Higher Order Bifurcation in Piecewise Linear Maps

Masters of Engineering Final Project Higher Order Bifurcations in Piecewise Linear Maps
Mark Ekins
Higher Order Bifurcations in Piecewise Linear Maps

Mark Ekins
Supervised by Professor John Hogan, Engineering Mathematics
y
Project Report submitted in support of the degree of Master of Engineering, June 2003
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Abstract
The dynamics of many of many engineering and applied science systems can be modelled by piecewise smooth maps. We investigate the particular subclass of such maps that are twodimensional, linear and contain two discontinuities. Our method is based on analysing the existence and stability of period-one and period-two fixed points. It enables us to see how the dynamics of the system change as the system parameters are varied. We show that the system contains codimension-two bifurcations at the point in phase-space where the two discontinuities meet. These bifurcations are a combination of two or more codimension-one Cbifurcations.
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Contents
ABSTRACT CONTENTS 1 2 2.1 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 2.1.4 2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.3 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.4 3 4 4.1 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.2 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.3 INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND MATERIAL Review of Maps Fixed Points Stability Bifurcations Codimension Motivations and Applications Example of a Piecewise Smooth System Poincar Sections Review of Previous Work Deriving the Local Map from the System Flow Types of C-bifurcations Classification by Eigenvalues Objective THE MAP METHOD OF ANALYSIS Period-One Fixed Points Existence Stability Period-Two Fixed Points Existence Stability Graphical Representation of Fixed Points in Parameter Space -32 3 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 8 9 9 10 11 12 13 15 15 15 16 16 17 18 18
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5 5.1
A FIRST EXAMPLE - A DIAGONALISED MAP Period-One Fixed Points Existence Stability Period-Two Fixed Points Six Types of Period-Two Fixed Points Existence Stability Bifurcations in this Map All Types of Codimension-Two Bifurcation in a General Diagonalised Map. Classifying the Bifurcations by the Map Eigenvalues THE GENERAL MAP Period-One Fixed Points Period-Two Fixed Points CONCLUSION APPENDIX A
20 21 22 23 24 24 26 28 28 34 35 38 38 40 42 44 45
5.1.1 5.1.2 5.2 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.3 5.4 5.5 6 6.1 6.2 7 A.
REFERENCES
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1 Introduction
Piecewise smooth systems have many practical applications in engineering and applied science. These include impact oscillators, earthquake dynamics, power electronics, and systems with dry friction [1]. Despite being dismissed as unimportant for many years, these systems can exhibit not only all the usual phenomena associated with nonlinear dynamical systems, but also a wide range of behaviour that cannot be seen in smooth systems. These include period adding cascades, period multiplication of arbitrary amount, instantaneous jumps to chaos and destruction of all periodic orbits [2]. The exact nomenclature is still a matter of debate but these non-standard bifurcations are variously referred to as grazing, sliding, and Cbifurcations. All of them are associated with portions of trajectory becoming tangent to surfaces where the system is discontinuous. To aid analysis, it is possible to model such systems as piecewise smooth maps of various normal forms: square-root, linear, power 3/2, squared, etc. [1]. By such reduction to a map, M. di Bernardo et al [3] obtained a complete classification of all of the codimension-one bifurcations in the particular class of piecewise smooth dynamical systems that can be modelled by a continuous map with linear normal form. We shall refer to the non-standard bifurcations in such a map as C-bifurcations. Their classification scheme can be used to obtain a complete description of the dynamics of the piecewise smooth maps and flows as the parameters of the system are varied. There are still, however, more classes of phenomena associated with piecewise smooth systems that need to investigated.
This work aims to investigate the occurrence of codimension-two bifurcations in piecewise smooth systems. Specifically systems that can be modelled as maps with a linear normal form. We begin this report with a review of the background material. This includes a review of maps, a more detailed discussion of the motivations for studying piecewise linear systems, a review of paper [3] and finally we set out our objective. We next define the form of the map we investigate. Then we describe the method of analysis and show how existence and stability conditions are used to construct a picture of parameter space. Our analysis is limited to period-one and period-two orbits. Then we begin our investigation with an analysis of the diagonalised map. This is done to make the problem more tractable in the first instance and to help us build an intuition for the systems behaviour. We show that in the diagonalised map we can have codimension-two bifurcations that are a combination of two C-bifurcations. We go on to analyse the most general form of the map. In this we see that the possibilities for types of behaviour are extremely complicated and an investigation of these would be a good continuation of this work. We conclude with a discussion of our findings.
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2 Background Material
In this chapter we review maps and the concepts of a fixed point, stability, bifurcation and codimension, give an explanation of the motivation for studying maps, review the paper from which this work continues, and conclude by setting out our objective.
2.1 Review of Maps

