My 303 Foundry

MY- 303 Foundry Principles, Methods And Practices
Department Of Metallurgical Engineering
Practical Workbook
MY-303: FOUNDRY: PRINCIPLES, METHODS AND PRACTICES
Name ______________________ Roll No_____________________ Batch_______________________ Year_______________________ Department_________________
Department of Metallurgical Engineering NED University of Engineering and Technology, Karachi-75270, Pakistan
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Practical Workbook
My-303: FOUNDRY: PRINCIPLES, METHODS AND PRACTICES
REVISED BY Engr. Ali Dad Chandio (Assistant Professor) Engr. Ambreen Azmat (Lecturers, MYD) This is to certify that this practical book contains _____________ pages. Approved by:
Chairman MYD
Department of Metallurgical Engineering NED University of Engineering and Technology, Karachi-75270, Pakistan
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CERTIFICATE
It is certified that Mr. / Miss __________________________________________ Student of class ______________________________ Batch_________________ Bearing Roll No. _______________________________________ has completed his/her course work in the subject of ____________________________________ as prescribed and approved by Board of Review of Department of Materials Engineering.
His/her performance is reflected by index/contents of his/her practical workbook. This overall performance of the student is Excellent/Very Good/Good (satisfactory)/Not Satisfactory
_____________ Course Teacher
TABLE OF CONTENTS
MY-303: FOUNDRY: PRINCIPLES, METHODS AND PRACTICES
S. NO .
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
TITLE
Safety precautions to be taken in Foundry Laboratory Determination of fineness (grain size) of sand by Sieve Analysis Method. Determination of moisture content in the molding sand. Determination of the clay content of molding sand. Determination of hardness of mold, and core surfaces respectively Permeability test of the molding sand. Core making for hollow castings To carry out the sand molding process To carry out the sand casting process
PAGE NO.
INITIAL
10. Examination of the micro-structure of castings 11. Demonstration of casting defects and their recommended remedies. 12. Demonstration of die casting process
PRACTICAL NO. 1
OBJECTIVE: Safety precautions to be taken in Foundry Laboratory
General Precautions for a Foundry Lab 1. The methods and materials involved in any form of metal casting operation are very hazardous. Educate yourself on the proper safety precautions before attempting any metal casting. 2. Never put water on a metal fire. This can cause a huge explosion! 3. Have a dry pile of sand and a shovel ready to put out fires or to control metal spills. 4. Have a sand bed under all areas. The sand bed should be at least 3 inches thick. This will help in containing metal spills and will help protect flooring. 5. Never pour over wet ground. Remember, even trace amount of moisture can cause explosions. 6. Molten metal spilled on concrete will cause the concrete to explode. Use a thick sand bed over concrete. 7. Always use clean metal as feedstock. Combustion residues from some lubricants and paints can be very toxic. 8. Always operate in a well-ventilated area. Fumes and dusts from combustion and other foundry chemicals, processes and metals can be toxic. 9. Use a niosh rated dusk mask. Dusts from sand, parting dusts and chemicals can be hazardous or cancer causing. Protect your lungs! 10. Always use safety glasses. Even minor mishaps can cause blindness. 11. Never use a crucible that has been damaged or dropped. It's just not worth the risk. Imagine what would happen if a white-hot crucible of brass crumbled as you were carrying it! 12. Always charge crucibles when cold. Adding metal to a hot crucible is really dangerous. If there is moisture on the metal, even just a haze, the metal can cause the entire contents of the crucible to explode. 13. Spilled molten metal can travel for a great distance. Operate in a clear work area. 14. Think about what you are doing at all times. Focus on the job at hand and the next step. Have all moves planned and rehearsed prior to any operation. 15. Educate yourself beforehand and always be careful of your own and bystander safety.
EXERCISE NO. 1
Q Write at least five different safety precautions for foundry lab.
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PRACTICAL NO. 2
OBJECTIVE: Determination of fineness (grain size) of sand by Sieve Analysis
Method.
APPARATUS
Set of Sieves, Oven, Shaking Device, Electronic Weighing Balance, and Molding Sand.
THEORY
The grain size of the sand is expressed by a number called grain fineness number. A given grain fineness number corresponds to standard sieve of 200 mm diameter which has the identical number of meshes in it.
Fig: 1Set of Sieves with Shaker To determine this number for a given sand sample, it is customary to use a standard sieve set which contain several sieves having one above the other, a varying but known number of meshes. The coarsest sieve is placed at the top and finest at the bottom.
PROCEDURE
1. 2. 3. 4. Weigh a 100 gram sample of the sand when it is perfectly dry (free of clay & moisture) Place the sample of the sand into the coarsest (top most) sieve. Place the set of sieves on shaking device to shake Shown in figure-1 above. Shake the sample in set of sieve on shaking device for definite length of time for 15 minutes. 5. After shaking start removing sieves form top sieve to bottom, weigh the quantity 0f remaining sample on each sieve. 6. The weight collected from each sieve is multiplied with sieve mesh number. 7. Finally divide the total product by the total sample weight & this produces the fineness number, which in the AFS (American Foundry Society). After calculating the number is called AFS number. Sieve number Sand retained on sieve (gm) Multiplied by previous sieve number Product
10 Nil 16 Nil 22 0.2 0.2*16 3.2 30 0.8 0.8*22 17.6 44 6.7 6.7*30 201.0 60 22.6 22.6*44 1104.4 100 48.3 48.3*60 2898.0 150 15.6 15.6*100 1560.0 200 1.8 1.8*150 270.0 Pan 4.0 4.0*200 800 ---------------- ------------------Product 6854.2 ---------------- ------------------- ----------------------------------- -------------AFS fineness number = Product / Weight of sample AFS fineness number = 6854.2/100 AFS fineness number = 68.542
EXERCISE NO. 2
Q.1 What is the effects of sand grain size on sand casting?
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Q.2 Differentiate between the properties of coarse and fine grained sand?
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Q.3 Give general introduction about sieves used in this process?
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Q.4 Discuss the general idea of sieve analysis? ___________________________________________________________________________
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Q.5 Do you know about any alternate procedure to check the fineness number?
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PRACTICAL NO 3
OBJECTIVE: Determination of moisture content in the molding sand. APPARATUS
Electronic Weighing Balance, Oven, Molding Sand, and Hand gloves
THEORY
Moisture content may be determined by the loss of weight, after evaporation. A sample of tempered sand weighing 50gm is dried at 110 to 115 0C in an oven, and then cooled to room temperature and reweigh. The difference in weight before and after heating gives the moisture content in the sample.
(Fig: 3-a) Moisture Teller A weighed representative sample of the moist material is placed in a special pan with fine gauze base and hot air at a thermostatically controlled temperature is blown through it for a pre-determined time to remove the moisture shown in Fig: 3-a. When all the moisture has been removed the sample pan and contents are rapidly cooled and re-weighed. The loss in weight is read directly as percentage moisture on the dial of the special moist balance.
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In clay bonded sand some moisture is essential to develop working strength. The influence of moisture may be harmful if the proportion is not controlled within the definite limits. The strength of sand is also influenced by its moisture content. It is therefore important to make certain that the sand contains the correct percentage of water two methods i) Simply by measuring the Weight difference between the green sand and the dry sand, then calculating percentage of moisture = (W1-2)/W1X100. ii) Chemical method: by speedy moisture teller water + calcium carbide= acetylene Another method of finding the moisture content is based on the principle of reaction. In this method weighed amount of sand sample and calcium carbide are mixed by shaking and the result pressure of acetylene gas (CaC2+2H2O = Ca(OH)2+C2H2 general indicates the percentage of moisture. As the conventional both methods are time consuming and expansive, this method the prepared sample of sand weigh 50gm is placed in the pan and is heated by an infrared heater bulb for 2 to 3 minutes, the moisture of the molding sand will evaporate. The percentage of moisture content is calculated from the difference. The moisture content can be expressed in percentage by the formula, % Moisture content = (loss of weight / weight of sample) * 100
