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In-plant Training Report
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Interface between the students and the industries form a major strong hold in every curriculum. The lack of this may deny the students an idea about the corporate culture and its regularities. To promote this and to aid the students understand the concepts in a better manner, in the course of study, during the 7th semester,each student is expected to undertaken minimum of five Industrial visits or undertake a minimum of two weeks of Industrial training. Based on the Industrial visits/training, the student has to submit a report at the end of 7th semester highlighting the exposure he/she gained. The proofs for having undergone visits/training are to be enclosed along with report as enclosures.
The following Industries were included for the visits/training:
1. ALL INDIA RADIO 2. DOORDARSHAN KENDRA 3. MANATEC ELECTRONICS
Submitted by Priyabrata Ghorai
CHAPTER 2 INDUSTRIAL VISIT-1
ALL INDIA RADIO
NAME OF THE COMPANY ADDRESS DATE OF VISIT DURATION OF VISIT
: ALL INDIA RADIO : AIR, Indira Nagar, Pondicherry-605 006. : 15-06-2009 to 19-06-2009 : 5 Days
OVERVIEW 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1.2 Radio Propagation 1.3 Free space propagation 1.4 Modes
1.4.1 Surface modes 1.4.2 Direct modes (line-of-sight) 1.4.3 Ionospheric modes (skywave) 1.4.3.1 Meteor scattering 1.4.3.1 Auroral reflection 1.4.3.1 Sporadic-E propagation 1.5 Tropospheric modes 1.5.1 1.5.2 1.5.3 1.5.4 1.5.5 Tropospheric scattering Tropospheric ducting and enhancement or refraction via inversion layer Rain scattering Aeroplane scattering Lightning scattering
1.6 Other effects 1.6.1 Diffraction 1.6.2 Absorption
1.7 BROADCASTING STUDIO 1.8 ANNOUNCER CONSOLE
1.9 CONTROL ROOM 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 ACOUSTICS MODULATION TECHNIQUES EMPLOYED IN THE TRANSMITTERS ALLOCATION OF FREQUENCIES FOR BROADCASTING WAVE PROPAGATION SHORT WAVE ANTENNAS CONCLUSION
1.1 INTRODUCTION All India Radio (AIR), officially known as Akashwani is the radio broadcaster of India and a division of Prasar Bharati ( Brodcasting Corporation of India), an autonomous corporation of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. It is the sister service of Prasar Bharatis Doordarshan, the national television broadcaster. All India Radio is one of the largest radio networks in the world. Radio broadcasting began in India in 1927, with two privately-owned transmitters at Mumbai and Kolkata. These were nationalized in 1930 and operated under the name Indian Broadcasting Service until 1936, when it was renamed All India Radio (AIR). Although officially renamed again to Akashwani in 1957, it is still popularly known as All India Radio. AIR is still the most popular media, considering the fact theat it is accessible even in the remotest parts of our country where any other media like TV or newspapers cannot reach. Today there are all types of programmes broadcasted on AIR. Although there is tough competition with the new upcoming private channels, AIR has introduced new channels to offer options to listeners like music, news, drama, sports and live shows. AIR covers 99.37% of Indias population, the largest democracy in the world with over one billion inhabitants. AIR maintains approximately 200 broadcasting centres around the country and transmits in 24 different languages. Inspite of recent penetration by other media such as Cable TV, AIR remains the most common means of gaining access to information and entertainment, as the radio receivers are relatively cheap and affordable. A five day in-plant training was undergone at the All India Radio located at Indira Nagar in Puducherry. On the first day we were shown all the rooms and equipments used in the radio station as a whole. We were taken to the control room, recoding room various consoles and were briefed about the general need of each block present in the station. The Station Engineer explained to us the importance of AIR in the city and gave us an overview about the overall working procedure of the radio station. On the second day, we were told in detail about the working of the various consoles and about how the transmission takes place from the station by the Assistant Engineer. On the third day, we visited the broadcasting station where we saw two transmitters, their specificatrion , how they work , and the antennas used for transmission. On the fourth day, we were told about all the precautionary measures taken to ensure high quality transmission, both at the transmission station site and at the broadcasting station. On the final day, we were given insight into the recording process, and were allowed to record for a live programme so as to get a real- feel of the modulation and sound techniques employed to ensure high quality service.
Submitted by Priyabrata Ghorai 5
1.2 RADIO PROPAGATION Radio propagation is a term used to explain how radio waves behave when they are transmitted, or are propagated from one point on the Earth to another. Like light waves, radio waves are affected by the phenomena of reflection, refraction, diffraction, absorption and scattering. Radio propagation in the Earth's atmosphere is affected by the daily changes of ionization in upper atmosphere layers due to the Sun. Understanding the effects of varying conditions on radio propagation has many practical applications, from choosing frequencies for international shortwave broadcasters, to designing reliable mobile telephone systems, to radio navigation, to operation of radar systems. Radio propagation is also affected by several other factors determined by its path from point to point. This path can be a direct line of sight path or an overthe-horizon path aided by refraction in the ionosphere. Factors influencing ionospheric radio signal propagation can include sporadic-E, spread-F, solar flares, geomagnetic storms, ionospheric layer tilts, and solar proton events. Since radio propagation is somewhat unpredictable, such services as emergency locator transmitters, in-flight communication with ocean-crossing aircraft, and some television broadcasting have been moved to satellite transmitters. A satellite link, though expensive, can offer highly predictable and stable line of sight coverage of a given area. Radio waves at different frequencies propagate in different ways. The interaction of radio waves with the ionized regions of the atmosphere makes radio propagation more complex to predict and analyze than in free space (see image at right). Ionospheric radio propagation has a strong connection to space weather. A sudden ionospheric disturbance or shortwave fadeout is observed when the x-rays associated with a solar flare ionize the ionospheric D-region. Enhanced ionization in that region increases the absorption of radio signals passing through it. During the strongest solar x-ray flares, complete absorption of virtually all ionospherically propagated radio signals in the sunlit hemisphere can occur. These solar flares can disrupt HF radio propagation and affect GPS accuracy. 1.3 FREE SPACE PROPAGATION In free space, all electromagnetic waves (radio, light, X-rays, etc) obey the inverse-square law, which states that the power density of an electromagnetic wave is proportional to the inverse of the square of the distance from the source, or:
Doubling the distance from a transmitter means that the power density of the radiated wave at that new location is reduced to one-quarter of its previous value. The power density per surface unit is proportional to the product of the electric and magnetic field strengths. Thus, doubling the propagation path distance from the transmitter reduces each of their received field strengths over a free-space path by one-half. 1.4 MODES Radio frequencies and their primary mode of propagation Band Frequency Wavelength Propagation via Very Low 330 kHz Frequency Guided between the earth and the ionosphere. Guided between the earth and the D layer of the ionosphere. Surface waves. Surface waves. MF Medium Frequency 3003000 kHz 1000 100 m E, F layer ionospheric refraction at night, when D layer absorption weakens.
VLF
10010 km
LF
Low Frequency
30300 kHz
101 km
HF
High Frequency (Short Wave)
E layer ionospheric refraction. 330 MHz 10010 m F1, F2 layer ionospheric refraction.
VHF
Very High 30300 Frequency MHz
101 m
Infrequent E ionospheric refraction. Extremely rare F1,F2 layer ionospheric refraction during high sunspot activity up to 80 MHz. Generally direct wave. Sometimes tropospheric ducting. Direct wave. Sometimes
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UHF Ultra
High 3003000
10010 cm
Frequency
MHz
tropospheric ducting.
SHF
Super High 330 GHz 101 cm Frequency
Direct wave.
Extremely EHF High Frequency
30300 GHz
101 mm
Direct wave limited by absorption.
1.4.1 Surface modes Lower frequencies (between 30 and 3,000 kHz) have the property of following the curvature of the earth via groundwave propagation in the majority of occurrences. In this mode the radio wave propagates by interacting with the semi-conductive surface of the earth. The wave "clings" to the surface and thus follows the curvature of the earth. Vertical polarization is used to alleviate short circuiting the electric field through the conductivity of the ground. Since the ground is not a perfect electrical conductor, ground waves are attenuated rapidly as they follow the earths surface. Attenuation is proportional to the frequency making this mode mainly useful for LF and VLF frequencies. Today LF and VLF are mostly used for time signals, and for military communications, especially with ships and submarines. Early commercial and professional radio services relied exclusively on long wave, low frequencies and ground-wave propagation. To prevent interference with these services, amateur and experimental transmitters were restricted to the higher (HF) frequencies, felt to be useless since their ground-wave range was limited. Upon discovery of the other propagation modes possible at medium wave and short wave frequencies, the advantages of HF for commercial and military purposes became apparent. Amateur experimentation was then confined only to authorized frequency segments in the range. 1.4.2 Direct modes (line-of-sight) Line-of-sight is the direct propagation of radio waves between antennas that are visible to each other. This is probably the most common of the radio propagation modes at VHF and higher frequencies. Because radio signals can travel through many non-metallic objects, radio can be picked up through walls. This is still line-of-sight propagation. Examples would include propagation between a satellite and a ground antenna or reception of television signals from a local TV transmitter. Ground plane reflection effects are an important factor in VHF line of sight propagation. The interference between the direct beam line-of-sight and the ground reflected beam often leads to
an effective inverse-fourth-power law for ground-plane limited radiation. [Need reference to inverse-fourth-power law + ground plane. Drawings may clarify] 1.4.3 Ionospheric modes (skywave) Skywave propagation, also referred to as skip, is any of the modes that rely on refraction of radio waves in the ionosphere, which is made up of one or more ionized layers in the upper atmosphere. F2-layer is the most important ionospheric layer for HF propagation, though F1, E, and D-layers also play some role. These layers are directly affected by the sun on a daily cycle, the seasons and the 11-year sunspot cycle determines the utility of these modes. During solar maxima, the whole HF range up to 30 MHz can be used and F2 propagation up to 50 MHz are observed frequently depending upon daily solar flux values. During solar minima, propagation of higher frequencies is generally worse. Forecasting of skywave modes is of considerable interest to amateur radio operators and commercial marine and aircraft communications, and also to shortwave broadcasters. 1.4.3.1 Meteor scattering Meteor scattering relies on reflecting radio waves off the intensely ionized columns of air generated by meteors. While this mode is very short duration, often only from a fraction of second to couple of seconds per event, digital Meteor burst communications allows remote stations to communicate to a station that may be hundreds of miles up to over 1,000 miles (1,600 km) away, without the expense required for a satellite link. This mode is most generally useful on VHF frequencies between 30 and 250 MHz. 1.4.3.2 Auroral reflection Intense columns of Auroral ionization at 100 km altitudes within the auroral oval reflect radio waves, perhaps most notably on HF and VHF. The reflection is angle-sensitive - incident ray vs. magnetic field line of the column must be very close to right-angle. Random motions of electrons spiraling around the field lines create a Doppler-spread that broadens the spectra of the emission to more or less noise-likedepending on how high radio frequency is used. The radio-aurora is observed mostly at high latitudes and rarely extend down to middle latitudes. The occurrences of radio-auroras depends on solar activity (flares, coronal holes, CMEs) and annually the events are more numerous during solar cycle maximas. Radio aurora includes the so-called afternoon radio aurora which produces stronger but more distorted signals and after the Harang-minima, the latenight radio aurora (sub-storming phase) returns with variable signal strength and lesser doppler spread. The propagation range for this predominantly back-scatter mode extends up to about 2000 km in east-west plane, but strongest signals are observed most frequently from north at nearby sites on same latitudes.
Rarely, a strong radio-aurora is followed by Auroral-E, which resembles both propagation types in some ways. 1.4.3.3 Sporadic-E propagation Sporadic E (Es) propagation can be observed on HF and VHF bands. It must not be confused with ordinary HF E-layer propagation. Sporadic-E at mid-latitudes occurs mostly during summer season, from May to August in the northern hemisphere and from November to February in the southern hemisphere. There is no single cause for this mysterious propagation mode. The reflection takes place in a thin sheet of ionisation around 90 km height. The ionisation patches drift westwards at speeds of few hundred km per hour. There is a weak periodicity noted during the season and typically Es is observed on 1 to 3 successive days and remains absent for a few days to reoccur again. Es do not occur during small hours, the events usually begin at dawn, there is a peak in the afternoon and a second peak in the evening. Es propagation is usually gone by local midnight. Maximum observed frequency (MOF) for Es is found to be lurking around 30 MHz on most days during the summer season, but sometimes MOF may shoot up to 100 MHz or even more in ten minutes to decline slowly during the next few hours. The peak-phase includes oscillation of MOF with periodicity of approximately 5...10 minutes. The propagation range for Es single-hop is typically 1000 to 2000 km, but with multi-hop, double range is observed. The signals are very strong but also with slow deep fading. Thomas F. Giella, a noted retired Meteorologist, Space Plasma Physicist and Amateur Radio Operator, KN4LF cites the following from his professional research. Just as the E layer is the main refraction medium for medium frequency (3003000 kHz) signal propagation within approximately 5000 km (3000 mi), so is a Sporadic-E (Es) cloud. Sporadic-E (Es) clouds occur at approximately 100 km (60 mi) in altitude and generally move from ESE to WNW. Like Stratosphere level warming and Troposphere level temperature and moisture discontinuities, Sporadic-E (Es) clouds can depending on the circumstances absorb, block or refract medium, high and very high frequency RF signals in an unpredictable manner. The main source for "high latitude" Sporadic E (Es) clouds is geomagnetic storming induced radio aurora activity. The main source for "mid latitude" Sporadic-E (Es) clouds is wind shear produced by internal buoyancy/gravity waves (IBGW's), that create traveling ionosphere disturbances (TID's), most of which are produced by severe thunderstorm cell complexes with overshooting tops that penetrate into the Stratosphere. Another tie in between Sporadic-E (Es) and a severe thunderstorm is the Elve.