Maps are dynamical systems with discrete time. They are used to model many natural phenomena where the process is discrete. Examples include digital electronics, areas of economics and finance, impulse driven mechanical systems and animal populations where successive populations do not overlap [7]. As will be shown in section 2.2.2, they can also be used to model continuous-time systems through the use of a Poincar section. Consider a map
: x x where x n and x 0 is the initial condition of the system. When we study
such a map it is because we are interested in the eventual behaviour. We want to know how
x 0 , 1 (x 0 ), 2 (x 0 )... n (x 0 ) will develop as n . If, for example, (x) represented the change
in price of our house from one year to the next then we would be interested to know whether our initial purchase price, x 0 , constantly increased towards infinity as the years went by, constantly decreased towards zero, or whether it tended towards some particular value. These dynamics of the system can be explained in terms of fixed points, stability, topological equivalence and bifurcations. In the remainder of this section we explain these concepts.
2.1.1
Fixed Points
If a value, say
x e , does not change under an iteration of the map then it is called a period-one fixed point.
Definition 1 (Period-One Fixed Point): A point [4]
x e n is a period-one fixed point of if (xe ) = xe .
If a point follows some sort of repeating pattern, returning to where it started every n iterations then it is called a period-n fixed point. Definition 2 (Period-n Fixed Point): A point
x e is a period-n fixed point of
if
n (x e ) = x e and n
is the least such positive integer for which this is true. The set of all iterates of a periodic point is called a periodic orbit. [4]
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2.1.2
Stability
An important concept associated with fixed points is that of stability. If we give a slight push to our fixed point will it return to its previous fixed position (asymptotically stable) or will it fly off somewhere else (unstable). It can be shown that the stability is determined by the Jacobian of the map about the fixed point.
Definition 3 (Stability): A fixed point the Jacobian matrix
x e of is said to be asymptotically stable if all the eigenvalues of
D(xe ) have moduli less than one. Otherwise the point is unstable. [4]
We will not be considering the case where there are eigenvalues with modulus one and we shall use the term stable to mean asymptotically stable.
2.1.3
Bifurcations
A system undergoes a bifurcation if, as we change a parameter, there is a qualitative change in the systems behaviour. For example, if changing a parameter caused a fixed point to cease to exist. To formally define bifurcations we must first define what it is to be qualitatively, or topologically, equivalent. Definition 4 (Topological Equivalence ): Two maps there is a homeomorphism
h such that
1 and 2 h 1 h = 2 . [4]
1
are said to be topologically equivalent if
Definition 5 (Bifurcation): A map undergoes a bifurcation at a parameter
= 0 if in a small neighbourhood
there is a value of whose dynamics are not topologically equivalent to those at 0 . [5]
2.1.4
Codimension
The codimension of a bifurcation is the smallest dimension of a parameter-space that contains the bifurcation in a consistent way [8]. So a codimension-one bifurcation means that just one parameter needs to be changed in order to achieve the bifurcation; a codimension-two bifurcation means that two parameters need to be changed simultaneously in order to achieve the bifurcation, and so on.
2.2 Motivations and Applications