PROCEDURE
1. First of all select a sample of sand for test. 2. Now weigh a 50gm of sample sand on electronic weighing machine as shown in Fig: 3-b blow.
(Fig: 3-b) Electronic Weighing Machine 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Now switch on the oven and set the temperature of oven in the range 110 to 115 0C. After achieving that temperature place the sample of sand carefully in the oven. Heat the sample at least for 15 minutes, that whole of its moisture should evaporate. After this switch off the oven and take the sample after 2-3 minutes until it cools. Once again weighing the sample of sand. The difference between initial and final weight is the weight of moisture in the sand. Hence it can be calculated by the formula written above.
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EXERCISE NO 3
Q.1 what is the influence of moisture on the sand casting?
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Q.2 In how much quantity the moisture should be present to achieve defects free casting?
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Q.3 What sort of defects can occur due presence of moisture in sand during sand casting?
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Q.4 Is there any alternative method for checking moisture content of molding sand?
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Q.5 What do you mean by dry sand? ___________________________________________________________________________
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PRACTICAL NO. 4
OBJECTIVE: Determination of the clay content of molding sand. APPARATUS
Bottle (Jar), Oven, Electronic weighing device, Molding Sand.
THEORY
Clay is responsible for bonding sand particles together, it influence strength, permeability, adhesiveness and other properties of molding sand (therefore the correct % of clay must be added because of its effects on molding sand). The necessary bonding strength for molding sand is clay, so that after ramming the mould doesnt lose its shape. Clay content is determined by finding the loss of weight after washing the sample. The clay content can be calculated by clay content tester. Rapid sand washer as shown in Fig: 4 separates the clay particles from the sand grains in sand by means of rapid agitation. The clay grade is held in suspension, removed by means of a siphon, and is determined by loss in weight.
PROCEDURE
1. A 50 gm. sample of sand under test first is dried & cooled (remove all moisture) 2. It is then transferred to the wash bottle (jar). Add in the jar 475c.c 0f distilled water and 25c.c standard solution of (NaOH) sodium hydroxide, 3. Under controlled condition (securely covered and sealed) using a rapid and stirrer, agitate the whole mixture for about 10minutes. 4. If the stirrer is not available use the motor and rotate the jar at 60r.p.m for an hour. 5. After 10 minutes wash the jar sides with the water up to 5mm in depth for 5 minutes to settle the content, and water siphoned off to a depth of 125mm. 6. Now again add the water of some quantity (125mm depth in the jar) for 5 minutes, similarly and siphoned off the water up 125mm depth. 7. Repeat the above step for few more times, (allowing only 5minutes) for setting through 125mm, the material that fails to settle down is the clay.
(Fig: 4) Rapid Sand Washer 8. The remaining sand in the jar is filtered carefully, dried for hour and weigh. 9. The difference between this weight and original weight give the weight of clay.
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EXERCISE NO. 4
Q.1 Differentiate between the clay free sand and clay added sand?
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Q.2 What are the effects of clay on casting properties?
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Q.3 Why clay is added to sand for sand casting?
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Q.4 How does clay influence the properties of sand? Like permeability, strength, etc
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Q.5 How much we can increase the cohesiveness of sand with the help of clay content?
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PRACTICAL NO. 5
OBJECTIVE: Determination of hardness of mold, and core surfaces respectively. APPARATUS
Molding Sand, Core, Rammers and Hardness Tester
THEORY
First of all standard specimen is prepared by using a standard sand rammer as shown in Fig: 5-a and specimen tube accessories. The specimen is rammed with three blows. The weight of the ram may be 63-72 N by weight. The ram is dropped from a height of 50mm. The specimen is rammed with three blows. This is the standard procedure. This operation that is ramming sand three times prepares the specimen for hardness testing. Mold surface hardness is the resistance offered by the surface of a green sand mold an instrument for determining the mold surface hardness shall measure the depth of penetration in to the mold surface of a plunger having a load applied at a 90 angle. Core hardness is the resistance offered by the surface of a dry sand core
(Fig: 5-a) Sand Rammer
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PROCEDURE
1. Press the Hardness Tester shown in Fig: 5-b down on to a hard, flat surface of sand specimen until the anvil plate which surrounds the probe makes even contact with the surface. Slacken the clamping screw and turn the milled bezel until the pointer reads 100. Re-clamp the bezel. 2. Press the tester firmly down on to any flat surface of a mold until the anvil plate is in contact with the mould surface. The penetration of the probe into the mould surface is registered on the dial and is read direct as Green Hardness B Scale. 3. When testing in places where the dial cannot be seen easily, hold the pointer in the test position by pressing the locking button on the front of the tester. Remove the instrument from the mould and take the reading.
(Fig: 5-b) Sand Hardness Tester
4. The pointer is released ready for the next test by pressing the button on the back of the tester while holding the thumb on the probe to prevent the sudden return of the pointer to zero and hence possible damage. 5. Readings are empirical and bear no direct relationship to any definite pressure per unit area. They are, however, valuable for comparative purposes. 6. For moulds with surface hardness values in excess of 85 B Scale, e.g. moulds produced by high pressure molding methods, a Green Hardness Tester C Scale is recommended.
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EXERCISE NO. 5
Q.1 What are the specification of sand specimen for sand hardness testing?
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Q.2 Which of them will have the better hardness (Green or Synthetic) sand, and why? ________________________________________________________________
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Q.3 For which sand we can use scale B in hardness testing, and why?
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Q.4 Which factors affect the hardness of molding sand?
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Q.5 How can we achieve the required hardness of molding sand?
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PRACTICAL NO. 6
OBJECTIVE: Permeability test of the molding sand. APPARATUS
Sand Specimen Rammer, Sand, and Permeability Tester,
THEORY
The body of the Permeability Meter is an aluminum casting consisting of a water tank and base as shown in Fig: 5-c, inside the water tank floats a balanced air drum carefully weighted and designed to maintain a constant air pressure of 10 cm during its fall. The outlet from the air drum is connected to a center post in the base via a three-way air valve. The center post incorporates a pipe for measuring pressure, which is connected to the water manometer and an expandable O ring for sealing the specimen tube. It also accommodates the orifices. Two calibrated orifices marked 30 and 270 respectively, and an open orifice marked O are supplied. A transparent scale is mounted in front of the manometer to measure the air pressure or permeability when using the orifice method. Mold permeability accessory shown in Fig: 5-a can be used with either the Standard Permeability Meter, to measure the permeability of the actual mould surface in permeability units.