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The main sources for "low latitude" Sporadic-E (Es) clouds is wind shear produced by internal buoyancy/gravity waves (IBGW's), that create traveling ionosphere disturbances, most of which are produced by severe thunderstorm cell complexes tied to tropical cyclones. High electron content in the Equatorial Ring Current also plays a role. The forecasting of Sporadic-E (Es) clouds has long been considered to be impossible. However it is possible to identify certain troposphere level meteorological conditions that can lead to the formation of Sporadic E (Es) clouds. One is as mentioned above the severe thunderstorm cell complex. Sporadic-E (Es) clouds have been observed to initially occur within approximately 150 km (90 mi) to the right of a severe thunderstorm cell complex in the northern hemisphere, with the opposite being observed in the southern hemisphere. To complicate matters is the fact that Sporadic-E (Es) clouds that initially form to the right of a severe thunderstorm complex in the northern hemisphere, then move from ESE-WNW and end up to the left of the severe thunderstorm complex in the northern hemisphere. So one has to look for Sporadic-E (Es) clouds on either side of a severe thunderstorm cell complex. Things get even more complicated when two severe thunderstorm cell complexes exist approximately 10002000 miles apart. Not all thunderstorm cell complexes reach severe levels and not all severe thunderstorm cell complexes produce Sporadic-E (Es). This is where knowledge in tropospheric physics and weather analyses/forecasting is necessary. Some of the key elements in identifying which severe thunderstorm cell complexes have the potential to produce Sporadic-E (Es) via wind shear, from internal buoyancy/gravity waves, that produce traveling ionosphere disturbances include: 1. Negative tilted mid and upper level long wave troughs. 2. Approximate 150 knot (170 mph, 280 km/h) jet stream jet maxes that produce divergence and therefore create a sucking vacuum effect above thunderstorm cells, that assist thunderstorm cells in reaching and penetrating the tropopause into the stratosphere. 3. 500 mb (50 kPa) temperatures of 20 C or colder, which produce numerous positive and negative lightning bolts and inter-related Sprites and Elves. 4. Approximate 150175 knot (170200 mph) updrafts within thunderstorm cells complexes that create overshooting tops that penetrate the Tropopause into the Stratosphere (See definition #20 on Stratospheric Warming), launching upwardly propagating internal buoyancy/gravity waves, which create traveling ionosphere disturbances and then wind shear. 1.5 TROPOSPHERIC MODES 1.5.1 Tropospheric scattering
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At VHF and higher frequencies, small variation (turbulence) in the density of the atmosphere at a height of around 6 miles (10 km) can scatter some of the normally line-of-sight beam of radio frequency energy back toward the ground, allowing over-the-horizon communication between stations as far as 500 miles (800 km) apart. The military developed the White Alice communications system covering all of Alaska, on these principles. Tropospheric ducting and enhancement or refraction via inversion layer Sudden changes in the atmosphere's vertical moisture content and temperature profiles can on random occasions make microwave and UHF & VHF signals propagate hundreds of kilometers up to about 2,000 kilometers (1,300 mi)and for ducting mode even fartherbeyond the normal radio-horizon. The inversion layer is mostly observed over high pressure regions, but there are several tropospheric weather conditions which create these randomly occurring propagation modes. Inversion layer's altitude for non-ducting is typically found between 100 meters (300 ft) to about 1 kilometer (3,000 ft) and for ducting about 500 meters to 3 kilometers (1,600 to 10,000 ft), and the duration of the events are typically from several hours up to several days. Higher frequencies experience the most dramatic increase of signal strengths, while on low-VHF and HF the effect is negligible. Propagation path attenuation may be below free-space loss. Some of the lesser inversion types related to warm ground and cooler air moisture content occur regularly at certain times of the year and time of day. A typical example could be the late summer, early morning tropospheric enhancements that bring in signals from distances up to few hundred kilometers for a couple of hours, until undone by the Sun's warming effect. 1.5.2 Rain scattering Rain scattering is purely a microwave propagation mode and is best observed around 10 GHz, but extends down to a few gigahertzthe limit being the size of the scattering particle size vs. wavelength. This mode scatters signals mostly forwards and backwards when using horizontal polarization and side scattering with vertical polarization. Forward scattering typically yields propagation ranges of 800 km. Scattering from snowflakes and ice pellets also occurs, but scattering from ice without watery surface is less effective. The most common application for this phenomenon is microwave rain radar, but rain scatter propagation can be a nuisance causing unwanted signals to intermittently propagate where they are not anticipated or desired. Similar reflections may also occur from insects though at lower altitudes and shorter range. Rain also causes attenuation of point-to-point and satellite microwave links. Attenuation values up to 30 dB have been observed on 30 GHz during heavy tropical rain. 1.5.3 Aeroplane scattering Aeroplane scattering (or most often reflection) is observed on VHF through microwaves and besides back-scattering, yields momentary propagation up to 500 km even in a mountain-type terrain. The most common back-scatter application is air-traffic radar and bistatic forward-scatter guided-missile and aeroplane detecting trip-wire radar and the US space radar.
1.5.4 Lightning scattering Lightning scattering has sometimes been observed on VHF and UHF over distance of about 500 km. The hot lightning channel scatters radiowaves for a fraction of a second. The RF noise burst from the lightning makes the initial part of the open channel unusable and the ionisation disappears soon because of combination at low altitude high atmospheric pressure. Although the hot lightning channel is briefly observable with microwave radar, this mode has no practical use for communications. 1.6 OTHER EFFECTS 1.6.1 Diffraction Knife-Edge diffraction is the propagation mode where radio waves are bent around sharp edges. For example, this mode is used to send radio signals over a mountain range when a line-of-sight path is not available. However, the angle cannot be too sharp or the signal will not diffract. The diffraction mode requires increased signal strength, so higher power or better antennas will be needed than for an equivalent line-of-sight path. Diffraction depends on the relationship between the wavelength and the size of the obstacle. In other words, the size of the obstacle in wavelengths. Lower frequencies diffract around large smooth obstacles such as hills more easily. For example, in many cases where VHF (or higher frequency) communication is not possible due to shadowing by a hill, one finds that it is still possible to communicate using the upper part of the HF band where the surface wave is of little use. Diffraction phenomena by small obstacles are also important at high frequencies. Signals for urban cellular telephony tend to be dominated by ground-plane effects as they travel over the rooftops of the urban environment. They then diffract over roof edges into the street, where multipath propagation, absorption and diffraction phenomena dominate. 1.6.2 Absorption Low-frequency radio waves travel easily through brick and stone and VLF even penetrates seawater. As the frequency rises, absorption effects become more important. At microwave or higher frequencies, absorption by molecular resonance in the atmosphere (mostly water, H2O and oxygen, O2) is a major factor in radio propagation. For example, in the 5860 GHz band, there is a major absorption peak which makes this band useless for long-distance use. This phenomenon was first discovered during radar research during World War II. Beyond around 400 GHz, the Earth's atmosphere blocks some segments of spectra while still passes somethis is true up to UV light, which is blocked by ozone, but visible light and some of the NIR is transmitted. Heavy rain and snow also affect microwave reception.
1.7 BROADCASTING STUDIO A broadcasting studio is a room in studio complex, which has been specially designed and constructed to serve the purpose of originating broadcasting programs. Whenever any musician sings and we sit front of a performing musician to listen to him, we enjoy the program by virtue of the superb qualities of our sensory organs namely ears. However, when we listen to the same program over the broadcasting chain at our home through domestic receivers, the conditions are entirely different. We as broadcasters, are continuously engaged in the task of ensuring the maximum pleasure for the listener at home when the artists are performing inside the studios. The broadcasting of a program from source to listener involves use of studios, microphones, announcer console, switching console, telephone lines / STL and Transmitter. Normally the programs originate from a studio centre located inside the city / town for the convenience of artists. The program could be either live or recorded. In some cases, the program can be from OB spot, such as commentary of cricket match etc. programmes that are to be relayed from other Radio Stations are directly received at the studio centre through RN terminal/telephone line. All these programmes are then selected and routed from studio to transmitting centre through broadcast quality telephone lines or studio transmitter microwave/VHF links.
Studio A broadcast studio is an acoustically treated room. It is necessary that the place where a program for broadcast purposes is being produced should be free from extraneous noise. This is possible only if the area of room is insulated from outside sound. Further, the microphone which is the first equipment that picks up the sound is not able to distinguish between wanted signals and will pick up the sound not only from the artists and the instruments but also reflections from the walls, marring the quality and clarity of the program. So the studios are to be specially treated to give an optimum reverberation time and minimum noise level. The entry to the studios is generally through sound isolating lobby called sound look. Outside of the every studio entrance, there is a warning lamp, which glows Red when the studio is ON-AIR. The studios have separate announcers booths attached to them where first level fading, mixing and cueing facilities are provided.
1.8 ANNOUNCER CONSOLE Most of the studios have an attached booth, which is called transmission booth or Announcer booth or playback studio. This is also acoustically treated and contains a mixing console called Announcer Console. The Announcer Console is used for mixing and controlling the programmes that are being produced in the studio using artist microphones, tape playback decks and turn tables / CD players, VU meter. This is also used for transmission of programmes either live or recorded . The technical facilities provided in a typical announcer booth, besides an Announcer Console are one or two microphones for making announcements, two turn tables for playing the gramophone records and two playback decks or tape recorders for recorded programmes on tapes. Recently CD players are also included in the Transmission Studios.
1.9 CONTROL ROOM For two or more studios set up,there would be a provision for further mixing which is provided by a control console manned by engineers, such control console is know as switching console. 1. Broad functions of switching console in control room are as follows: 2. Switching of different sources for transmission like ,O.Bs other satellite bosed relays. 3. Live broadcast from recording studio, level equalization and level control, quality monitoring. 4. Signaling to the source location. 5. Communication link between control room and different studios.
1. 10 ACOUSTIC TREATMENT Good acoustic is a pre-requisite of high quality broadcasting or recording. Acoustic treatment is provided in studios, control rooms, and other technical areas in order to achieve the acoustic conditions where have been found from experience to be suitable for the various types of programmes
REVERBERATION TIME
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The reverberant sound in an auditorium dies away with time as the sound energy is absorbed by multiple interactions with the surfaces of the room. In a more reflective room, it will take longer for the sound to die away and the room is said to be 'live'. In a very absorbent room, the sound will die away quickly and the room will be described as acoustically 'dead'. But the time for reverberation to completely die away will depend upon how loud the sound was to begin with, and will also depend upon the acuity of the hearing of the observer. In order to provide a reproducible parameter, a standard reverberation time has been defined as the time for the sound to die away to a level 60 decibels below its original level. The reverberation time can be modeled to permit an approximate calculation.
ABSORBERS Sound Absorbers are acoustical products that are unusually porous/soft surfaces that receive sound and help trap it before it leaves the product. These sound absorbers are typically used to treat the room they are applied in and help knock down reverberation or reflection off hard surfaces. They carry a comparative NRC number that helps determine the percentage of absorption at various key frequencies. Composite products are those that absorb reverberation and block sound and vibration from going to other areas The absorption coefficient of a material is a number between 0 and 1 which indicates the proportion of sound which is absorbed by the surface compared to the proportion which is reflected back into the room. A large, fully open window would offer no reflection as any sound reaching it would pass straight out and no sound would be reflected. This would have an absorption coefficient of 1. Conversely, a thick, smooth painted concrete ceiling would be the acoustic equivalent of a mirror, and would have an absorption coefficient very close to zero.
1.11 MODULATION TECHNIQUES EMPLOYED IN TRANSMITTERS AMPLITUDE MODULATION A large number of information sources are analog sources such as speech, images, and videos. Today, they are transmitted as analog signal transmission, especially in audio and video broadcast. The transmission of an analog signal is either by modulation of the amplitude, the phase, or the frequency of a sinusoidal carrier. Modulation is the process of putting information onto a high frequency carrier for transmission (frequency translation). Modulation occurs at the transmitting end of the system.
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At the transmitter, modulation process occurs when the transmission takes place at the high frequency carrier, which has been modified to carry the lower frequency information. At the receiver, demodulation takes place. Once this information is received, the lower frequency information must be removed from the high-frequency carrier.
There are several strong reasons why the modulation is important in analog communication system: a) The frequency of the human voice range from about 20 to 30 kHz. If every one transmitted those frequencies directly as radio waves, interference would cause them to be inefficient. so, we need a higher frequency to carry the baseband frequency) b) To overcome hardware limitation because transmitting such lower frequencies require antennas with miles in wavelength c) Modulation is to reduce noise which result in the optimization of signal to noise ratio, SNR d) To minimize the effects of interference
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In analog communication systems, we use the sinusoidal signal as the frequency carrier. And as the sinusoidal wave can be represented in three parameters; amplitude, frequency and phase, these parameters may be varied for the purpose of transmitting information giving respectively the modulation methods: a) Amplitude Modulation (AM) - the amplitude of the carrier waveform varies with the information signal b) Frequency Modulation (FM) - the frequency of the carrier waveform varies with the information signal c) Phase Modulation (PM) - the phase of the carrier waveform varies with the information signal
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DOUBLE SIDEBAND LARGE CARRIER (DSB-LC) Also known as full AM. In Amplitude Modulation, the baseband or the information signal is modulated to the carrier signal to produce the modulated sine wave. Consider the carrier signal,
The modulating signal (information signal),
Then, the amplitude-modulated can be expressed as
The amplitude term of the AM signal s(t) is
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where notation m in expression above is termed the modulation index. Simply a measurement for the degree of modulation and bears the relationship of the ratio of ,
The frequency description of the AM signal (i.e. frequency spectrum of AM) DSBLC:
FREQUENCY MODULATION
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A major problem in AM is its susceptibility to noise superimposed on the modulated carrier signal. To improve on this, the first frequency modulation (FM) radio communication system was developed in 1936, which is much more immune to noise than its AM counterpart. Unlike the AM, FM is difficult to treat mathematically due to the complexity of the sideband behavior resulting from the modulation process.
ANGLE MODULATION In AM, the amplitude of the carrier signal varies as a function of the amplitude of the modulating signal. But when the modulating signal can be conveyed by varying the frequency or phase of the carrier signal, we have angle modulation. Angle modulation can be subdivided by frequency modulation (FM) and phase modulation (PM). In Frequency Modulation, the carriers instantaneous frequency deviation from its unmodulated value varies in proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal In Phase Modulation, the carriers instantaneous phase deviation from its unmodulated value varies as a function of the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal. Below is the figures illustrates the FM and PM waveforms for sine wave
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FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF THE FM WAVE: Recall that in AM, the frequency component consists of a fixed carrier frequency with upper and lower sidebands equally displayed above and below the carrier frequency. The frequency spectrum of the FM wave is much more complex, that it will produce an infinite
number of sidebands Analysis of the frequency components and their respective amplitudes in FM wave requires use of a complex mathematical integral known as Bessel function of the first kind of the nth order. Evaluating this integral for sine wave modulation yields,
From above equation, shows that FM wave contains an infinite number of sideband component whose individual amplitudes are preceded by coefficients.
MODULATION INDEX: The modulation index for an FM signal is defined as the ratio of the maximum frequency deviation to the modulating signal frequency,
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SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER: We have discussed that superheterodyning is simply reducing the incoming signal is frequency by mixing. In a radio application we are reducing the AM or FM signal which is centered on the carrier frequency to some intermediate value, called the IF (intermediate frequency). For practical purposes, the superheterodyne receiver always reduces to the same value of IF. To accomplish this requires that we be able to continuously vary the frequency being mixed into the signal so as to keep the difference the same. Here's what the superheterodyne receiver looks like:
This is essentially the conventional receiver with the addition of a mixer and local oscillator. The local oscillator is linked to the tuner because they both must vary with the carrier frequency. For example, suppose you want to tune in a TV station at 235 MHz. The band-pass filter (which only permits signals in a small range about the center frequency to pass) must be centered at 235 MHz (or slightly higher in SSB). The local oscillator must be set to a frequency that will heterodyne the 235 MHz to the desired IF of 452 kHz (typical). This means the local oscillator must be set to 234.448 MHz (or alternatively to 235.452 MHz) so that the difference frequency will be exactly 452 kHz. The local oscillator must be capable of varying the frequency over the same range as the tuner; in fact, they vary the same amount. Therefore, the tuner and the local oscillator are linked so they operate together.
ADVANTAGES: Now, we easily see that this type of receiver can be constructed, but for what purpose? All we have accomplished is to reduce the frequency to the IF value. We still must process the signal as before. So why are so many receivers using the superheterodyne method? There are three main advantages, depending on the application used for: a) It reduces the signal from very high frequency sources where ordinary components wouldn't work (like in a radar receiver). b) It allows many components to operate at a fixed frequency (IF section) and therefore they can be optimized or made more inexpensively. c) It can be used to improve signal isolation by arithmetic selectivity.
1.12 ALLOCATION OF FREQUENCIES FOR BROADCASTING: LONG WAVE BAND This is not used in India .
MEDIUM WAVE (MW) BAND: MF - 30-3000 kHz 531 kHz to 1602 kHz Channel spacing - 9 kHz
SHORT WAVE (SW) BAND: HF - 3 -30 MHz
INTERNATIONAL BAND 39000 - 4000 kHz (75m) 5950 -6200 kHz 7100 -7300 kHz (41 m) 9500 - 9900 kHz 11650-12050 kHz (25 m) 13600 - 13800 kHz (19 m) 21450 - 21850 kHz (13 kHz) 25670 - 26000 kHz (11 m)
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TROPICAL BAND 2300-24900 kHz (120 m) 3200 - 34000 kHz (90 m) 4750 -4995 kHz 5005-5060 Channel spacing 5 kHz
VHF: 30 -300 MHz Band 1 40 -68 MHz TV channel # 4 Channel spacing -7MHz Band 2 88 -108 MHz FM sound Broad casting Channel spacing 100 kHz Band 3 174 -230 MHz TV CH # 5 CH # 12 Channel spacing -7MHz
UHF: 300 -3000MHz Band 4 470 -606 MHz CH # 21 CH # 37 Channel spacing -8MHz Band 5 606-798 MHz CH # 38 CH # 61 Channel spacing -8MHz
SHF: 3 -30 GHz S Band 2.5 -2.7 GHz (DL) C-Band 3.7 -4.2 GHz (DL) 5.9 - 6.4 (UL) EX.C Band 4.5 -4.85 GHz (DL) 6.2725 7.025(UL) Ku band 11.7 -12.2 GHz (DL)
1.13 WAVE PROPAGATION Propagation of radio waves takes place by different modes, the mechanism being different in each case. Based on that it can be classified as: 1. Ground (Surface) waves 2. Space (Tropospheric) waves 3. Sky (Ionospheric) waves
GROUND (SURFACE ) WAVES Medium waves (MW) propagates along the surface of the earth . it is vertically polarized to prevent short circuiting of the electric component . Medium waves induce currents in the ground over which it passes, thus losses some energy by absorption; which is made up to some extent by energy diffracted downward from the upper portion of the wave front. Because of diffraction the wave front gradually tilts over. As the wave propagates over the earth, its tilt causes greater short circulating of the electric component of the wave and hence field strength reduces and it will vanish at some distance. Range of such coverage depends on frequency, power of the transmitter, ground conditions like salinity and resistivity of the ground or water over which the waves propagate , and the water vapor content of the air. In MF primary service area is determined by the ground wave as is defined by the field strength of dbmicrov/m in day time and 71 dbmicrov/m in night time. In day time the field strength is steady since sky wave is completely absorbed by the D- layer of the atmosphere. During night D-layer disappears , reflections from E-layer affects microwave transmission and leads to increased range of coverage but at the same time interference possibilities also increases. When ground wave and sky wave signals are received, fading occurs in those areas where the signals are of comparable strength and the area is called as fading zone . this fading zone should be kept as far as possible from the transmitter, and the optimum antenna that achieves this objective is of height 0.55lambda,where lambda is the wavelength of the operating frequency.
Space (tropospheric) waves
27
They travel more or less in straight lines. As they depend on line of sight conditions, they are limited in their propagation by the curvature of the earth except in very unusual circumstances. Space wave can be direct or reflected from earth surface. Direct wave will be steady and strong. Radio wave normally goes in curved path due to refraction in troposphere.it can be noted that not only the transmitting antenna height,but also the receiving antenna height is equally important.
Sky (ionospheric) waves Short wave (sw) propagates as sky waves. Ionization of upper parts of the earth atmosphere plays a part in the propagation of the high frequency waves. Due to the energy received from the sun, the atmosphere molecules split into positive and negative ions and remain ionized for long period of time. The ionizing agents are ultra violet, alpha, beta and gamma radiations from the sun, cosmic rays , meterors etc. Physical properties like temperature, density and composition of the atmosphere varies. Hence, the ionosphere tends to be stratified rather than regular in its distribution.
Ionosphere Layers Ionosphere extends from 50 to 400 km and has got ionized particles. When sun rays passes through this ionosphere due to different densities imaginary but distinct layers are formed like D, E, F1 and F2 layers.
D LAYER It is the lower layer of the ionosphere. Its average height is 70km and average thickness is 10km . degree of ionization depends on the altitude of the sun above horizon. It disappears at night. It absorbs MF and HF waves to some extent and reflect some VLF and LF waves.
E LAYER
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This layer is above D layer.its average height is 100 km with a thickness of 25km. it also disappears at night as the ions recombine into molecules. This is due to the absence of sun at night when radiation is consequently no longer received. It aids MF surface wave propagation a little and reflects some HF waves in day time.
Es LAYER It is a sporadic E layer, a thin layer of very high density. Sometimes appears with E-layer. When Es layer occurs, it often persists during the night also. On the whole ,it does not have an important part in long distance propagation ,but it sometimes permits unexpectedly good reception it causes are not well known
F1 LAYER It exists at a height of 180 km. in day time and combined with the F2 layer at night time. In day time thickness is about 200 km. Although some HF waves are reflected from it. Most passes through it to be reflected by the F2 layer. Thus the main effect of F1layer is to provide more absorption for HF waves. Note that the absorption effect of F1 layer and any other layer is doubled because HF waves are absorbed on the way up and also on the way down .
F2 LAYER It is the most important reflecting medium for HF waves. Its approximate thickness can be upto 200km and its height range from 290 to 400km in day time. at night it falls to a height of about 300km .where it combines with the F1 layer. Its height and ionization density vary tremendously and depend upon the time of the day, the average ambient temperature and sunspot cycle. F2 layer persist at night unlike other layers due to a) Since this is the top most layer , it is also the most highly ionized and hence there is some chance for the ionization to remain at night, to some extent at least. b) Although ionization density is high in this layer, the actual air density is not and thus most of the molecules in it are ionized. Low air density gives the molecules a larger mean free path (the statistical average distance a molecule travels before colliding with another molecule).hence ionization does not disappear as soon as the sun sets. The better reception of HF waves at night is due to the combination of the F1 and F2 layers into one F1 layer, which causes noticeable absorption during the day.
The electromagnetic waves returned to earth by one of the layers of the ionosphere appears to have been reflected , but in actual, it is due to the refraction.
VIRTUAL HEIGHT As the electromagnetic wave is reflected , it is bent down gradually,rather than sharply. However , below the ionized layer , the path of the incident and reflected rays is exactly same as if reflection has taken place from a surface located at a greater height called the virtual height of this layer. Once the virtual height is known, the angle of incidence required for the wave to return to the ground at a selected spot can be calculated easily.
1.14 SHORT WAVE ANTENNA The short waves (3 to 30 MHZ) get attenuated very rapidly with distance if they travel close to the earth. On the other hand if they are directed towards the ionosphere, they could be reflected under certain conditions back to earth. Short waves therefore use the sky wave for propagation. The short wave antenna is in position even against the wind pressures. The most elementary of them used in broadcasting is the dipole whose physical length is half its wavelength and is center fed. Its impedance is about 73 ohms at its centre. The dipole, if kept in free space far away from the surface of the earth, the directional pattern is described by a figure of eight. The radiation pattern in three dimensional space is the figure of eight rotation about its center (about the length of the dipole). The radiation pattern for the dipole is modified from the free space conditions depending on its height above the earth. It may be seen that the radiation pattern towards the earth does not exist. As the height of the dipole above the earth is decreased from one wave length progressively to lambda/4 , the radiation pattern becomes a circle without any nulls. The three dimensional pattern is obtained by rotating horizontally the pattern about its point of contact at the dipole. It look, therefore, lambda/4 separation of dipole is most suitable for coverage around the transmitter. The useful range around the transmitter up to 800km. could be increased if more power could be directed around 30 to 40 elevation. Such a polar radiation pattern is obtained close to the transmitter; a slight decrease in level can be tolerated. It is for this reason that almost all the regional service sw antenna have dipole at (7/16) lambda above the earth. If the dipole antenna is folded n number of times, the drive point impedance becomes n square times 73 ohms,
without any change in radiation pattern. In the folded dipole configuration n being equal to two, the impedance becomes approximately 300 ohms which is close to the 4 wire feeder system and is easy to match. The folded dipole therefore, is widely in the network.
SW ANTENNA ARRAYS SW antenna array can be formed by stacking a number of radiation elements vertically and horizontally such that the effective polar diagram of all the elements taken together provides desired high gain and directional characteristics. Such an array system can further be provided with reflecting elements to increase the directivity further in the desired direction. Increasing the vertical stacking reduces the angle of maximum radiation but introduces lobes at higher angles. Increasing the number of horizontal elements reduces the width of the beam.
1.15 CONCLUSION At the end of five days of training, we were in a position to compare and analyse the theoretical concepts and practical broadcasting procedures and considerations. The control room, recording room, various consoles and the studio operations were explained in detail. We came to know about the historic and strategic importance of AIR and the tireless efforts that it takes to refine itself in this competitive world. Indeed, the five day training at the Prasar Bharathi in Puducherry was very useful and informative.
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CHAPTER -2
INDUSTRIAL VISIT
VISIT DETAILS
NAME
DOORDARSHAN KENDRA
ADDRESS
PRASAR BHARATI, DOORDARSHAN KENDRA, PUDUCHERRY.
DATE OF VISIT
07.06.2010 to 11.06.2010
DURATION OF VISIT
5 DAYS
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OVERVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 FEED AND LNBC
2.3 TYPES OF MODULATION
2.4 RF TRANSMISSION
2.5 COLOUR TV SYSTEM
2.6 ANTENNA
2.7 TVRO SYSTEM
2.8 FREE DTH FROM DOORDARSHAN
2.9 CONCLUSION
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2.1 INTRODUCTION
Television has become a wide ranging and powerful medium of mass communication in this ever shrinking world. It had now become possible to have an international programs with global coverage by linking national TV systems through satellites. Communication satellites in geo stationary orbits have opened new vistas for global television broadcasting. Direct to Home (DTH) broadcasting satellites for television have been launched by several countries including India. These satellites emit high power radiations enough to be received directly through low cost medium to small size dish antennas on conventional TV receivers augmented by a front end converter. The INSAT 2 & 4 series satellites launched by India are widely being used for TV programme and for other communications.
SATELLITE CHANNELS
The frequencies for satellite communication as regulated by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) are broadly as shown: Band of frequencies in GHz S-Band 2-4 C-Band 3-8 Ku-Band 10-14 10-12 12-14 Ku Low Band 10.7-11.7 22Khz 5.925-6.425 3.4-4.2 5.15 5.8-6.0 Uplink frequency in GHz 2.5-2.7 Downlink frequency in GHz 3.65 L.O Frequency in GHz
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Ku High Band
11.7-12.75
9.75 10.6
OFF ON
2.2 FEED AND LNBC:

After reflection from the PDA the signal strength is maximum at the focus of PDA, so a feed is placed at focus points with the help of mounting plate. For the reception of S-band signal we use helical feed while for C-band signal we use polarized circular feed. For amplification and down conversion of the received signal the LNBC (low noise block down converter) is connected at the output of the feed. LNBC down converts the signal in the IF ranges of 950 MHz to 1150 MHz for S-band and 950 MHz to 1750 MHz for C-band signal. The local oscillator frequency of S-band LNBC is 3650 MHz and that of C-band signal is 5150 MHz.22V DC
supply is fed to the LNBC through RF coaxial cable connecting the satellite TV receivers. The down converted IF signal from LNBC is fed to satellite receiver for further processing.
DIGITAL SATELLITE TV RECEIVERS:

A digital satellite TV receiver is convenient product that allows us to view a variety of programme provided through satellite. The satellite receiver accepts signal in the range of 950 MHz to 2150 MHz from LNBC with level of -25 dbm to -65 dbm. These are also called integrated receiver decoders (IRDs).These are suitable for single carrier per channel (SCPC) and multiple channel per carrier (MCPC) applications. These are capable of decoding the components of digitized video signal encoded in the format 4:2:0 /4:2:2 which corresponds to the video signal components such as the luminance signal(y) and the chrominance signal(R-Y) and (B-Y).The purpose of these receivers are to process the IF signal received from the LNBC, demodulate it and provide high quality analog video and studio signals. These receivers also provide automatic support for PAL/NTSC system.
VIDEO SIGNAL:
The video signal output from a video camera and other video equipments is of composite nature. It consists of the following components: 1. Luminance (brightness) information 2. Color information (Chroma signal) 3. H and V blanking pulses 4. H and V sync pulses 5. Color burst signal (about 10 cycles of color subcarrier signal).
COLOUR BURST SIGNAL