In the introduction we mentioned where piecewise smooth systems can arise. In this section we present a specific example - that of an impacting oscillator. We then explain how a Poincar section can be used to model a continuous-time system as a map.
2.2.1
Example of a Piecewise Smooth System
One example of a piecewise smooth system is an impacting oscillator. These arise in all sorts of mechanical systems and many examples are given in [6]. Figure 2.1, below, shows a model of such an impacting oscillator. It is a piecewise smooth system with a discontinuity at -7-
x = 0 . For x < 0 the motion is governed
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by a function of the position, the velocity, the driving force, the spring on the left and the damper on the left, that is
= G1 ( x, x, F ,1 ,k1) . For x > 0 x
the motion is governed by a function of the position, the velocity
the driving force, both springs and both dampers, that is
= G2 ( x, x, F ,1,2 ,k1,k 2) . x
0 x
k1
Driving Force,
k2
Figure 2.1: Example of an impact oscillator
2.2.2
Poincar Sections
A Poincar section allows us to model a continuous system flow as a discrete map in the following way: Let
x = f (x)
be an n-dimensional continuous system. Let D be an n-1 dimensional surface of section (see
Figure 2.2, below). D must be transversal to the flow so that all trajectories starting on it will pass through it, not travel parallel to it. Then the Poincar mapping is the mapping from D to itself, obtained by following trajectories from one intersection with D to the next. If is defined by
xk
represents the kth iteration then the Poincar map
xk +1 = P(xk ) .
x e is a fixed point of P , i.e. xe = P(xe ) . Then a trajectory starting at x e returns to x e after some time T, and is therefore a periodic orbit for the original system x = f (x) . Furthermore, by looking at the behaviour of P near this fixed point we can determine the stability of the closed orbit. [7]
Now suppose that Thus we can conduct our investigation into C-bifurcations in piecewise smooth continuous systems by investigating a local map derived by taking a Poincar section. This is useful because in general maps are easier to analyse than flows. In the next section we see a little more specifically how to take a Poincar section for a piecewise smooth system about the bifurcation.
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xe xe
xk x k +1
Figure 2.2: Schematic of a Poincar section.
2.3 Review of Previous Work

In this section we will briefly review [3], the paper upon which our work is based and highlight the results that we will refer to later. In [3], M. di Bernardo et al showed that in continuous piecewise smooth systems there exist non-standard codimension-one bifurcations that cannot exist in smooth systems. These were referred to as C-bifurcations. To aid the analysis the general piecewise smooth system was modelled as a linear local map by taking a Poincar section. Local conditions on the behaviour at a C-bifurcation were then given. The method for analysing the behaviour was to deduce the conditions for the existence of fixed points and the conditions for their stability.
2.3.1
Suppose
Deriving the Local Map from the System Flow
x = f (x, t , )
describes a continuous system where
discontinuity in the first derivative) with countably many
f : n+1 n is piecewise smooth (with p regions, is a parameter vector and
x n . Then when a system trajectory crosses one of the boundaries (by varying the system parameters) a
bifurcation occurs. This bifurcation will be non-standard. It will be what is referred to as a C-bifurcation. By the use of a local map a system of classifying these bifurcations is obtained.
A local map is derived by first taking a Poincar section transversal to the flow about the point of the bifurcation (see Figure 2.3, below). This Poincar section can be split by the line, S, into two section
R1 and
R2 , each one corresponding to a different side of the boundary in phase-space. Let M

the line S. Introduce a new coordinate system with determines whether a given point,
be the fixed point at
M at the origin, such that the sign of the nth coordinate
x (k) = (x (k)1 , x (k)2 ,..., x (k)n ) , is in the subplane R1 or R2 (i.e.

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x (k)n > 0 x (k) R1 and x (k)n < 0 x (k) R2 ;). Then if we linearise about M the equation for the
Poincar map can be given in the form
A1x(k) + x(k)n > 0 . x (k +1) = A 2 x(k) + x(k)n > 0

where
(1)
A1 and A 2 are n n
matrices.
M
R1
R2
Figure 2.3: Poincar section transversal to the flow of the piecewise smooth the system given by x = f (x, t , ) .
2.3.2
Types of C-bifurcations
There are three things that can occur in bifurcations in such a map. These are: Smooth transition: A fixed point exists on one side of the line S (corresponding to a periodic orbit on one side of the boundary) and is smoothly converted at the C-bifurcation point into a fixed point existing on the other side of S (corresponding to a periodic solution on the other side of the boundary); Annihilation: Two fixed points, one on each side of S, collide at the C-bifurcation point and annihilate each other (corresponding to two periodic orbits existing together on one side of the boundary and vanishing as they cross the boundary); Period-doubling: A period-two fixed point originate at the line S (corresponding to a new periodic solution originating at the C-bifurcation). The one-dimensional versions of each of these is illustrated in Figure 2.4 below.
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x ( k +1 )
f
x ( k +1 ) = x ( k )
x ( k +1 )
f
x ( k +1 )
f
x ( k +1 ) = x ( k )
x( k )
x( k )
x( k )
Smooth Transition
Annihilation ( is the change in the bifurcation parameter)
Period-doubling
Figure 2.4: One-dimensional C-bifurcations. Each of these bifurcations can also take place in reverse. For example, the destruction of a period-two fixed point would be reverse period-doubling. These events can also occur in isolation or can combine. If we only consider period-one and period-two fixed points then we can have any one of five things occur at a codimension-one C-bifurcation. These are listed below along with the notation that we will use for these later on, in sections 5.3, 5.4 and 5.5. Smooth transition. Annihilation. Smooth Transition + Period-doubling. Annihilation + Period doubling. Annihilation + Reverse Period-doubling.
A B
A, B A B, AB A, B AB A, B, AB
Note that each of these bifurcations can take place in reverse.
2.3.3
follows:
Classification by Eigenvalues
The type of bifurcation that will occur is determined by the eigenvalues of the two regions of the map as
If we define
1+ = number of real eigenvalues of A1 greater than 1;