(Fig: 6-a) Mold Permeability Accessory The unit consists of a special contact head fitted with a sponge rubber, sealing washer and fixed aperture connected by a length of PVC tubing to a bell-shaped adaptor which fits onto the center post of either the Standard Permeability Meter or the Electric Permmeter. By means of this accessory air at a known pressure can be forced through the mould surface and from the drop in pressure across an orifice the permeability can be obtained. The aperture in the contact head has been designed to give a reading on a standard test specimen equivalent to that which would be obtained if the permeability of the specimen was determined in the normal way. A sliding metal collar inside the contact head ensures that the aperture remains constant when pressed against a mould surface.
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The Core Permeability Tube as shown Fig: 5-b provides a means of determining the permeability of dried, baked or cured core sand specimens after they have been stripped from the specimen tube.
(Fig: 6-b) Core Permeability Tube This specially shaped tube is fitted with an internal rubber lining which can be inflated using the small hand pump provided. When inflated, the lining seals the curved surfaces of the specimen so that, under test, air can only pass between the flat faces. Two small one-way air valves in the body of the tube enable the operator to inflate and deflate the rubber seal without removing the hand pump each time. The dimensions of the Core Permeability Tube allow it to be used on either the Standard permeability Meter.
PROCEDURE
1. Check that the open orifice is in position in the center post. 2. Prepare a standard specimen of sand. Before stripping from tube, place in position on the center post and seal by rotating the knurled ring anti-clockwise. 3. Turn air valve to vent and raise air drum until it is above the water level. 4. Turn valve to close and allow the drum to descend slowly into the water. Turn the air valve gradually towards vent and allow the air drum to descend until the X mark on the drum is level with the top edge of the tank. Turn valve to closed 5. Allow the air drum to descend by turning the air valve to a position midway between closed and vent. 6. Time the descent of the air drum between the zero and the 2000 ml mark with a stop watch and record the pressure indicated on the manometer during the descent of the drum.
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(Fig: 6-c) Permeability Meter (AFS)
EXERCISE NO.6
Q.1 Enlist the few accessories for permeability tester except above.
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Q.2 What factors affect the permeability of molding sand?
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Q.3 What is the effect of sand grain size on permeability of molding sand?
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Q.4 Which sand is more permeable (Green or Synthetic) sand? And why?
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Q.5 What are the main defects which occur due to lake of permeability?
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PRACTICAL NO. 7
OBJECTIVE: Core making for hollow castings. APPARATUS
Core boxes, Core prints, Sand, Additives and binders.
THEORY
Core Making Cores (fig: 7 a & b) are surrounded by molten metal, and have higher requirement compared to mould sand in terms of strength (to support their own weight and the buoyancy force of metal), permeability and collapsibility (especially for curved holes, otherwise they will be difficult to clean out). The most widely used binder for core sands is vegetable oil (linseed and corn oil, sometimes mixed with mineral oils), which is economical, but requires heating in an oven to about 230 0C for 2-3 hours to develop sufficient strength.
(Fig: 7-a) Sand Core Another widely used process uses sodium silicate binder mixed in dry sand free of clay. The sand mixture hardens immediately when Co2 gas is passed through it. The process is highly productive. The core develops high compressive strength but has poor collapsibility. Other processes are based on organic binders. Mainly thermosetting resins such as phenol, urea and furan are used. This includes hot box and cold box processes. The core sand mixed with binder is filled into a core box either manually or using a sand slinger. For higher productivity core blowing machines are used, in which core boxes are mounted in the machine and sand is forced and pressed into the core box under a stream of high velocity air. This is followed by appropriate heating of the core box to impart the desired properties to the core.
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(Fig: 7-b) Sand Core Common technologies in core making There are five most common technologies involved in core making. 1. Green sand 2. Hot box 3. Cold box 4. No bakes 5. Shell process Binders and additives The Bentonites bonding of sand grain results when a Bentonites-water glue mixture is forced to coat individual sand grains. These coated sand grains are compacted to form Bentonites bridges between sand grains, giving the mold its necessary strength. The advantages to calcium Bentonites is that it mulls or mixes easier, builds rapid green strengths and causes fewer problems with balling in the sand muller. Sodium bentonites are used in sands requiring a higher level of dry and hot compressive strengths. For example, steel foundries typically rely on a sand mixture composed of sodium Bentonites because of higher pouring temperatures. Maximum hot compressive strengths of 500-600 psi can be obtained with mixtures of fireclay and western Bentonites. Water, present in amounts of about 1.5-5%, activates the clay in the sand, causing the molding sand mixture to develop plasticity and strength. Water in molding sands is often referred to as tempering water. The water is absorbed by the clay up to a limiting amount.
PROCEDURE
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Dry binders are also transferred to the muller in water quality. Muller starts working and the dry ingredients are mixed for a little time. Water is measured by (the meter fitted on the muller) and added to dry mixed ingredients. After a little while the water has taken to mix itself core oil binder in measured quantities are transferred to the muller. The total mixing time maybe the order of 3-6 minutes in normal muller. The centrifugal muller may take 60-90 seconds to mix the core ingredients properly. Now fill the prepared sand in the core boxes (Flask). It is properly rammed in the core box.
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9. To increase its strength the Co2 gas is passed through the core specimen to have sufficient strength and hardness. 10. It (sand core) is ready for placing it in the mold cavity to get hallows shapes. The above work of producing cores can either be done by hand or by some machines designed for this purpose. Cores are made by ramming or blowing the raw sand mixture into core boxes, by (jolting squeezing, or blowing), by means of suitable machines as well as by hands. The metal rods are used internally to make the core stronger (reinforcing). If cores are made in parts these are pasted together after baking a core to dry and set the past. Baking is done in an oven, perfectly with circulating air at about 230 0C until the core reaches nutbrown color. The cores by extrusion process made in length and cut to shorter length as needed. Cores are generally made by core blowing machine for production work, in which the core sand is placed in small hoper over the clamped core box and blown under a pressure of 5-8 kg/cm2.
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EXERCISE NO. 7
Q.1 Explain how sand cores can be made through extrusion process?
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Q.2 Explain the thermal properties of prepared sand core?
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Q.3 What sort of defects can occur due to un stability of core during casting?
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Q.4 Define the term trimming and why it is necessary in core making?
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Q.5 How can we increase the refractoriness of the core?
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PRACTICAL NO. 8
OBJECTIVE: To carry out the sand molding process APPARATUS
1. Bellow: A bellow is used to blow loose sand particles from the pattern and the mold cavity
(Fig: 8-a) Bellow 2. Lifter or cleaner: It lifts dirt or loose sand from the mold. It is used for repairing and finishing the sand mold cavity. 3. Heart & square: It is employed for finishing the mould cavity. 4. Hand rammer: It is used for ramming the sand in molds
(Fig: 8-b) Rammer 5. Floor rammer: It is larger in size as compared to hand rammer. It is used for floor molding. 6. Hand riddle: It consists of wire mesh fitted into a circular wooden frame. It is used for cleaning, removing foreign matter from sand.