In order minimize the subcarrier interference in the reproduced picture; the colour subcarrier is totally suppressed in the Chroma balanced modulator which gives out the chroma sidebands. For demodulation of the Chroma signals, it is necessary to regenerate it in the receiver. The subcarrier regenerated at the receiver chroma decoder must be exactly of same frequency and phase as that of the subcarrier at the transmitter encoder. To ensure this, short train of some 10 cycles, called Color Burst is sent along with the sync signals for phase comparison.
VIDEO BANDWIDTH
The composite video signal is allowed a 5MHZ bandwidth with the highest video frequency of 5MHZ. low frequency content is right down to dc or zero frequency. This large video bandwidth necessitates the use of VHF-UHF frequencies as RF carrier frequencies in terrestrial transmission.
2.3 MODULATION
Modulation is a process of superimposing information on a carrier by varying one of its parameters (amplitude, frequency or phase).
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NEED FOR MODULATION

Modulating the signal over higher frequency can reduce antenna size. To differentiate among transmissions(stations) Maximum to minimum frequency ratio can be reduced to minimum by modulating the signal on a high frequency.
TYPES OF MODULATION
In general, there are three types of modulation: a) Amplitude Modulation b) Angle Modulation c) Pulse Modulation
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Amplitude modulation (AM) is a technique used in electronic communication, most commonly for transmitting information via a radio carrier wave. AM works by varying the strength of the transmitted signal in relation to the information being sent. For example, changes in the signal strength can be used to reflect the sounds to be reproduced by a speaker.
GENERATION OF AM SIGNAL
There are two methods of generation of AM signals: 1. Low level modulation 2. High level modulation
LOW LEVEL MODULATION

Here a small audio stage is used to modulate a low power stage, the output of this stage is then amplified using a linear RF amplifier. The advantage of using a linear RF amplifier is that the smaller early stages can be modulated, which only requires a small audio amplifier to drive the modulator.
HIGH LEVEL MODULATION

One advantage of using class C amplifiers in a broadcast AM transmitter is that only the final stage needs to be modulated, and that all the earlier stages can be driven at a constant level. These class C stages will be able to generate the drive for the final stage for a smaller DC power input. However, in many designs in order to obtain better quality AM the penultimate RF stages will need to be subject to modulation as well as the final stage. This is best suited for higher power amplification. Medium wave and short wave transmission use this method of modulation.
NON-LINEAR AMPLITUDE MODULATOR

This modulator utilizes the non-linearity of the active device characteristics near the origin. It generates many additional frequencies along with AM modulated signal. Hence a band pass filter centered at carrier frequency fc and having a pass band of width of modulating signal fm Hz or somewhat wider is used to get AM signal. This is better suited for low level modulation.
MODULATED CLASS C AMPLIFIER

This is a linear method of AM modulation. In the non linear amplitude modulation, valve circuit works as a class amplifier. Its input circuit is driven by a source at carrier frequency fo. The supply voltage Ebb is varied at a slow rate with respect to carrier frequency. The envelope of
variation is that of modulating signal. The plate voltage Eb is varied at the modulating rate. The modulator is a class B audio amplifier supplying the modulating signal in series with Ebb. This is suitable for high level modulation.
FREQUENCY MODULATION
If the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal (information),it is called frequency modulation.
Band Width of Fm Signal

Band width can be defined as that frequency range which accommodates the carrier and the closest side bands contributing at least 98% of the total signal power (Carson rule). BW = 2 (mf+1) fm = 2(mf* fm+fm)= 2 (del f+ fm)
PHASE MODULATION
If the phase of the carrier is varied in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating (information), it is called phase modulation. Since this modulation has got minimum use.
2.4 RF TRANSMISSION OF VISION ANS SOUND SIGNALS

TV Transmission takes place in VHF Bands I and III and UHF Bands IV and V. Picture is amplitude modulated and sound is frequency modulated on different carriers separated by 5.5MHz. Also for video amplitude modulation negative modulation is employed because of the following main advantages. Pictures contain more information towards white than black and hence the average power is lower resulting in energy saving. (Bright picture points correspond to a low carrier amplitude and sync pulse to maximum carrier amplitude).
Interference such as car ignition interfering signals appear as black which is less objectionable. Picture information is in linear portion of modulation characteristic and hence does not suffer compression. Any compression that may take place is confined to sync pulse only. The design of AGC circuit for TV receiver is simpler.
VESTIGIAL SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION SIGNAL:

Amplitude modulation of the carrier with the video signal produces two sidebands, each 5 MHZ wide. This double sideband vision signal will occupy a 10MHZ frequency-range spectrum with the carrier at the Centre. Because of the extensive bandwidth requirements of the video signal, it is desirable to make use of a bandwidth saving technique. The signal information is fully contained in each of the two side bands of the modulated carrier and provided the carrier is present, one side band may be suppressed altogether. The single side band transmission technique can reduce the bandwidth requirement to half viz. 5MHZ. however, it is impossible to design a filter which will cut out the unwanted band while passing the carrier frequencies and low frequency components of the other side band, without objectionable phase distortion. As a compromise, a part of only one side band is suppressed. The transmitter signal consists of one complete sideband together with carrier, and a vestige of the partially suppressed side band.
PROGRAM AMPLIFIER:
This allows a line-level audio signal to be routed to multiple destinations without introducing inexistable multiple pads. It incorporates built-in-filters to generate the high frequency pre-emphasis that characterizes the FM transmission. Each output incorporates a 50 micro sec HF pre-emphasis shelving network. This typically drives an FM transmitter or the aural modulator of a TV transmitter. Input level: 0 dbm nominal Gain adjustment: +12 db/-8db
STANDARD CHANNEL CHARACTERISTICS

In the CCIR system B-standards for the TV channel the upper side is fully transmitter while the lower side and is passed up to only 0.75MHz. The end slopes are allowed 0.5MHz so that the lower side band is suppressed fully at 1.25 MHz while the upper side band is fully attenuated at 5.5 MHZ. The sound carrier with frequency modulation carrier deviation up to 50KHZ is positioned at the extremely of the fully transmitted sideband at 5.5MHZ with respect the visual carrier. This is a logical place for it to minimize the interference between the sound and picture signals. The channel width is thus 7MHZ, from -1.25MHZ to +5.75MHZ with respect to the picture carrier, allowing for a guard band of 0.25MHZ as separation between adjacent channels.
2.5 COLOUR TV SYSTEM

In TV camera the scene is focused on the photosensitive surface of pick up device and optical image is formed. The photoelectric properties of the pick-up device convert the optical image to electric charge image depending on the light and shade of the scene(picture elements). Now it is necessary to pick up this information and transmit it. For this purpose scanning is employed. Electron beam scans the charge image and produces optical image. The electron beam scans the image line by line and field by field to provide signal variations in a successive order.
TELEVISION CHANNEL FOR TERRESTRIAL TRANSMISSION

For television broadcasting, channels have been assigned in the VHF and UHF ranges. The allocated frequencies are Lower VHF range Upper VHF range UHF range UHF range Band I Band III Band IV Band V 41-68 MHz 174-230 MHz 470-606 MHz 606-902 MHz
Total channel bandwidth in the UHF range is 8MHz.

The carrier stability has to be within +1KHz or -1KHz operating at different place causes co channel interference due to freak distant reception, the transmitters may have offset operation by operating their picture carrier shifted +(2/3*15625)Hz or-(2/3*15625)Hz with respect to the assigned frequencies for a particular station, in order to reduce the interference effects. Specifications of CCIR-B Standard adopted by India:
2.6 ANTENNA
Antenna is usually a metallic device(as a rod or a wire) used for radiating or receiving electromagnetic waves. The radio frequency power developed at the final stage of a transmitter is delivered through cables/feeders, without themselves consuming any power to the transmitting antenna. This travels in the free space in the form of radio waves (electromagnetic waves). The receiving antenna picks up the radio waves and delivers useful signal at the input of a receiver for reception of signals. The transmitting and receiving antennae are reciprocal in the sense, any characteristics of the antenna in general applies equally to both. The plane containing the electric vector in the electromagnetic wave describes the polarization of the radiated wave .Ideally maximum signal is coupled is the antennae(Both transmitting and receiving) are oriented in the plane of polarization of the electromagnetic wave. A vertical radiator radiates/ picks up vertically polarized wave, horizontal radiator radiates/picks up horizontally polarized wave.
HP: The electric vector is in horizontal plane. TV broadcasting in India use horizontal
polarization.
VP: The electric vector is in vertical plane. The self-radiating MW masts of AIR radiate VP
waves. Electric supply undertakings use vertical polarization for their VHF communications.
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CP: The electric vector in the circular polarization rotates in the circular motion. INSAT
downlink signals aare left hand circularly polarized.
PARABOLIC DISH ANTENNA

Parabolic dish antenna (PDA) is widely used to receive the satellite signal. Gain of PDA is directly proportional to the square of frequency being received. G=E(D/ )^2. Where G is antenna gain relative to an isotropic antenna E- antenna efficiency D- diameter of the PDA -wavelength of the incoming signal. Focal Length Ratio=0.4XD The purpose of PDA is to reflect the RF waves received from the satellite to a point called local point of the PDA.
VSWR (VOLTAGE STANDING WAVE RATIO):

When a long cable is terminated with its characteristic impedance, it causes no change in the input impedance and there is no reflected energy since all the transmitter energy is absorbed in the termination. Such a terminated cable is said to be matched. When cables are not terminated with their characteristic impedance they are said to be mismatched and have standing waves in the cable because of reflected energy. The mismatch of impedance is measured by SWR (Standing wave ratio) is given by the ratio of maximum to minimum magnitudes of current or voltage on the line having standing waves.
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Following types of LPT antennae are being used in Doordarshan Network :
a) Band III BEL makes half wave dipole V antenna. b) Crossed folded dipole (turnstile) Halios make Band-III antenna. c) Folded dipole (turnstile) Scala make Band-I antenna.
2.7 TVRO SYSTEM:

Presently Doordarshan is up linking its national metro and regional services to INSAST3C (74 E) and INSAT-3A (93.5E) and INSAT 2E (83E). Downlink frequency bands being used are C-Band (3.4 4.2 GHz) and Ex-C Band (4.5 - 4.8 GHz). A simple block diagram of a satellite earth station uplink/down link. Typical satellite TV signal parameters are as follows: Program up linking station satellite Transponder Band width Uplink frequency Downlink frequency Transmission mode Downlink polarization Symbol rate DDK, Chennai Instat 3 A(93.5 deg) C 12(wide beam 12MHz 6056 MHz 3831 MHz MCPC Digital Linear vertical 8.6 Mega Symbol per second
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Video uplink format Forward error correction
4:2:0 3/4
HIGH POWER TV TRANSMITTER