+ 2 = number of real eigenvalues of A 2 greater than 1;
1 = number of real eigenvalues of A1 less than - 1;

2 = number of real eigenvalues of A 2 less than - 1;
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then the type of bifurcation is determined as follows:

+ 1+ + 2 is even smooth transition from one orbit to another; + 1+ + 2 is odd annihilation of the orbits on the boundary; 1 + 2 is odd period - doubling.
We shall refer back to this result in section 5.5.
2.4 Objective
In this section we outline our specific objective and where it fits into the current body of knowledge.
In section 2.3 we saw a theory of codimension-one C-bifurcations in piecewise smooth maps. The aim of this project is to extend the understanding to higher order bifurcations. More specifically, it is to construct a map that has codimension-two non-standard bifurcations. There are three types of codimension-two bifurcations in a general dynamical system. There are those that are a combination of two standard bifurcations. These are well understood and are given a full treatment in [8]. There are those that are a combination of one standard bifurcation and one non-standard bifurcation. These were investigated in [5]. Finally there are those that are a combination of two non-standard bifurcations. It is these that this project aims to investigate. As has already been mentioned, of the normal forms discussed in the introduction we will focus on linear maps that are continuous and therefore we will be examining C-bifurcations.
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3 The Map
By considering the structure that a map must have in order to contain the type of bifurcation that we wish to observe, we define the map that we investigate. We require that two C-bifurcations can occur at the same place in phase-space. As we saw in section 2.3, Cbifurcations occur at discontinuities. Therefore we need that two independent discontinuities cross in phase space. For this to happen we need phase-space of at least dimension two. We also require that there are codimension-two bifurcations. Therefore we need a map with a parameterspace with dimension of at least two. Accordingly we define our map to be two-dimensional in phase-space, contain two discontinuities and include a two-dimensional parameter-space. So in the map
: (x, ) x
we set the discontinuities at
x 2 2
x = 0 and at y = 0 . This splits phase-space into four regions that we shall label
R1 , R2 , R3 and R4 as illustrated in Figure 3.1, below.

y
R4
0
R3
x
R1
R2
Figure 3.1: Four piecewise linear regions in phase-space It has a parameter vector
2 . Then we define
as
x n +1
1 (x n , ) (x , ) = (x n , ) = 2 n 3 (x n , ) 4 (x n , )
x R1 x R2 x R3 x R4
(2)
where
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i ( x n , ) = A i x n +
is the map in region
Ri and where
a A i = i ci
bi , di
x x = , y
= and ai , bi , ci , di , , .
y
It is easier to visualise in Figure 3.2, below.
xn+1 = A4xn +
xn+1 = A 3 xn +
x x
xn+1 = A1xn +
xn+1 = A2xn +
Figure 3.2: Representation of a four region piecewise linear mapping in phase-space.
A matrices cannot be completely independent. In fact, once two non-adjacent A are given then the other two A are completely determined.
We want this map to be continuous. For this to be so, any two adjacent If we say then by continuity we must have
a b e A1 = and A 3 = c d g
f h
e b a A 2 = and A 4 = c g d
Hence: y
f . h
a c
f h
e g
f h
x
a b c d
e g
b d
Figure 3.3: The matrices A1, A2, A3 and A4.
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4 Method of Analysis
We have so far seen what it is we wish to examine in a map, namely fixed points and their stability, we have seen why this is important and we have defined precisely the map we will investigate. In this section we set out the methodology used for our investigation. First we examine period-one fixed points. We describe a method to analyse their existence and stability. Then we do the same for period-two fixed points. Finally we introduce a way to represent the findings of this analysis on simple parameter space diagrams.
4.1 Period-One Fixed Points