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(Fig: 8-c) Riddle (Sieve) 7. Sprue pin: It is tapered wooden rod which is placed in the cope to make sprue cavity. 8. Trowels: used to finish flat surfaces of the mould, cut in gates, make joints or repair mold.
(Fig: 8-d) Trowel 9. Smoothers and corner slicers: they are employed to repair and finish corners, edges, round and flat surfaces. 10. Gate cutter: it is a shaped piece of sheet metal. It is used to cut the gate. 11. Shovel: used to transfer molding sand from store to place of use. Also used to mix and temper the molding sand.
(Fig: 8-e) Sand shovels 12. Flask: It has two parts, upper part is known as cope and the lower part is known as drag.
(Fig: 8-f) Flask
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THEORY
In the molding processes, all the molding operations, such as ramming the sand, placing and drawing the pattern, turning over the molding boxes, etc, are performed by a number of tools which are used by the molder to perform above mentioned operations are shown below.
PROCEDURE
Drag is placed inverted on the mould floor and pattern is placed at the center of the box
Special casting sand will soon be packed around the pattern for easy removal of pattern. Parting powder is sprinkled over and around it. It stops the casting sand sticking to the pattern and pulling away with it when the pattern is finally removed from the sand. Casting sand is then shaken through a sieve (called riddled sand) so that only fine particles fall around the pattern. This is called facing sand and it must be fine so that detail on the pattern shows up on the final casting.
The drag is than packed with more casting sand and then ram it down firmly using a ramming tool. The tool has two ends; one is cylindrical and is used for general packing down of the sand. The other end is quite pointed and this can be used for packing sand close up to the pattern.
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When the drag is packed fully it is leveled off (called strickled off) using a straight steel bar.
The entire drag and its contents are then turned over so that the base of the pattern can be seen.
A top box called a cope is then placed on top of the drag and locating pins are put in position so that the casting boxes cannot move sideways.
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Sprue pins are positioned. One usually on the back of the pattern and the other to the side. These will eventually provide an entrance and exit for the molten aluminum when it is poured into the sand. The sand is packed / rammed into the cope in the same way as the drag.
The top box (the cope) is then removed and if all is well the cope with the sand inside should lift off the drag (bottom box) without the sand falling out. A small gate is cut below the position of one of the sprue pins. This will help the molten metal to flow into the cavity left by the mould. Small tools are available or can easily be made to dig a variety of shapes in the casting sand. They are similar to small trowels.
The pattern is removed using a spike. Before removing the pattern it is a good idea to gently tap the spike so that it loosens the pattern from the sand. It can then be lifted away from the casting box (drag).
The cope (top casting box) is placed back on top of the drag and the locating pins put in position. Before this is done vents can be created using a thin piece of welding rod, pushing it through the sand. This allows gases to escape,
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Hence the mold is ready for pouring.
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EXERCISE NO. 8
Q.1 Write short note on hand molding tools?
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Q.2 What do you mean by sand molding? Define its main features?
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Q.3 What is main difference among sand molding and other conventional molding processes?
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Q.4 What are the defects which occurs due to sand molding?
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Q.5 Is it possible to recycle the molding sand? If yes then how?
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PRACTICAL NO. 9
OBJECTIVE: To carry out the sand casting process APPARATUS
Sand, Core, Melting furnace, pouring ladle, molded flask etc.
THEORY
Sand casting (figure 9-a) diagram, the most widely used casting process, utilizes expendable sand molds to form complex metal parts that can be made of nearly any alloy. Because the sand mold must be destroyed in order to remove the part, called the casting, sand casting typically has a low production rate. The sand casting process involves the use of a furnace, metal, pattern, and sand mold. The metal is melted in the furnace and then ladled and poured into the cavity of the sand mold, which is formed by the pattern. The sand mold separates along a parting line and the solidified casting can be removed. The steps in this process are described in greater detail in the next section. Sand casting is used to produce a wide variety of metal components with complex geometries. These parts can vary greatly in size and weight, ranging from a couple ounces to several tons. Some smaller sand cast parts include components as gears, pulleys, crankshafts, connecting rods, and propellers. Larger applications include housings for large equipment and heavy machine bases. Sand casting is also common in producing automobile components, such as engine blocks, engine manifolds, cylinder heads, and transmission cases.
(Fig: 9-a) Sand Casting Diagarm
PROCEDURE
1. Pattern making: First of all we will make a pattern. Take a piece of wood, and by using tools and techniques to make a pattern of required shape and size. 2. Preparation of sand; Preparation of sand includes washing of sand, by which we remove clay and other undesirable particles from the sand, to make it suitable for molding and casting. 3. Core making: Core is made of sand which is separately made in core boxes (made of wood/metal) by Co2 process; this is called as sodium silicate process. It involves a mixture of sand & 1.5-6% liquid silicate. Then carbon dioxide gas is passed through the sand which facilitates high strength that avoids sand erosion.
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4. Core dressing: Editing and remaking of core. Usually broken or inaccurate cores are scraped. But in some circumstances the cores are dressed, the dressing operation include trimming sizing & coating. 5. Molding: The pattern is placed in the mold box & then sand filled around it. The green is used having 5-6% Bantonite, 5-6% coal dust & moisture. When the mold is completely filled, pattern is withdrawn from the mold which leaves a cavity. 6. Melting: One of these furnaces can be used for melting purpose. Cupola, induction and gas fired pit furnace etc. In this process we convert the solid state of metal into liquid state through a furnace by heating. 7. Pouring: The molten metal is transferred to ladle & then into the cavity, when transferred to cavity is known as pouring (figure 8-b). The temperature of molten metal is little above the melting point to avoid solidification in ladle. the pouring must1 be uniform and flow should not be disturbed otherwise layer of metal are formed results in the defects in casting. Simultaneously, ferro-silicon is added which provides extra luster to casting.
(Fig: 9-b) Pouring 8. Fettling: As the casting is extracted from the mold it is no longer fit for use as for as it has sprue, riser, runner etc. So these parts are removed by machining, cutting or grinding process. This process of removing gating & feeding system is known a fettling. 9. Shaking of mold: After fettling, the casting still have excess amount of sand in it & also cores are to be removed from the casting. So casting is vibrated on vibrating machine to remove sand & cores on it. a. Removal of runners, in gates, feeders and flow off. b. Removal of external joint line flash. c. Removal of internal flash and fins. d. Removal of core sand by pneumatic chipping hammer. 10. Sand or Shot blasting: After the two cleaning processes, castings still have fins, burrs etc. So the castings are transferred into a separate chamber where sand blasting or steel blasting is carried out these processes completely cleans the casting from fins, burrs and sharp edges.
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EXERCISE NO. 9
Q.1 What are the functions of core prints? ___________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________
Q.2 How does risers help to reduce shrinkage allowances?
________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________