Design: All the TV transmitters have the same basic design. They consist of an exciter followed by power amplifiers which boost the exciter power to the required level. The exciter stage determines the quality of a transmitter. In HPTs the vision and sound carriers can be generated, modulated and amplified separately and then combined in the diplexer at the transmitter output.
STUDIO CENTRE
A Studio Centre of doordarshan has the following objectives: To originate programmes from studios either for live telecast or for recording on a video tape. To knit various other sources of programs available at the production desk i.e. camera output from studios, feed from other Kendra, outdoor, playback from pre-recorded tape, film based programs slides, video graphics and characters generator etc. This knitting or live editing includes generation of special effects an desired transitions between various sources. Processing/ distribution of different sources to various destinations in technical areas. Routing of mixed programme for recording / transmitting via master switching room and micro wave to the transmitter or any desired destinations.
STUDIO OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS

The technical requirements of radio broadcasting studio is as follows:
1. Microphones 2. Record cum playback machines (Magnetic tape recorders, turn tables, CD players). 3. Mixing machine to interconnect, to operate and control the mic and other machines.
Application of operational Amplifier

Operational Amplifiers have been extensively used in studio equipments for amplifying the different low level signals (-70 dbm either voice or instruments) picked up by the microphone to the audible level of 0 dbm. The different configurations are: 1. Voltage follower 2. Inverting amplifier 3. Non-inverting amplifier 4. Integrator 5. Summing amplifier 6. Precision rectifier 7. Comparator 8. Low pass filters
2.8 FREE DTH FROM DOORDARSHAN

19 Doordharshan channels, 14 private channels and 12 radio channels: transponder polarization d/l freq.(MHz) C1 C2 C3 H V V 12534 12647 12729 symbol rate 27.5 27.5 27.5 1. 2. 60cm 90cm fec sl.no. dish size
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TV CHANNELS:
RADIO CHANNELS:
Entertainment: DD(National) DD(India) DD(Bharati) Sports News Educational Parliament DD(sports) DD(News) DD(Gyandarshan) DD Loksabha DD Rajyasabha
Vividh Bharati Tamil Telugu Mararthi Gujarathi Punjabi FM Gold FM Rainbow Kannada Bangla Hindi North East
) ) ) 12647MHz ) ) ) 12729 MHz ) ) ) ) ) 125343 Mhz )
REGIONAL LANGUAGE CHANNELS: DD (Bangala) DD (Chandana) DD (Gujarati) DD (Kashir) DD (Malayalam)

DD (North East) DD (Oriya) DD (Podhigai) DD (Punjabi) DD (Sahayadri) DD (Saptagiri)
SATELLITE: NSS-6, Geo, 95 deg east, Dish: 2 feet + LNB STB, low loss cable
2.9 CONCLUSION
Thus, television has been widely used in the telecommunication medium thus aiding in the transfer of information from the transmitter to the receiver system. We acquired a detailed knowledge on the mechanism of data transfer between the two ends of the communication system. The different types of modulation schemes employed and the various stages involved in the transmission process were briefly explained. Further more details regarding tuning was thrown upon and the usage of DTH from doordarshan was illustrated which was highly beneficial to us.
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CHAPTER 4 INDUSTRIAL VISIT-3
MANATEC ELECTRONICS
NAME OF THE COMPANY: MANATEC ELECTRONICS
ADDRESS
: Industrial Estate, Thattanchavady, Puducherry - 605 009.
DATE OF VISIT
: 29-05-2010 to 05-06-2010
DURATION OF VISIT
: 8 Days
49
OVERVIEW
3.1 INTRODUCTION 3.2 AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS 3.3 AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS MARKET: TM AND TAM REVENUE FORECASTS (INDIA), 20032015 3.4 APPLICATIONS OF MODERN AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS 3.5 WHEEL ALIGNMENT 3.6 ALIGNMENT & BALANCE 3.7 PRODUCTS AND THEIR SPECIFICATIONS: 3.8 CONCLUSIONS
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3.1 INTRODUCTION: Modern automotive systems are rapidly becoming highly defined and characterized by embedded electronics and software. With new technologies in the vehicle the industry is facing new opportunities and also new challenges. Electronics have improved the performance of vehicles and at the same time, new more complex applications are introduced. Examples of high level applications include adaptive cruise control and electronic stability programs (ESP). Further, a modern vehicle does not have to be merely a means of transportation, but can be a web integrated media centre. Based on the idea that OEMs should stay vehicle centric, the major problem for OEMs is integration. The integration contains internal integration of vehicular systems, as well as external integration to allow media developers to gain access to the passenger cabin. In order to cope with the introduced complexity, new designs and processes are necessary both for hardware and software architectures. Many new functions are introducing autonomy in safety critical systems like brakes and steering which introduces requirements for dependable systems. The integration requires a design process that creates well defined systems supported by modeling and validation techniques. Current trends indicate that more hierarchical architectures will be utilized and also more high level modeling of system functions. A good integration would be supported if open industry standards and efficient power networks can be accomplished. If the complexity can be mastered there are few obstacles on the road to a digital revolution. It will be possible to architect efficient information and energy flows and the experience of transportation will never be the same again. 3.2 AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS Automobile industry is one of the major contributors to the manufacturing industry in the country with an annual output of about $15 billion. The Indian automotive market has emerged as one of the fast growing markets globally. It is already the fourth largest in Asia, after Japan, Korea, and China. Globally, India has emerged as the second largest two wheeler manufacturers and one of the top ten car manufacturers. Indian car and utility vehicles production has crossed 1.2 million units in 2004 and is expected to reach 2.8 million units by 2010 and 5.2 million units in 2015. The Indian 2 wheeler production has crossed 6.5 million units in 2004 and is forecast to reach 12 million in 2010 and 20 million in 2015. This tremendous growth potential in the automobile production offers huge opportunity for the auto components industry and semiconductor suppliers for the automotive industry.
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The Total Market (TM) for semiconductors in India in 2005 is estimated at $2.82 billion and the automotive electronics market accounts for about 3.5 percent of the TM. The Total Available Market (TAM) for semiconductors in India was valued at $1.14 billion in 2005 and the automotive electronics market accounts for 5.1 percent of the TAM. The manufacturing activity in the automotive electronics industry is confined to components such as CDI and Flashers with lower semiconductor content. Manufacturing in EMS and ABS are expected to pickup during the forecast period which would result in higher TAM. The study is comprehensive in every sense in covering the automotive electronics segment. The end-user product groups covered in the study under automotive electronics market include Instrument clusters, Engine Management Systems (EMS), Capacitive Discharge Ignition (CDI), Flashers, Regulators, Alternators, Wipers, Remote key, Taxi Meters, Power windows, Glow plug timers, Electronic power steering, Anti-lock Braking Systems (ABS) and Air bag control units. EMS has the largest share in TM for 2004 in automotive electronics followed by the clusters, CDI and Flashers. Together, these 4 products account for about 67 percent of the automotive TM in 2004. Microcontrollers lead the semiconductor market in automotive electronics market followed by discretes and sensors. While the share of discrete in automotive electronic market is expected to decline, those of the microcontrollers and sensors are expected to increase. The shift from the analog to digital components and the growth of products such as EMS, ABS and air bags are aiding to this trend. The semiconductor market for automotive electronics market has benefitted from the robust growth in the automotive industry. This market has a higher TAM proportion in comparison with some of the other markets as the market offers volumes of scale comparable to major global markets. India is fast becoming a hub of small car production and also for exports. Indian manufacturers are designing low cost, but good quality products to cater to its large middle class and rural population. Accelerated growth of domestic automotive electronics market and emerging export opportunities are expected to drive the semiconductor consumption in automotive electronics market in future. 3.3 AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS FORECASTS (INDIA), 20032015 MARKET: TM AND TAM REVENUE
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3.4 APPLICATIONS OF MODERN AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS Automotive electronics applications address a wide range of market segments and business models. Each of these segments represents different classes of applications. Besides being an important factor for business and marketing strategies the division into different types of applications makes it possible to underline differences in technology needs for each application. These technology needs can also be classified. This section outlines two possible business dimensions and then discusses how these dimensions influence the technological needs within the vehicle.
A business profile is given by addressing the target and timing of the services employed by the applications. Services are the components of applications; applications include one or more services. The target of a service is the vehicle or the people in the vehicle. The timing of a
service indicates when the service is used, while the car is driven or not. A business profile can be derived for an application based on the services that the application employs. A set of applications with a certain business profile needs to comply with technology requirements in the form of criticality, related to dependability, and connectivity related to communication standards and telematics.
3.5 WHEEL ALIGNMENT
Wheel alignment is part of standard automobile maintenance that consists of adjusting the angles of the wheels so that they are set to the car maker's specification. The purpose of these adjustments is to reduce tire wear, and to ensure that vehicle travel is straight and true (without "pulling" to one side). Alignment angles can also be altered beyond the maker's specifications to obtain a specific handling characteristic. Motorsport and off-road applications may call for angles to be adjusted well beyond "normal" for a variety of reasons. Primary angles The primary angles are the basic angle alignment of the wheels relative to each other and to the car body. These adjustments are the camber, caster and toe. On some cars, not all of these can be adjusted on every wheel. These three parameters can be further categorized into front and rear, so summarily the parameters are: Front: Caster (right& left) Front: Camber (right & left) Front: Toe (left, right & total) Rear: Camber (left & right) Rear: Toe (left, right & total) Rear: Thrust angle Secondary angles The secondary angles include numerous other adjustments, such as: SAI (left & right) Included angle (left & right) Toe out on turns (left & right) Maximum Turns (left & right) Toe curve change (left & right) Track width difference Wheel base difference
Front ride height (left & right) Rear ride height (left & right) Frame angle Setback (front & rear) is often referred as a wheel alignment angle. However setback simply exists because of the measuring system and does not have any specification from car manufacturers. Measurement A camera unit (sometimes called a "head") is attached to a specially designed clamp which holds on to a wheel. There are usually four camera units in a wheel alignment system (a camera unit for each wheel). The camera units communicate their physical positioning with respect to other camera units to a central computer which calculates and displays how much the camber, toe and caster are misaligned. Often with alignment equipment, these "heads" can be a large precision reflector. In this case, the alignment "tower" contains the cameras as well as arrays of LEDs. This system flashes one array of LEDs for each reflector whilst a camera centrally located in the LED array "looks for" an image of the reflectors patterned face. These cameras perform the same function as the other style of alignment equipment, yet alleviate numerous issues prone to relocating a heavy precision camera assembly on each vehicle serviced.
3.6 ALIGNMENT & BALANCE
Wheel alignment and Wheel Balancing are two totally different things, but many people often get them confused. In a nutshell, wheel alignment consists of adjusting the angles of the wheels so that they are perpendicular to the ground and parallel to each other. The purpose of these adjustments is maximum tire life and a vehicle that tracks straight and true when driving along a straight and level road. Wheel Balancing, on the other hand allows the tires and wheels to spin without causing any vibrations. This is accomplished by checking for any heavy spots on the wheel-tire combination and compensating for it by placing a measured lead weight on the opposite site of the wheel from where the heavy spot is. The symptoms of a car that is out of alignment are: Uneven or rapid tire wear Pulling or drifting away from a straight line Wandering on a straight level road Spokes of the steering wheel off to one side while driving on a straight and level road. The symptoms of a wheel that is out of balance are:
Vibration in the steering wheel at certain highway speeds. Vibration in the seat or floorboard at certain highway speeds. Scalloped or cupped wear pattern on the tires Wheel Alignment: To find out if you need an alignment, first check each tire and look for uneven wear patterns. The problem with this method, however, is that if you can see a wear pattern like the ones listed below, it may be too late to save that tire. This is why it is a good idea to have your alignment checked periodically. At each tire, take a coin and insert it in the tread at the inside, center and outside.
If the tread is deeper on the edges than in the center, the tire is over inflated.
If the tread is deeper in the center than the edges, the tire is under inflated.
If the tread is deeper on one side than the other, have your wheel alignment checked soon.
Run your hand back and forth across the tread, being careful not to cut yourself on any debris or exposed steel belt wire. If the tread is smooth in one direction, but jagged in the
other you have what is called a "saw-tooth" wear pattern which is caused by a toe-in problem. Have the alignment checked as soon as possible as this condition causes rapid tire wear. The first two conditions do not call for a wheel alignment but the second two do. If these wear patterns are pronounced, you should replace the tires or move them to the rear before aligning the car. Ask your alignment specialist to be sure. Another indication of an out-of-alignment condition is a car that continuously drifts or pulls to one side of the road when you let go of the wheel. A car that is hard to keep in a straight line without constant steering corrections is also a candidate. These conditions may or may not also contribute to premature tire wear. A wheel alignment cannot be done on a car with loose or worn front end parts. The technician will first check for worn parts and inform you of any problems before beginning the alignment. The best type of wheel alignment is a four wheel alignment. Many cars today have adjustable rear alignment settings, but even for cars without adjustments in the rear, a four wheel alignment will allow the technician to identify any rear tracking problems and compensate for them with adjustments to the front. After the wheel alignment is finished, you should drive the car on a straight and level road and check that the car goes straight and that the steering wheel is in the proper position with the spokes level. If you notice a problem, take the car back and have the technician drive it and finetune the alignment settings. Wheel Balance: Out-of-balance tires will cause a car to vibrate at certain speeds, usually between 50 and 70 mph. A tire is out of balance when one section of the tire is heavier than the others. One ounce of imbalance on a front tire is enough to cause a noticeable vibration in the steering wheel at about 60 mph. To balance a wheel, the technician will mount it on a balancing machine which spins the wheel to locate the heavier part. He will then compensate for the heavy part by attaching a lead weight on the opposite side. Many people are pleasantly surprised at how smooth their car drives after balancing all four wheels. Most high quality tires will hold their balance fairly well and go out of balance very gradually. If you notice a vibration that wasn't there the day before, it is possible that one of the lead balancing weights fell off. If you feel the vibration mostly in the steering wheel, the problem
is most likely in a front wheel. If the vibration is mostly in the seat, the problem is probably in the rear. For those of you who are very sensitive about vibrations and your shop can't seem to get that last bit of vibration out, check to see if you have locking wheel lugs. Some locking lugs are as much as 1.5 ounces heavier than the other lug nuts which translates to about 1/2 ounce at the wheel rim. Try putting a 1/2 ounce weight opposite the locking lug and see if it helps.
3.7 PRODUCTS AND THEIR SPECIFICATIONS: WHEEL ALIGNERS