We begin by finding the solution of a period-one fixed point. Next we determine conditions for its existence and finally we show how to determine its stability. A period-one fixed point in region satisfy
Ri shall be denoted by x (i) . From section 2.1.1 we know that it must
(x(i) ) = x(i) .
From the definition of our map on page 13 that is
x(i) = A i x(i) + .
Note that we can analyse the fixed point for each region Solving equation (3) gives the unique solution
(3)
Ri separately.
bi (d i 1) (a 1)(d 1) b c i i i . x (i) = i ci (ai 1) (ai 1)(d i 1) bi ci

4.1.1 Existence
(4)
x (i) , the unique point in phase-space that maps back to itself under the mapping i . (i) Since this mapping only applies to points in region Ri of phase-space then x only exists in Ri . If (i) (i) equation (4) gives that x is not in Ri then x does not exist.
Equation (4) tells us It follows that for a map with given
ai , bi , ci and di
there will be values of
and
for which
x (i)
does
exist and other values for which it does not. Parameter-space can thus be divided into regions where does exist and regions where it does not.
x (i)
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For example: x must be in region a negative x-value and a negative y-value.
(1)
R1 . Recall from Figure 3.1, page13, that this means that it must have
So the following inequalities must hold for the two elements of
x(1) , x (1) and y (1) :
x (1) =
and
b (d 1) <0 (a 1)(d 1) bc
y (1) =
c (a 1) < 0. (a 1)(d 1) bc
Solving these inequalities will give us the region of existence in parameter space for
x(1) .
4.1.2
Stability
Recall from section 2.1.2 that a fixed point Jacobian matrix the Jacobian
x e of is said to be stable if all the eigenvalues of the
D(xe ) have moduli less than one. So the stability of x (i) depends on the eigenvalues of D i (x (i) ) . The Jacobian of D i (x (i) ) is Ai and the two eigenvalues of Ai are
(ai + d i ) (ai + d i ) 2 4(ai d i bi ci ) . 1, 2 = 2
(5)
From equation (5) we can thus determine whether or not
x (i) is stable.
4.2 Period-Two Fixed Points

We begin by finding the solution of a period-two fixed point. Next we determine conditions for its existence and finally we show how to determine its stability. A period-two fixed point in region to its original point in fixed point
Ri that is mapped to a point in region R j by one iteration and then back
Ri by the second iteration shall be denoted by x(ij) . Note that for any proper such
i j
because of the linearity of the map. Also note that we can analyse the fixed point between
each pair of regions
Ri , R j separately.
From section 2.1.1 a period-two fixed point must satisfy
2 (x(ij) ) = j i (x(ij) ) = x(ij) .

From the definition of our map that is
x(ij) = A j (Ai x(ij) + ) + .