Q.3 What are main sand casting defects? Discuss few of them.
________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________

Q.4 Differentiate between green & synthetic sand? Which one is better for sand casting? And why?
________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________

Q.5 Discuss how can we minimize or prevent the Sand casting defects.
________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________
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PRACTICAL NO. 10
OBJECTIVE: Examination of the micro-structure of castings. APPARATUS
Abrasive cutting wheel, Mounting machine, Plastic resins (phenolic resins), Grinding and Polishing machine, Etchant, Metallurgical Micro-scope, Hand gloves, Goggles etc
PROCEDURE
1. Sampling: Take a metal piece, cut the metal in small pieces which can be used for sampling by using abrasive cut off machine. 2. Cutting: When cutting a specimen from a larger piece of material, care must be taken to ensure that it is representative of the features found in the larger sample, or that it contains all the information required to investigate a feature of interest. One problem is that preparation of the specimen may change the microstructure of the material, for example through heating, chemical attack, or mechanical damage. The amount of damage depends on the method by which the specimen is cut and the material itself. Cutting with abrasives may cause a high amount of damage, while the use of a low-speed diamond saw can lessen the problems. There are many different cutting methods, although some are used only for specific specimen types. MTI provides the SYJ-150 low speed diamond saw for cutting OM (optical microscope), SEM (scanning electron microscope), and even TEM (transmission electron microscope) specimen. 3. Mounting: Mounting of specimens is usually necessary to allow them to be handled easily. It also minimizes the amount of damage likely to be caused to the specimen itself. The mounting material used should not influence the specimen as a result of chemical reaction or mechanical stresses. It should adhere well to the specimen, and if the specimen is to be electro polished later in the preparation then the mounting material should also be electrically conducting. Specimens can be hot mounted (about 150 C) using a mounting press (fig: 11-a) either in a thermosetting plastic, e.g. phenolic resin (fig:11-b), or a thermo softening plastic e.g. acrylic resin. If hot mounting will alter the structure of the specimen a cold-setting resin can be used, e.g. epoxy, acrylic or polyester resin. Porous materials must be impregnated by resin before mounting or polishing, to prevent grit, polishing media or etchant being trapped in the pores, and to preserve the open structure of the material.
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(Fig: 11-a) Hot Mounting Machine
(Fig: 11-b) Plastic Resins A mounted specimen (fig: 11-c) usually has a thickness of about half its diameter, to prevent rocking during grinding and polishing. The edges of the mounted specimen should also be rounded to minimize the damage to grinding and polishing discs.
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(Fig: 11-c) A Mounted Specimen (shows typical dimensions) 4. Grinding: Surface layers damaged by cutting must be removed by grinding by grinding machine (fig: 11-d). Mounted specimens are ground with rotating discs of abrasive paper, for example wet silicon carbide paper (emery paper). The coarseness of the paper is indicated by a number: the number of grains of silicon carbide per square inch. So, for example, 180 grit paper is coarser than 1200 grit.
(Fig: 11-d) Grinding Machine The grinding procedure involves several stages, using a finer paper (higher number) each time. Each grinding stage removes the scratches from the previous coarser paper. This can be easily achieved by orienting the specimen perpendicular to the previous scratches. Between each grade the specimen is washed thoroughly with soapy water to prevent contamination from coarser grit present on the specimen surface. Typically, the finest grade of paper used is the 1200, and once the only scratches left on the specimen are from this grade.
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5. Lapping: The lapping process is an alternative to grinding, in which the abrasive particles are not firmly fixed to paper. Instead a paste and lubricant is applied to the surface of a disc. Surface roughness from coarser preparation steps is removed by the micro-impact of rolling abrasive particles. 5. Polishing: Polishing (fig: 11-e) discs are covered with soft cloth impregnated with abrasive diamond particles and an oily lubricant or water lubricant. Particles of two different grades are used : a coarser polish - typically with diamond particles 6 microns in diameter which should remove the scratches produced from the finest grinding stage, and a finer polish typically with diamond particles 1 micron in diameter, to produce a smooth surface. Before using a finer polishing wheel the specimen should be washed thoroughly with warm soapy water followed by alcohol to prevent contamination of the disc. The drying can be made quicker using a hot air drier.
Copper specimen polished to 6 micron level,
Copper specimen polished to 1 micron level Mechanical polishing will always leave a layer of disturbed material on the surface of the specimen. Electro polishing or chemical polishing can be used to remove this, leaving an undisturbed surface
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(Fig: 11-e) Polishing Machine
6. Etching: Etching (fig: 11-f) is used to reveal the microstructure of the metal through selective chemical attack. In alloys with more than one phase etching creates contrast between different regions through differences in topography or the reflectivity of the different phases. The rate of etching is affected by crystallographic orientation, so contrast is formed between grains, for example in pure metals. The reagent will also preferentially etch high energy sites such as grain boundaries. This results in a surface relief that enables different crystal orientations, grain boundaries, phases and precipitates to be easily distinguished. The specimen is etched using a reagent. For example, for etching stainless steel or copper and its alloys, a saturated aqueous solution of ferric chloride, containing a few drops of hydrochloric acid is used. This is applied using a cotton bud wiped over the surface a few of times (Care should be taken not to over-etch this is a difficult point to determine, however, the photo below may be of some help). The specimen should then immediately be washed in alcohol and dried.
(Fig: 11-f) Etching Following the etching process there may be numerous small pits present on the surface. These are etch pits caused by localized chemical attack, and in most cases they do not represent features of the microstructure. They may occur preferentially in regions of high local disorder, for example where there is a high concentration of dislocations.
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If the specimen is over etched, i.e., etched for too long, these pits tend to grow, and obscure the main features to be observed - as seen in the images below:
Etched copper specimen
Over etched copper specimen Cleaning specimens in an ultrasonic bath can also be helpful, but is not essential. Ideally the surface to be examined optically should be perfectly flat and level. If not, then as the viewing area is moved across the surface it will pass in and out of focus. In addition, it will make it difficult to have the whole of the field of view in focus - while the centre is focused, the sides will be out of focus. By using a specimen leveling press (shown below) this problem can be avoided, as it presses the mounted specimen into plasticene on a microscope slide, making it level. A small piece of paper or cloth covers the surface of the specimen to avoid scratching. 7. Micro-Scopic study: An optical microscope (fig: 11-g) or a light microscope magnifies objects which are far too small to be seen by the naked eye. In an optical microscope, light must gathered from a small area of a well illuminated thin specimen in close distance. As a result, an optical microscope employs small and spherical objective lenses. This allows for a much shorter focal length and hence a much shorter distance is needed within the tube of the microscope to bring the image of the object into focus. A second lens normally referred to as the eyepiece or an ocular lens is used to magnify the image as the image is brought to the eye.
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(Fig: 11-g)Optical Microscope
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EXERCISE NO. 10
Q.1 Which method is best suitable for cutting the specimen?
________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ _________________________________

Q.2 How much temperature and pressure required for mounting the specimen?
________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ _________________________________

Q.3 Explain different types of mounting material, which is the best mounting material and why? ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ _________________________________

Q.4 What is the purpose of etching and show the chemical composition of nital etchant?
________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ _________________________________