R Pac Premium Plus (8x6) CCD RF Wheel Aligner suitable for Cars & Light commercial vehicles with 8 CCD Cameras and 6 Inclinometers. High end model which suits for any garage / authorized dealer points to perform wheel alignment in very short time. Four Compact Measuring Heads 8 CMOS / CCD Cameras and 6 Inclinometers Camber / Caster / Toe / Front Setback / Thrust Angle Kingpin Inclination / Spoiler Program Rear Setback / Track width difference Wheel Rim size 12 - 20 Excess Toe warning Four Point Run out Compensation 18.5 LCD Monitor
WHEEL BALANCERS
WB VL 65 Commercial wheel balancers which offer features required by most of the operators. Precision ensured through automatic measurement of distance. Quick balancing process due to automatic start when the wheel guard is lowered Videographic display Suitable for Car and LCV wheels Max. Wheel weight 65 kgs. Wheel Rim dia 10 - 24 Two modes of measurement - Normal & Fine Split weight mode (spokes program)
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Unit conversion in grams / ounces Position accuracy of 1 Self checking on-line error display Mid-Centering device for accuracy Quick change Lock Nut to ensure fast mounting & removal of wheels
WB-DL-65 Commercial digital wheel balancers which offers features required by most of the operators. Precision ensured through automatic measurement of distance. Quick balancing process due to automatic start when the wheel guard is lowered.
Digital display Suitable for Car and LCV wheels Max. Wheel weight 65 kgs. Wheel Rim dia 10 - 24 Two modes of measurement - Normal & Fine Split weight mode (spokes program) Unit conversion in grams / ounces Position accuracy of 1 Self checking on-line error display Mid-Centering device for accuracy Quick change Lock Nut to ensure fast mounting & removal of wheels
ME - HCV WB230 Wheel balancers specially meant for high precision balancing of truck & bus wheels. Suitable for buses and trucks Low speed Microprocessor electronics Double LED display Self calibration and self diagnostic Manual input of wheel data Automatic Start and stop ALU programs Brake pedal mounting wheels Truck flange 3-4-5 holes included
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Technical Specification Rim Diameter - 8" - 26" (200 mm - 650 mm) Wheel Diameter (max) - 34" (850 mm) Wheel Weight (max) - 200 Kg Measuring time - 10 - 25 seconds Balancing Speed - 82RPM (50Hz) Resolution - 2 grams Display LED Power Source - 440V, 50Hz, 3Ph Motor Power - 0.35 HP, 0.26 KW Power requirement - 200 Watt
ME - MCWB-202 Ergonomically designed wheel balancers exclusively for balancing motor cycle wheels. User friendly technology, ready for the future Minimized space requirements Precision mechanics
Technical Specification Power source 12 V DC with AC/DC adaptor Power consumption 5W Balancing speed 75 - 125 RPM Rim diameter 8 - 26 Wheel diameter (max) w/o wheel guard 49 Wheel width (max) 16 Wheel weight (Max) 50 Kg. Measuring time 4 - 15 secs Accuracy Plus minus 1 gram
TYRE CHANGERS
TC-XL-40 The side swinging mounting arm enables the user to install it near the wall occupying very less space. The specially designed bead breaker handles rims very gently and safely. Suitable for car and LCV tyres Side swing mounting arm
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Pneumatic twin cylinders for firm clamping Four jaw self centering chuck Alloy wheel plastic protector Bead breaking by pneumatically operated cylinders Clockwise and anticlockwise rotation of turn table Built in FRL (Filter, Regulator and Lubricator) Motorcycle adopter (optional)
Tyremate 200TL The pedal-controlled tilt back post of this tyre changer and the four ergonomic pedals stand for user-friendly operation Suitable for Car and LCV Tyres Pneumatically operated tilting type vertical column Pneumatic Twin Cylinders for firm clamping Four Jaw self centering chuck Alloy Wheel Plastic protector for jaws Sliding horizontal arm with pneumatic locking system Pneumatic locking of Hexagonal shaft Clockwise and Anticlockwise rotation of turn table using Electric Motor Bead breaking by pneumatically operated cylinders Tubeless tyre operation with Inflating device and Manometer Built-in Air Tank for Tubeless operation Individual pedal for vertical column tilting Individual pedal for Tubeless tyre Inflation Built-in FRL (Filter, Regulator and Lubricator)
TYRE INFLATORS
Air-o-jet D User friendly software, high precision sensors and high quality solenoid valves ensures safe inflation & deflation. Useful for garages, fuel outlets, oil companies etc. Double display Built-in self calibration Self checking on-line Error code display IP65 compliant (Dust & Water proof) 4 Digit 1.2 height LCD with 0.5 PSI Resolution
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Very Intelligent Software
Air-o-jet H Exclusively designed for inflating / deflating truck tyres within few seconds, using a special software. Specially designed for HCV to reduce the inflation time Also suitable for LCVs Double display Built-in self calibration Self checking on-line Error code display IP65 compliant (Dust & Water proof) 4 Digit 1.2 height LCD with 0.5 PSI Resolution Very Intelligent Software
NITROGEN GENERATOR
ME NFS308 A/EN Fully Automatic nitrogen generator uses atmospheric air for nitrogen generation and shuts of automatically after sufficient nitorgen generation. Preferred over the conventional tyre inflators. Suitable for Car's & LCV's. Automatic Nitrogen generator. Automatic shut-off after nitrogen generation. Two Sets of large capacity CMS filter. Two Stage pre-filters for water/oil separator. Automatic vacuum generator to extract air out from the tyre. Automatic tyre inflation under set-up pressure. Automatic alarm for any error and work finish. Record last time setting data. Audible and visual of end of nitrogen generation and inflation. High precision and full automatic water/oil separator, it can drain the water out automatically at any time. Large backlight LED for indicating pressure, time & nitrogen purity. Equipped with independent backup system for computer. With 70L N tank. 2 130L external N2 tank (Optional).
ME - NFS1016
Specifically designed for light truck & heavy truck operations, to fill large volume tyres in short span of time. Suitable for Car & Light Truck & Heavy Truck. Raw material from compressed air. Heavy duty suit for heavy truck. Fast nitrogen generation & inflation speed. Automatic Nitrogen generator. Automatic shut-off after nitrogen generation. Two Sets of large capacity CMS filter. Two Stage pre-filters for water/oil separator. High precision water/oil separator suitable for heavy pressure. Inside pipes made by metal, suitable for heavy pressure purposes. 70L tank inside and 130L tank outside. Quick coupler to connect the "Vacuum Generator & N Inflator device" 2 with the machine by two 10meters length hoses. 220 L/58 Gallon N Tank External
EXHAUST GAS ANALYSER

