FISIKA KUANTUM DIFFRACTION OF X-RAY BY CRYSTALS We have seen that the wavelength of light can be measured with a diffraction

gra ting having a known number of rulings per unit length. In principle, the wavelen gth of any electromagnetic wave can be determined if a grating of the proper spa cing ( of the order of ) is available. X-rays, discovered by W. roentgen (1845-1 923) in 1895, are electromagnetic waves with very short wavelength (of the order of 1 = 10-10 m = 0,1 nm ). Obviously, it would be impossible to construct a gra ting with such a small spacing. However, the atomic spacing in a solid is known to be about 10-10 m. in 1913, Max von Laug (1879-1960) suggested that the regula r array of atoms in a crystal could act at a three-dimensional diffraction grati ng of X-rays. Subsequent experiment confirmed this prediction. The diffraction p atterns that one observes are rather complicated because of the three-dimensiona l nature of the crystal Nevertheless, x-ray diffraction has proved to be an inva luable technique for elucidating crystalline structures and for understanding th e structure of matter. Figure 38.19 is one experimental arrangement for observing x-ray diffraction fro m a crystal. A collimated beam of x-rays with a continuous range of wavelength i s incident on a crystal, such as one of sodium chloride, for example. The diffra cted beams are very intense in certain directions, corresponding to constructive interference from waves reflected from layers of atom in the crystal. The diffr acted beams can be detected by a photographic film, and they from an array of sp ots known as a Laue pattern. The crystalline structure is deduced by analyzing the positions and intensities of the various spot in the pattern. The arrangement of atoms in a crystal of NaCl is shown in Figure 38.20 the small er, dark spheres represent Na+ ions and the larger, hollow spheres represent Clions. Note that the ions and located at the corners of a cube; for this reason , the structure is said to have cubic symmetry. A careful examination of the NaCl Structure shown that the ions appear to lie i n various planes. The shaded areas in Figure 38.20 represent one example in whic h the atoms lie in equally spaced planes. Now suppose an incident x-ray beam mak es an angle with one of the planes, as in figure 38.21. the beam can be reflecte d from both the upper and the lower plane of atoms. However, the geometric const ruction in Figure 38.21 shows that the beam reflected from the lower surface tra vels farther than the beam reflected from the upper surface. The effective path difference between the two beams is 2d sin . The two beams will reinforce each ot her (constructive interference) when this path difference equals some integral m ultiple of wavelength . The same is true of reflection from the entire family of parallel planes. Hence, the condition for constructive interference (maxima in t he reflected wave) is given by 2d sin = m (m = 1, 2, 3, . . . . ) (38.11) Braggs la w This condition Is known as braggs law after W. R. Bragg (1890-1971). Who first derived the relationship. If the wavelength and diffraction angle are meas ured, Equation 38.11 can be used to calculate the spacing between atomic planes. Figure 38.19 Schematic diagram of the technique used to observe the diffractio n of x-ray by a single crystal. The array of spots formed on the film by the s trongly diffracted beams is called a Laue pattern Figure 38.20. A model of the cubic crystalline structure of sodium chloride. Th e larger blue spheres represent the Cl- ions, and the smaller red spheres repres ent the Na+ ions. The length of the cube edge is a = 0,562737 nm. Figure 38.21 A two dimensional description of the reflection of an x-ray beam fr om two parallel crystalline planes separated by a distance. The beam reflected f rom the lower plane travels farther than the one reflected from the upper plane by an amount equal to 2d sin .