Q.5 What will happen if the specimen is over etched?
________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ _________________________________
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PRACTICAL NO. 11
OBJECTIVE: Demonstration of casting defects and their recommended remedies.
THEORY Defects that form during solidification are important not only to the casting engineer but also to engineers involved in subsequent manufacturing processes and evaluation. Solidification defects are responsible for many of the defects in final manufactured products and failures in service. They originate from inclusion entrapment, segregation, shrinkage cavities, porosity, mold-wall interactions, cracks, and many other sources that are process specific. Casting defects can be modeled by extending the results of casting simulations through post processing and/or by solving further coupled equations that govern these phenomena. MIS RUN Misrun is a casting defect which occurs due to (a) very high pouring temperature of the metal (b) insufficient fluidity of the molten metal (c) absorption of gases by the liquid metal (d) improper alignment of the mould flasks
(Fig: 11a) Showing Mis-Run Defect
REMEDIES Increase metal and/or mold temperature Increase head pressure and/or rate of pour; avoid splashing Improve gating to enhance mold fill Modify alloy composition to enhance fluidity Insulates the mold or use an insulating refractory Increase permeability by using coarse refractory flour (200 mesh for primary; 120 mesh for backups)
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COLD SHUT A cold shut is caused when two streams while meeting in the mold cavity, do not fuse together properly thus forming a discontinuity in the casting. When the molten metal is poured into the mold cavity through more-than-one gate, multiple liquid fronts will have to flow together and become one solid. If the flowing metal fronts are too cool, they may not flow together, but will leave a seam in the part. Such a seam is called a cold shut, and can be prevented by assuring sufficient superheat in the poured metal and thick enough walls in the casting design
(Fig: 11-b) Showing Cold Shut Defect In A Casting
CAUSES 1. Poor pouring practice. 2. Improper gating. 3. Low shell permeability. 4. Lo low metal or mold temperature. 5. Low metal fluidity.
REMEDIES 1. Increase metal and/or mold temperature 2. Increase head pressure and/or rate of pour; avoid splashing 3. Improve gating to enhance mold fill 4. Modify alloy composition to enhance fluidity 5. Insulates the mold or use an insulating refractory (alumina bubbles) 6. Increase permeability by using coarse refractory flour (200 mesh for primary; 120 mesh for backups)
MOLD SHIFT The mold shift defect occurs when cope and drag or molding boxes have not been properly aligned.
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REMEDIES 1. Change worn out pins and bushes. 2. Mount the pattern correctly.
(Fig: 11-c) Mold Shift
SHRINKAGE CAVITIES These are caused by liquid shrinkage occurring during the solidification of the casting. To compensate for this, proper feeding of liquid metal is required. For this reason risers are placed at the appropriate places in the mold. Sprues may be too thin, too long or not attached in the proper location, causing shrinkage cavities. It is recommended to use thick sprues to avoid shrinkage cavities.
(Fig:11-d) Shrinkage Occurs During Solidification
REMEIDIES 1. Lower the pouring temperature.
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2. Use risers to feed heavy sections and ensure that they are filled with hot metal. If using open risers, use feeding flux, if using blind risers use feeding cores. Embody chills where a heavy section or bots cannot be fed directly with a riser.
PIN HOLES Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly below surface of casting
(Fig:11-e) Showing Pinholes in a Casting
CAUSES 1. Wrong type of metal. 2. Incorrect gating system. 3. Gassy metal. 4. Cold metal.
REMEDIES 1. Control atmosphere 2. Vacuum 3. Gases with less solubility 4. Proper venting to let gases out 5. Proper design of runners and gates to 6. Avoid turbulence
HOT TEARS Hot tearing / hot cracking / hot shortness / hot brittleness is one of the most serious defects which a casting can suffer. Irregularly shaped fracture in a casting resulting from stresses set up by steep thermal gradient within the casting during solidification.
APPEARENCE: [1] Its form is that of ragged, branching crack. [2] The main tear and its numerous minor offshoots generally follow intergranular paths.
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[3] Failure surface reveals a dendritic morphology. [4] Failure surface is heavily oxidized. [5] Its location is often at a hot spot, and where contraction strains from adjoining extensive thinner sections are concentrated. [6] The defect is highly specific to certain alloys; other alloys are virtually free from this problem.
(Fig: 11-f) Hot Tears
CAUSE OF HOT TEARING 1. Thermal contraction. 2. Liquid film distribution. 3. Liquid pressure drop. 4. Bad casting design. 5. Shell too strong. 6. Sharp inside corners. 7. Fast cooling rate.
REMEDIES 1. Change casting design. 2. Use coarser refractory flour, reduce viscosity, increase slurry refractory load. 3. Modify the gating and/or chemistry of the alloy. 4. Reduce the cooling rate by insulating the mold or using insulating refractories.
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SCABS A rough piece of metal left on the casting when the molten metal eroded the sand. Usually occurs in the drag. The defect can usually be removed from the casting leaving a solid wall, but it may result in sand inclusions elsewhere in the casting.
(Fig:11-g) Showing Scabs in a Casting
CAUSES 1. Uneven ramming. 2. Incorrect gating. 3. Improper dried mould. 4. High clay content in molding sand.
REMEDIES 1. Ram more evenly 2. Gate so that an even flow of metal is obtained over surface of mould. 3. Avoid too rapid drying and allow time for heat to penetrate through the mold. 4. Change molding sand.
SLAG INCLUSIONS A defect in metal intermediate and finished products made primarily by rolling or forging. Slag inclusions are elongated accumulations of nonmetallic inclusions, from several millimeters to several centimeters in length; they usually form in the metal during pouring. They are arranged in the direction of the predominant flow of the metal upon deformation (mainly, on the surface of the metal or in the adjacent layers).
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(Fig: 11-h) Slag Inclusions CAUSES 1. Dirty metal. 2. Incorrect gating.
REMEDIES 1. Remove all slag from meal before pouring. Thicken slag with sand before skimming. 2. Incorporate skim gates or strainer cores or filters in running system. Keep runner bush full whilst pouring.
BLOW HOLES Blow-holes and pinholes are produced because of gas entrapped in the metal during the course of solidification. Blowholes are smooth-walled cavities, essentially spherical in shape.
(Fig: 11-i) Showing Blow Holes in a Cast Product.
CAUSES 1. Low vent on molding or core sand. 2. Hard ramming. 3. High moisture content. 4. Vent hard cores. 5. Insufficient venting in cores.
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6. Too low a pouring temperature.
REMEDIES 1. Increase vents area. 2. Avoid excess ramming. 3. Reduce oil in sand. 4. Ensure vents are clear. 5. Increase pouring temperature. 6. Reduce moisture to minimum.
BULGING
Slab bulging is an undesirable casting defect consisting in the formation of a large swellin the cast shell. CAUSES 1. Firing/pouring temperature too high. 2. Refractoriness character is insufficient. 3. Metal dissipation insufficient. REMEDIES 1. Lower firing/pouring temperature. 2. Prefer high refractory materials. 3. Remove thermal insulation.
(Fig: 11j) Showing Bulging Defect
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EXERCISE NO.11
Q 1) What are fins and flashes and how would you remove them?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Q 2)
How poor casting technique affects the mechanical properties?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Q 3)
Is casting structure affect mechanical properties?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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PRACTICAL NO. 12
OBJECTIVE: Demonstration of die casting process. APPARATUS