Eco Gas - 4 Standard Features
4 Gas Analyser capable of measuring CO, HC, CO2, O2 NDIR technology RPM Measurement facility using inductive pickup 7 Segment LED Display Automatic condensate discharge Automatic zero calibration
Special Features
Portable, Compact and light weight design DC Operation suitable for "Road Tests" using vehicle battery Display of Lambda / AFR / PEF Petrol / CNG / LPG selection Indication for Low / High flow & Low voltage
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Electronic Leak Check facility HC Residue Test
Optional
NOx measurement as Fifth Gas Engine Oil Temperature measurement Battery Based RPM measurement suitable for all vehicles
DIESEL SMOKE METERS

Eco smoke Smoke meter measures smoke opacity in K value & % opacity. Accelerometer based RPM measurement makes it suitable for all types of vehicles. Measures smoke opacity of diesel vehicles in % opacity and K value Measurement principle : Partial flow, optics based on folded geometry Suitable for free acceleration test RPM and Engine oil temperature measurement Battery based RPM measurement suitable for all vehicles Portable, Compact and light weight design DC operation suitable for "Road Tests" using vehicle battery Low voltage indication for battery operation Automatic Zero and Span calibration Automatic Pressure Regulation Handheld, Menu driven LCD remote control unit Pass / Fail indication and emission limit in printout Vehicle no., vehicle specification, Operator name and test data in printout
HEAD LAMP ALIGNERS

HLA 1000 LX Head Lamp Aligner to align head lamp beams of all Cars, LCVs & Trucks. It incorporates builtin Analog lux meter for measuring light intensity. Checks and aligns head lamp beams of all type of Cars, LCVs and Trucks Facility to check alignment of high and low beam
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Graduated screen for aligning low beam Wheel mounted base for horizontal movement Adjustable viewer for positioning the Head Lamp Aligner in line with the head lights Built-in Analog lux meter for measuring light intensity Lux meter indication of light intensity in GOOD / BAD / HALOGEN scale Lux value indication in 1 meter scale & 25 meter scale
PAINT BOOTHS
ME PB Eco & ME PB Eco Plus Panels The cabin is built with in-house made glued sandwich panels filled with White polystyrene foam as insulation material. The solidity of the glue connections and the compression resistance, insures high grade and stable panel. The powder coated sheet metal givesa very high quality and resistant finish on the sides of the panel. Due to our specific sandwich panel construction, there are no Thermo transfers between inside and outside of the booth.
Lights Standard supply of Paint Booth with 10 ceiling light boxes each with 3x36 Watts. Cool white light Neon tube. Electronic ballast as standard for energy saving. Ceiling light box corner also with inclination angle to allow more light reflects.
Flooring Standard supply with metal base 300mm height. Two row K700 capacity galvanized grids floor Three row of reinforced checkered plates. Paint stop floor filter EU2 with filter frame. The whole flooring will be supported by transverse and longitudinal floor profiles.
Air Handling units (Thermic/Extraction unit) Standard Paint Booth includes the Thermic unit but with option of extraction unit.
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Thermic unit with stainless steel heat exchanger unit and 1x5.5 kw motor and 18" centrifugal fan (ME-PB 700 Eco & ME-PB 700 Eco Plus) Damper controller make Belimo Diesel oil burner make Riello as standard. All the panels for the air handling units with easy removable door for the exchange of pre -filter. 7.5kw motor with 18" twin fan (ME-PB 700 Plus & ME-PB 700). Extraction unit, standard will be 1x5.5 kw motor and 1x18" fan, with manual adjustable damper (ME-PB 700 Eco Plus) Extraction unit, standard will be 1x7.5 kw motor and 1x18" fan, with manual adjustable damper (ME-PB 700 Plus) Full function control panel, standard with CE approval electric components. All are control boxes with a) Thermostat 0-110C b) Electric wiring cable c) Fan motor start / stop d) Burner start / stop e) Emergency stop f) Digital temperature setting g) Timer adjustment h) Operating hour counter
WELDING MACHINES
ME - Mig / Mag 200 Used for welding aluminium and thinner sheets, for high precision car manufacturing. Uniform, constant and consistently high quality of latest technology The inductor system ensures excellent welding characteristics on very thin materials Results in a steady, soft arc and reduced spatter Equipment can weld both aluminium and ever thinner sheet which is currently being used in the car manufacturing
Technical specifications Mains voltage 3 x 400 V Fuse 10 A Open circuit voltage 14 - 30 V Voltage positions 7 Duty cycle 100% 65 A
Duty cycle Duty cycle Current range Wire reel dimension Wire speed ME - SW 9900
60% 85 A 35% 110 A 20 180 A 5 15 kg 2 - 12 m/min.
Undertakes repair functions for different steels auto body including stainless steel and other materials Voltage monitor automatically Over - heat protection One side and Double side welding can be chosen Welding function for different places such as Heat Mason, Vertical pulling, Spot welding, Flatten, Waveform Line Possess gas filtrate and regulate function Unique cable rack, have front - back flexible function, can turn 360 degree Triangular washer - direct spot welding repair LCD digital screen display Equipped with infinitely current regulate Unique double side for welding electrode for option Large puller and waveform welding
Technical Specification Input Voltage 380 V - 220 V, 50/60Hz Input Power 26.8 Input Current 60 Instant Max. Current 9900 Output Voltage AC 6 - 10 V One side Welding Thickness 1.0 + 1.5 mm Double side Welding Thickness 2.5 + 2.5 mm Operational Way Electronic Timer Continuity Input Gas Source Pressure 6 - 10 Kg Time Regulation System 0 - 99 Ms Vacuum Suction 180 Kg
UTILITY EQUIPMENTS
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ME - WL & MW - WL Reciprocation type air cooled compressors suitable for working in garage atmosphere. Low noise Easy to install Cost efficient
ME - FP6253A 3.2 Ton & ME - FP6254A 4 Ton Automobile lifts with base frame, using electro hydraulic operation suitable to lift vehicles up to 4 tons. Floor plate design Powder coated finish Locking teeth in both columns Limit switch for stopping at min. / max. height Pull two sides of safety release cable to lower the vehicle Asymmetric arm configuration Dual cylinder structure 24V voltage operation system
ME - LSL360 Ideal choice for Tyre service, brakes, suspension and bodywork. Electro hydraulic operation. Guarantees the user maximum safety and convenient usage. Electro hydraulic power system Dual cylinders structure, ensures stable raising and lowering Truck adapters included Four rotated holder can support load safely at any position
Technical Specifications
Lifting capacity 2.7 Ton Max. Lifting height 1000mm (adjustable) Min. height 164mm Lifting time 45 seconds Weight 410 kg Power Supply 230V, 50 Hz Motor Power 3.0 HP
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AUTO CAR WASH
ME- ACW High Performance 3 Brush Automatic Car Washer. Choices of 11 wash programs. PLC controlled. Variable frequency drive for trolley and vertical brush motion. Stainless Steel Pipes and Nozzles. Structure painted with Anti-corrosion paint for long life. Easy to use and maintain. Energy chain for cables and pipes. Anti-tilt mechanism on the trolley. Quick Installation.
TWO WHEELER EQUIPMENTS
Vehicle Washer VW
Reciprocating 3 plunger type. Induction motor (class of insulation B). Crank case lubrication splash. V belt drive. Adjustment spray and Jet. 6 m Water Hose with Gun.
Motorcycle Hydraulic Lift - ME-MCHL 75 Very Sturdy Tubular section and requires very little maintenance More Productivity because of trouble free operation.
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AC GAS CHANGER
MAC 34 AE
Automatic Recovery & Recycling / Vacuum / Recharging station. High performance Vacuum Pump with acoustic signal at end of the Vacuum phase. Individual operations manually also can be performed Alarms for Hi-Pressure / Empty & Full Bottle RS 232 Serial Port for future Software updates.
3.8 CONCLUSIONS Network topologies for flexible functionality The current network topology is not sustainable in a long term perspective because of scalability, reliability and variety management issues. A possible solution is to add an integrating backbone that can connect separate networks through simple reliable gateways. This solution allows scalability and variety management as sub-networks can be added and subtracted at will. This also removes the gateway as a single point of failure. Keeping a central gateway architecture may still be more efficient in the near future as a backbone introduces more overhead. Another important issue is to use a deterministic communication protocol for high level and highly safety-critical functions. This makes software less bound to specific hardware and improves the flexibility as it becomes easier to design the software architecture based on functionality and not on topology.
Software architecture design The software architecture should be harmonized and designed at system level introducing functional layering. Higher order functionality distributed in the network requires a deterministic communication system in order to simplify verification and validation of the functions. With a structured software architecture, reuse of software blocks is promoted. There are several areas where ECUs have the need for similar code. CAN-communication and sensor sampling are probable areas where reuse can be utilized. If general purpose ECUs are used, there will be a need to handle software versions for different vehicles. This can be achieved through parameter setting or component based methods. The variety management is an important issue for future systems.
Software quality in implementations The awareness of software quality in implementation is good. Further improvements are possible by generating code, reducing the possibilities of human errors. This still requires code inspections and implementation quality work as generated code also can be error prone. The reuse of software among ECUs would probably improve the quality of these pieces of software as more testing and analysis will be made on the shared pieces of code, integrated in several ECUs and scrutinized by several different software design teams. However, if reuse is utilized the assumptions of software blocks must be well documented. Automotive electronics opens the door to endless possibilities if the challenges can be mastered. This report has tried to summarize some of the challenges and solutions both in general in the industry and at Scania in particular. The goal has been to capture industry trends and to find a feasible road to hold the promise of automotive electronics.
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In-plant Training Report

The following Industries were included for the visits/training:

1. ALL INDIA RADIO 2. DOORDARSHAN KENDRA 3. MANATEC ELECTRONICS

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In-plant Training Report

CHAPTER 2 INDUSTRIAL VISIT-1

ALL INDIA RADIO

NAME OF THE COMPANY ADDRESS DATE OF VISIT DURATION OF VISIT

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In-plant Training Report

1.6 Other effects 1.6.1 Diffraction 1.6.2 Absorption

1.7 BROADCASTING STUDIO 1.8 ANNOUNCER CONSOLE

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In-plant Training Report

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In-plant Training Report

In-plant Training Report

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In-plant Training Report

High Frequency (Short Wave)

Very High 30300 Frequency MHz

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In-plant Training Report

Super High 330 GHz 101 cm Frequency

Extremely EHF High Frequency

Direct wave limited by absorption.

In-plant Training Report

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In-plant Training Report

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In-plant Training Report

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In-plant Training Report

In-plant Training Report

In-plant Training Report

In-plant Training Report

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In-plant Training Report

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In-plant Training Report

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In-plant Training Report

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In-plant Training Report

The modulating signal (information signal),

Then, the amplitude-modulated can be expressed as

The amplitude term of the AM signal s(t) is

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In-plant Training Report

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In-plant Training Report

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In-plant Training Report

In-plant Training Report

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In-plant Training Report

In-plant Training Report

SHORT WAVE (SW) BAND: HF - 3 -30 MHz

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In-plant Training Report

In-plant Training Report

Space (tropospheric) waves