during construction and operation of a cement manufacturing plant. Emissions to air may be gaseous or in the form of particles loaded by adsorbed gases; the latter can be regarded as a constituent of dust which has been deal with earlier. Gaseous emissions may reduce air quality with impacts on human health particularly where emissions are of harmful gases. The impact can be extremely serious, e.g. where emissions contain harmful compounds such as dioxins. The main releases to air derive from physical and chemical reactions involving the quarrying operations of the raw materials and the combustion of fuels in the kiln system but grinding, storage and transport of fuels and raw materials also are a source to air emissions. The typical gaseous emissions to air from cement manufacturing plants include nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2), carbon oxides (CO and CO2) and dust. The emission of SO2 depends on the content of volatile sulphur in the raw material and fuel, and does therefore not always represent a significant regulatory environmental aspect. Cement plant operation and literature on air pollution and abatement techniques generally focus on the above mentioned three pollutants. However, other emissions are present as well; ammonia, VOCs, PCDD/ PCDFs (Dioxins), Metals, HF, HCl and Odour. Carbon Dioxide Cement manufacturing is an energy intensive process, requiring high fuel consumption for the operation of cement kilns, which in turn generates carbon dioxide (CO2). In addition, CO2 is generated from the chemical conversion of limestone to clinker and from the production of electricity for other parts of the process where electricity is used. Technological development in recent decades has led to some technologies that increase the energy efficiency of a cement plant (thus reducing CO2 emissions per unit of cement produced) or significantly decrease hazardous air pollutants (e.g., particulate matter, nitrogen oxides) and therefore, its overall environmental impact. In spite of these environmental improvements, not all CO2 emissions originating from cement plants can be abated with existing technologies. As a result, cement plants are significant contributors to global climate change, representing some 5% of global anthropogenic sources. 50 to 60% of cement production CO2 emissions are generated during the decomposition of limestone and other calcareous material to produce clinker. Emissions related to clinker production are difficult to reduce because they are associated with transformation of the limestone, the core of the process. Minor reductions in CO2 emissions can nevertheless be achieved by substituting part of the limestone in the kiln during the clinkering process. 30% to 40% of CO2 emissions are produced by burning fossil fuels, mainly to reach the required high temperatures in the kiln and associated equipment such as dryers. The main factors that affect the thermal energy needs are the raw materials and the process used (dry, wet or intermediate), resulting in a range from 3,000 to 6,500 MJ of fuel per tonne of clinker produced. The remaining 10% of CO2 emissions result from transportation and the generation of electricity necessary for other plant processes. The main users of electricity are the mills (finish grinding and raw grinding) and the exhaust fans (kiln/raw mill and cement mill), which together account for more than 80% of electricity usage.

Economical Impact

Economic Impacts During Construction All new industrial developments will involve some expenditure on construction. Where local contractors undertake this work there is an obvious benefit to the local economy; this is likely to be strengthened where the contractor makes purchases from other local businesses. In some cases contractors from outside the local area may win the construction contracts, while the benefit may be less, employment of local labor and purchases from local businesses will still benefit the local economy. Estimates of benefits to the local economy can be based on an estimate of the number of local people employed during construction, the average duration of employment and the average rate of pay. Benefits to the local business can be based on an estimate of the proportion of construction spending which is spent in the local economy. Economic Impacts during Operation In operation industrial developments generally result in: Direct benefits the creation of job opportunities in the industries concerned; Benefits to other businesses in the locality as a result of multiplier effects; Losses to other local businesses in the locality as a result of competition. In general the economic impacts of industrial development can be argued to be positive for the local population; this depends on the number of jobs created, the quality of those jobs and the net effects on local businesses. Where new industries are introduced to an area an estimate should be made of the annual purchases of goods and services from existing businesses. Estimating the negative impacts on existing businesses is more difficult. Often the presence of a number of similar businesses in an area is beneficial in that the local area gains a reputation in that industrial sector; furthermore the presence of several firms in the same industry may encourage the development of better skilled workforce.

Social Impact

Stress With the increase in noise, traffic on local roads and respiratory and other health problems, there is likely to be an increase is stress related illnesses in the local population. Cement dust contains heavy metals like nickel, cobalt, lead, chromium, pollutants hazardous to the biotic environment, with adverse impact for vegetation, human and animal health and ecosystems (Baby et al.2008)

Antiquities and Other Sites of Historical and Cultural Importance Existing sites may be directly disturbed by industrial development. Furthermore industrial development may affect the setting of antiquities or have adverse effects on them as a result of air or water pollution or vibrations caused by heavy vehicles. Social in Economic Context Industrial development will generally impact on the local economy and may result in social change in area which mainly depends on agriculture and other primary sectors. Existing Transport Infrastructure and Traffic Flows Traffic is almost always an issue for industrial developments. Traffic which may increase delays and result in traffic related effects such as road accidents and traffic noise. Impacts on existing utility infrastructure and possible benefits as a result of improved infrastructure.

Cost of Production

Investment costs estimates differ depending on the source. According to the International Energy Agency(IEA) building a new plant with a capacity of 1 million tonnes/annum of cement using the conventional dry processes with 5-stage preheater and precalciner costs 263 per tonne/annum ( 2010). The investment cost increases to some 558/t if CO2 emissions produced in the process are captured (and stored) using post-combustion technologies and to 327/t using oxy-combustion technologies. According to the European Cement Research Academy new plants with capacities of 2, 1 and 0.5 million tonnes per year, using state-of-the-art technologies the unit investment costs is 130, 170 and 250 per tonne/annum respectively ( 2007). Operation and maintenance (O&M) costs (including labor, power and fuel costs, but no deprecation) amount to 29/t for new, state-of-the-art plants and to 32/t for a typical existing plant with no CO2 capture. O&M costs are estimated to rise to 66 and 45/t for plants equipped with postcombustionCO2 capture oxy-combustion capture, respectively. O&M costs include fixed operating costs, fuel cost, electricity cost and other variable operating costs).

Potential & Barriers An important innovation in cement production technology relates to the use of CO2 capture and storage (CCS) technologies to reduce the CO2 emissions, with potential reduction of up to 95%. Postcombustion capture and oxy-combustion CO2 capture are promising technology options, but none has been tested so far in industrial-scale cement plants. Full-scale CCS demonstration projects are expected between 2020 and 2030 and commercial deployment after 2030. It is estimated that between 10% and 43% of the global cement capacity could be equipped with CCS in 2050. Apart from CCS technology, no breakthrough technologies are expected to cause a significant changes of electricity and thermal energy consumption in cement production. Electricity demand could decline from the current average value of 110 kWh/t of cement (2006) to some 105 kWh/t cement in 2030. Thermal energy demand could decline from the current 3.38 GJ/t (2006) to 3.3 GJ/t clinker in 2030. However, if CCS technologies are implemented, specific thermal energy and power consumption could increase considerably. Assuming the CCS implementation in some 20% of the cement production capacity in 2030 and up to 40% in 2050, then power demand for cement plants would increase to 115-130 kWh/t cement in 2030 and to 115-145 kWh/t cement in 2050.

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