There are two types of die casting machines are used a hot chamber machine and cold chamber machine. Hot chamber die casting machine Hot chamber machines (fig: 12-a) are used for alloys with low melting temperatures, such as zinc, tin, and lead. The temperatures required to melt other alloys would damage the pump, which is in direct contact with the molten metal. The metal is contained in an open holding pot which is placed into a furnace, where it is melted to the necessary temperature. The molten metal then flows into ahot chamber through an inlet and a plunger, powered by hydraulic pressure, forces the molten metal through a gooseneck channel and into the die. Typical injection pressures for a hot chamber die casting machine are between 1000 and 5000 psi. After the molten metal has been injected into the die cavity, the plunger remains down, holding the pressure while the casting solidifies. After solidification, the hydraulic system retracts the plunger and the part can be ejected by the clamping unit. Prior to the injection of the molten metal, this unit closes and clamps the two halves of the die. When the die is attached to the die casting machine, each half is fixed to a large plate, called a platen. The front half of the die, called the cover die, is mounted to a stationary platen and aligns with the gooseneck channel. The rear half of the die, called the ejector die, is mounted to a movable platen, which slides along the tie bars. The hydraulically powered clamping unit actuates clamping bars that push this platen towards the cover die and exert enough pressure to keep it closed while the molten metal is injected. Following the solidification of the metal inside the die cavity, the clamping unit releases the die halves and simultaneously causes the ejection system to push the casting out of the open cavity. The die can then be closed for the next injection.
(Fig: 12-a) Die casting hot chamber machine
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Cold chamber die casting machine Cold chamber machines (fig: 12-b) are used for alloys with high melting temperatures that cannot be cast in hot chamber machines because they would damage the pumping system. Such alloys include aluminum, brass, and magnesium. The molten metal is still contained in an open holding pot which is placed into a furnace, where it is melted to the necessary temperature. However, this holding pot is kept separate from the die casting machine and the molten metal is ladled from the pot for each casting, rather than being pumped. The metal is poured from the ladle into the shot chamber through a pouring hole. The injection system in a cold chamber machine functions similarly to that of a hot chamber machine, however it is usually oriented horizontally and does not include a gooseneck channel. A plunger, powered by hydraulic pressure, forces the molten metal through the shot chamber and into the injection sleeve in the die. The typical injection pressures for a cold chamber die casting machine are between 2000 and 20000 psi. After the molten metal has been injected into the die cavity, the plunger remains forward, holding the pressure while the casting solidifies. After solidification, the hydraulic system retracts the plunger and the part can be ejected by the clamping unit. The clamping unit and mounting of the dies is identical to the hot chamber machine. See the above paragraph for details.
(Fig:12-b) Die Casting Cold Chamber Machine
THEORY
Die casting is a manufacturing process that can produce geometrically complex metal parts through the use of reusable molds, called dies. The die casting process involves the use of a furnace, metal, die casting machine, and die. The metal, typically non-ferrous metals such as aluminum or zinc, is melted in the furnace and then injected into the dies in the die casting machine. There are two main types of die casting machines - hot chamber machines (used for alloys with low melting temperatures, such as zinc) and cold chamber machines (used for alloys with high melting temperatures, such as aluminum). However, in both machines, after the molten metal is injected into the dies, it rapidly cools and solidifies into the final part, called the casting. The steps in this process are described in greater detail in the next section. The castings that are created in this process can vary greatly in size and weight, ranging from a couple ounces to 100 pounds. One common application of die cast parts are housings - thinwalled enclosures, often requiring many ribs and bosses on the interior. Metal housings for a
53
variety of appliances and equipment are often die cast. Several automobile components arealso manufactured using die casting, including pistons, cylinder heads, and engine blocks. Other common die cast parts include propellers, gears, bushings, pumps, and valves.
PROCEDURE
The process cycle for die casting consists of five main stages, which are explained below. The total cycle time is very short, typically between 2 seconds to 1 minute. 1. Clamping: The first step is the preparation and clamping of the two halves of the die. Each die half is first cleaned from the previous injection and then lubricated to facilitate the ejection of the next part. The lubrication time increases with part size, as well as the number of cavities and side-cores. Also, lubrication may not be required after each cycle, but after 2 or 3 cycles, depending upon the material. After lubrication, the two die halves, which are attached inside the die casting machine, are closed and securely clamped together. Sufficient force must be applied to the die to keep it securely closed while the metal is injected. The time required to close and clamp the die is dependent upon the machine - larger machines (those with greater clamping forces) will require more time. This time can be estimated from the dry cycle time of the machine. 2. Injection: The molten metal, which is maintained at a set temperature in the furnace, is next transferred into a chamber where it can be injected into the die. The method of transferring the molten metal is dependent upon the type of die casting machine, whether a hot chamber or cold chamber machine is being used. The difference in this equipment will be detailed in the next section. Once transferred, the molten metal is injected at high pressures into the die. Typical injection pressure ranges from 1,000 to 20,000 psi. This pressure holds the molten metal in the dies during solidification. The amount of metal that is injected into the die is referred to as the shot. The injection time is the time required for the molten metal to fill all of the channels and cavities in the die. This time is very short, typically less than 0.1 seconds, in order to prevent early solidification of any one part of the metal. The proper injection time can be determined by the thermodynamic properties of the material, as well as the wall thickness of the casting. A greater wall thickness will require a longer injection time. In the case where a cold chamber die casting machine is being used, the injection time must also include the time to manually ladle the molten metal into the shot chamber. 3. Cooling: The molten metal that is injected into the die will begin to cool and solidify once it enters the die cavity. When the entire cavity is filled and the molten metal solidifies, the final shape of the casting is formed. The die cannot be opened until the cooling time has elapsed and the casting is solidified. The cooling time can be estimated from several thermodynamic properties of the metal, the maximum wall thickness of the casting, and the complexity of the die. A greater wall thickness will require a longer cooling time. The geometric complexity of the die also requires a longer cooling time because the additional resistance to the flow of heat. 4. Ejection: After the predetermined cooling time has passed, the die halves can be opened and an ejection mechanism can push the casting out of the die cavity. The time to open the die can be estimated from the dry cycle time of the machine and the ejection time is determined by the size of the casting's envelope and should include time for the casting to fall free of the die. The ejection mechanism must apply some force to eject the part because during cooling the part shrinks and adheres to the die. Once the casting is ejected, the die can be clamped shut for the next injection.
54
5. Trimming: During cooling, the material in the channels of the die will solidify attached to the casting. This excess material, along with any flash that has occurred, must be trimmed from the casting either manually via cutting or sawing, or using a trimming press. The time required to trim the excess material can be estimated from the size of the casting's envelope. The scrap material that results from this trimming is either discarded or can be reused in the die casting process. Recycled material may need to be reconditioned to the proper chemical composition before it can be combined with nonrecycled metal and reused in the die casting process.
(Fig: 12-c) Final Casting
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EXERCISE
Q.1 Discuss the main features of die casting process?
________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ _________________________________