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x (ij)
(a j bi + b j d i )(c j + (d j + 1) ) (bi c j + d i d j 1)((a j + 1) + b j ) (ai a j + b j ci 1)(bi c j + d i d j 1) (ai c j + ci d j )(a j bi + b j d i ) . = (ai c j + ci d j )((a j + 1) + b j ) (ai a j + b j ci 1)(c j + (d j + 1) ) (a a + b c 1)(b c + d d 1) (a c + c d )(a b + b d ) i j j i i j i j i j i j j i j i
(7)
There will also exist fixed points of a higher period but that these are beyond the scope of this project.
4.2.1
Existence
x(ij) , the unique point in phase-space that maps back to itself under the mapping j i . The mapping i only applies to points in region Ri of phase-space and j only to points in (ij) (ij) region R j . Therefore x will exists only if it is in region Ri and if i ( x ) is in region R j . If these (ij) conditions are not met then x does not exist.
Equation (7) tells us It follows that for a map with given
ai , bi , ci and di
there will be values of
and
for which
x(ij)
does
exist and other values for which it does not. Parameter-space can thus be divided into regions where does exist and regions where it does not. For example:
x(ij)
x (13)
must be in region
R1 and 1 (x(13) ) must be in region R3 . Recall from Figure 3.1,
page 13, that this means that
x (13) must have a negative x-value and x (13) must have a negative y-value;
1 (x(13) ) = x(31)
then
and noting that
x (31) must have a positive x-value and x (31) must have a positive y-value. x (13) , x (13)and y (13) , and the two elements
So the following inequalities must hold for the two elements of of
x (31) , x (31)and y (31) : (eb + fd )( g + (h + 1) ) (bg + dh 1)((e + 1) + f ) x (13) = < 0, (ae + fc 1)(bg + dh 1) (ag + ch)(eb + fd )
y (13) = (ag + ch)((e + 1) + f ) (ae + fc 1)( g + (h + 1) ) < 0, (ae + fc 1)(bg + dh 1) (ag + ch)(eb + fd )
x (31) =
(af + bh)(c + (d + 1) ) ( fc + hd 1)((a + 1) + b ) > 0 and (ea + bg 1)( fc + hd 1) (ec + gd )(af + bh) (ec + gd )((a + 1) + b ) ( ga + bg 1)(c + (d + 1) ) > 0. (ea + bg 1)( fc + hd 1) (ec + gd )(af + bh)
y (31) =
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Solving these inequalities will give us the region of existence in parameter space for
x (13) .
4.2.2
Stability
Recall from section 2.1.2 that a fixed point Jacobian matrix the Jacobian
x e of is said to be stable if all the eigenvalues of the
D(xe ) have moduli less than one. So the stability of x(ij) depends on the eigenvalues of D( j i (x(ij) )) . The Jacobian of D( j i (x(ij) )) is A j A i and the two eigenvalues of
((ai a j + b j ci ) + (bi c j + di d j )) C 2
A j A i are
12 =
where
(8)
C = ((ai a j + b j ci ) + (bi c j + di d j ))2 4[(ai a j + b j ci )(bi c j + di d j ) (a j bi + b j di )(ai c j + ci d j )]
From equation (8) we can thus determine whether or not
x(ij)
is stable.
4.3 Graphical Representation of Fixed Points in Parameter Space

In this section we describe how we represent fixed points in our parameter-space diagrams. Once we have determined the regions in parameter-space where fixed points exist and whether these fixed points are stable or not, we want a way of indicating this on a parameter-space diagram. The following convention shall be used:
i:
an unstable period-one fixed point in region
Ri
e.g. 1: an unstable period-one fixed point in region
R1
i:
a stable period-one fixed point in region
Ri
e.g. 1: a stable period-one fixed point in region
R1
Ri and R j
ij :
an unstable period-two fixed point between regions
e.g. 12: an unstable period-two fixed point between regions
R1 and R2
ij :
a stable period-two fixed point between regions
Ri and R j
e.g. 12: a stable period-two fixed point between regions
R1 and R2
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So Figure 4.1, below, would mean the following: If one fixed point in region 4; if
and
are both negative there is an unstable period-
and
are both positive there is a stable period-two fixed point between
regions 2 and 3; for any other areas of parameter space there are no period-one or period-two fixed points.
23
Figure 4.1: Example parameter-space diagram.
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5 A First Example - A Diagonalised Map

We now move on to a full analysis of an example map. In order to make the analysis more tractable in the first instance, and to enable us to build an understanding and an intuition for the system behaviour, we shall begin with an investigation of the simplified system where all
Ai
are diagonalised.
By diagonalising all
Ai
we have
bi = ci = 0 i .
So our matrices A1, A2, A3 and A4 become:
(9)
Figure 5.1: The matrices A1, A2, A3, and A4 for the diagonalised map. More specifically we shall investigate the map where
1 < a < 1, d < 1, e < 1, 1 < h < 1,

ae < 1, dh < 1,
and
(10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16)
b = c = f = g = 0.
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We shall refer to this as Map 1. We have chosen this particular diagonalised map because it exhibits stable period-one and stable period-two fixed points. This means that we would be able to test the analysis numerically should we so desire.
Using the methodology set out in chapter 4 we determine the existence conditions on period-one fixed points and then determine the stability of these points. We then repeat this process for the period-two fixed points. We see that the regions of existence in parameter-space are the four quadrants divided by the
and axes
We then plot all of the period-one and period-two fixed points in parameter space and discuss the bifurcations that can take place in this example map. Finally, we discuss all types of codimension-two bifurcations that can take place in a general diagonalised map.