Q.2 What is similarity in die casting and investment casting processes?
________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ _________________________________

Q.3 ..alloys are used in hot die casting machine & . Alloys are used in cold die casting machine. Because of.
Q.4 what are the applications of die casting process?
________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ _________________________________

Q.5 Give general introduction to die casting machines?
________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ _________________________________
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PRACTICAL NO. 13
OBJECTIVE : To study about carbon sulphr analyser. THEORY Excessive sulpphur in the bse metal melt prefentially reacts witn the magnesium or other nodular inoculant, and insufficinet residual inoculant remains to perform its nodularizing or compacting function. Further, the presence of excess inoculant is harmful , since it result in inferior types of microstructurs, the final nodular iron is more prone to carbidic structures,the inoculant itseltf is wasted, and attempts at obtaining a compacted graphite structure may result in an undesired nodular structurethe sulphur content has been determined by chemical Analysis, by microstructure observation or by spectrographic analysis and each form of ests requires equipment and facilities which are not present in many foundries. More specifically, the present invention purposes the addition to the molten sample of the base metal of a nodularizing inoculant , such as cerium or magnesium, soldifying the inoculated sample in to a test bar or wedge & then alternatively (1) visually determining the character of a fractures portion of the sample or (2) ultrasonically determining the modification of the carbon content To either nodular or compacted graphite or (3) comparing solidification curves obtained during cooling of a base metal sample and the inoculated sample.expressed in another manner, the method of the present invention determines the amount of npdularizing inoculants necessary to eliminate flake, non nodular or non compacted, carbon from the sample and then addds this amount to later, periodic samples to determine any deviation in the sulphur content of the sample.
METHOD The amount of carbon added to the molten metal sample is known, and the extent of nodularization or compaction can be determined by visual inspection of the sample following solidification. From these two pieces of knowledge, the amount of sulphur in the vase metal can be determined. The nodularizing ingredient can be added in any desired fashion, so long as (1) a known weight percent of ingreident is added to the base metal sample, and (2) the ingriedient is throughly and completely dispesed in the sample. One manner of addition is by incorporatng the ingredint, such as cerium, with fillers, such as clay, and binders, such as pitch, into a pellet containing a predetermined amount of nodularizing ingredient. Such pellet can be incorporated into the sample by simply placing them in a sample ladle prior to filing
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the laddle or by placing them in the flow path of the sample into the laddle or into the test bar or wedge mold, or by stiring them into an alredy filled laddle or mold, or by any other desired method. Essentially, the visual test of the [resent invention relies upon the fact that chilled, properly nodlarized or compacted iron exhibits a white fracture,as compared with the gray fractureof chilled iron in which the nodularizing agent is ineffective due to excessive sulphur. Upo breaking of the sample,the colaration of the fracture is observed. If the farcture is white, the amount of sulphur in the sample is less than which would neutralize the added amount of nodularizing agent. Furhter, where the fracture is performed on a test bar or wedge of polygonal cross section and having corners of differing angularity, e.g. a 30 60 90 triangular shape, the severity of the chill and the occurrence of whtie fracture varies from corner to corner. By noting which and how many corners are white, the amount of sulphur n the base metal can be determined with accuracy, i.e. a 30 wedge angle chills more quickly thaan either a 60 or 90 wedge angle will exhibit a white fracture at hiher sulpur contents. Thus,a sample where in all three angles fracture white contains less sulphur where in all three angles fracture white contain less sulpgur tha na sample where in only the 30 angle exhibits a white fracture. Total sulphur is determined using an automated sulphur analyzer.0.25g of sample is weighed ad mixed with 1 g vanadium penta oxide flux. The sample is combusted in an oxygen atmosphere at 1350 C where the sulphur oxidies to sulphur di oxide. Moisture and dust are removed and the sulpur di oxide is measured by a solid infra red detector.
CARBON ANALYZER METHOD

Thecarbon content of molten iron is important variable in iron fodry production since the amunt of carbon has an important effect on the mechanical and metallugical properties of the final iron product. Generally the carbon ontent of molten iron may be determined, prior to casting of the iron, by chemcial analysis or by thermal analysis. Chemical analysis is generally too slw for production facilities and essentially all production facilities se thermal analysis for the determination of the carbon equivalent of molten iron. A method of utlizing thermal analysis of this type for hypereutectic irons is disclosed, which disclosestreating the molten sample (as the coating the sample cup) with a carbide stabilizer (e.g, bismuth, boron lead, magnesium, cerium or mischmetal) which retards primary graphite formation in the iron solidifiaction to insure an arrest at the liquidus tempreature. The carbonequivalent of the hypereutectic iron can then be determined by copmarision of the initial arrest tempreature with a refrence chart based on the samples which have been chemically analyzed and the
58
carbon equivalent determined. The amount of carbon in the cast iron determines the physical propertie of microstructureof the iron. When the carbon equivalent is determined by thermal analysis. Thus two analyses are generally required to determine the carbon content. The use of a cooling curve computer for detecting the liquidus and the solidus tempreaturesof molten iron samples and computing the carbon equivalent there from by means of an emprical equation is disclosed. The percent carbon can be deermined from the computed carbon equivalent and percent silicon values ( assuming phosphorus as zero). A need remains for an accurate, rapid method for the determinatoion of total percent carbon in a molten iron sample which does not require either an initial determination of the carbon equivalent or a computer and which is applicable to both hypoeutectic and hypereutectic irons. Carbonate carbon is determined as carbon di oxideby coulometric tritration. The sample is treated with ht 2 N perchloric acid and the evolved co2 is passed in to a cell containing a solution of monoethanolamine. The CO2. Quantatively absobed by the monoethanolamine, is coulometrically tritrated using platinum ans silver/potassium iodide electodes.
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EXCERCISE
Q 1 ) Which are the nodularizing inoculants and why we use also determine its function? ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Q 2 ) What happened when excessive sulphur is present in cast iron? ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Q 3 ) How to determine the amount of sulphur? ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Q 4) Which two mehods are to determine the carbon content? ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Q 5) Which type of instrument is used to determine carbon content? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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My 303 Foundry

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My 303 Foundry

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MY- 303 Foundry Principles, Methods And Practices

Department Of Metallurgical Engineering

MY-303: FOUNDRY: PRINCIPLES, METHODS AND PRACTICES

Name ______________________ Roll No_____________________ Batch_______________________ Year_______________________ Department_________________

MY- 303 Foundry Principles, Methods And Practices

Department Of Metallurgical Engineering

My-303: FOUNDRY: PRINCIPLES, METHODS AND PRACTICES

MY- 303 Foundry Principles, Methods And Practices

Department Of Metallurgical Engineering

_____________ Course Teacher

MY- 303 Foundry Principles, Methods And Practices

Department Of Metallurgical Engineering

MY- 303 Foundry Principles, Methods And Practices

Department Of Metallurgical Engineering

MY- 303 Foundry Principles, Methods And Practices

Department Of Metallurgical Engineering

MY- 303 Foundry Principles, Methods And Practices

Department Of Metallurgical Engineering

MY- 303 Foundry Principles, Methods And Practices

Department Of Metallurgical Engineering

MY- 303 Foundry Principles, Methods And Practices

Department Of Metallurgical Engineering

________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________

MY- 303 Foundry Principles, Methods And Practices

Department Of Metallurgical Engineering

MY- 303 Foundry Principles, Methods And Practices

Department Of Metallurgical Engineering

MY- 303 Foundry Principles, Methods And Practices

Department Of Metallurgical Engineering

________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ _________________________________

________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ _________________________________

________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ _________________________________

________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ _________________________________

________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ______________________

MY- 303 Foundry Principles, Methods And Practices

Department Of Metallurgical Engineering

MY- 303 Foundry Principles, Methods And Practices

Department Of Metallurgical Engineering

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MY- 303 Foundry Principles, Methods And Practices

Department Of Metallurgical Engineering

(Fig: 5-a) Sand Rammer

MY- 303 Foundry Principles, Methods And Practices

Department Of Metallurgical Engineering

(Fig: 5-b) Sand Hardness Tester

MY- 303 Foundry Principles, Methods And Practices

Department Of Metallurgical Engineering

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MY- 303 Foundry Principles, Methods And Practices

Department Of Metallurgical Engineering

MY- 303 Foundry Principles, Methods And Practices

Department Of Metallurgical Engineering

MY- 303 Foundry Principles, Methods And Practices

Department Of Metallurgical Engineering

(Fig: 6-c) Permeability Meter (AFS)

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