In this section we determine the regions of existence and the stability of each of the period-one fixed points. First we simplify the equations from section 4.2 for the general fixed point substitute for each
(i)
x (i)
and its eigenvalues. Then we
ai and d i to give us each x and its eigenvalues in terms of a, d , e and h .
Substituting equation (9) into equation (4) gives
x (i) as
x(i) =
which simplifies to
(di 1 ) 1 (a 1 )(d 1 ) (ai 1 ) i i
1 a (i) i . x = 1 d i
(17)
Equation (17), along with the fact that the regions of phase-space are split by the x-axis and the y-axis, tells us that for any diagonalised map the parameter regions of existence for period-one-fixed points will be divided by inequalities of the form will be the four quadrants by the
< 0, > 0, < 0 and > 0. and axes.
Therefore these regions of existence
Recall that the stability depends on the eigenvalues of are the diagonal elements, we have
Ai . Since the eigenvalues of a diagonalised matrix

(18)
1, 2 = ai , d i .
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Mark Ekins
In region
R1 ai = a and d i = d which gives
x (1)
= 1 a , with 1, 2 = a, d . 1 d
Repeating this process for each
x (i) gives Table 5.1, below.

Eigenvalues
Equation for the fixed point
x (1)
= 1 a 1 d = 1 e 1 d = 1 e 1 h = 1 a 1 h
1, 2 = a, d
x (2)
1, 2 = e, d
x (3)
1, 2 = e, h
x (4)
1, 2 = a, h
Table 5.1: The period-one fixed points of Map 1.
5.1.1
Existence
We will conduct the analysis in detail for the fixed point in
R1 . For those in regions R3 , R3 and R4 we
will merely present the results but shall not repeat the detail as it is very similar. Recall that
x(1) must be in R1 . Therefore it must satisfy

x (1) =
1 a
<0
(19)
and
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Mark Ekins
y (1) =
To determine
1 d
< 0.
(20)
, we have from (10) that 1 < a < 1 which gives 1 a > 0 and substituting this into (19) gives < 0. Similarly for , we have from (11) that d < 1 which gives 1 d > 0 and substituting this (1) into (20) gives < 0. So x exists only if < 0 and < 0. Completing this analysis yields Table 5.2,
below. Fixed point Region of existence in parameter space
x(1) x(2) x(3) x(4)
< 0 and < 0 > 0 and < 0 > 0 and > 0 < 0 and > 0
Table 5.2: Existence regions of period-one fixed points of Map 1.
5.1.2
Stability
Again we will conduct the analysis in detail for the fixed point in region and
R1 but for those in regions R3 , R3
R4 we will present the results but not the detail.
From Table 5.1 we have that the two eigenvalues of
1 < a < 1 and d < 1 . Thus 1 < 1 and

unstable.
x(1) are 1,2 = a, d . From (10) and (11) we have that 2 > 1. Therefore from Definition 3, on page 7, x(1) is
Similar analysis yields that
x(2)
and
x(3)
are also unstable and that
x(4)
is stable. Table 5.3, below,
summarises our period-one analysis. Fixed point Region of existence in parameter space Stable no no no yes
x(1) x(2) x(3) x(4)
< 0 and < 0 > 0 and < 0 > 0 and > 0 < 0 and > 0
Table 5.3: Summary of existence regions and stability of period-one fixed points of Map 1. - 23 -
Mark Ekins
Notice that if we were to change a, d,
e or h, then this would alter the result of our analysis only if they
crossed the values of 1 or 1. By examining (17) and (18) you can see that these are the critical values. We have completed the analysis for all different combinations of a, d, e and h and this can be found in Appendix A.

In this section we show that there are six unique period-two fixed point and for each we determine its region of existence and its stability. First we simplify the equations for the general period-two fixed point
x(ij)
and its eigenvalues. Then we
show that there are six possible types of period two orbits. Then for each of these we substitute for
ai and
d i to give us each x
(ij)
and its eigenvalues in terms of
a, d , e and h .
Substituting (9) into equation (7) gives
x(ij)
as
x(ij) =
which simplifies to
(di d j 1 )(ai + 1) 1 (ai a j 1 )(di d j 1 ) (ai a j 1 )(d j + 1)
x (ij)
(a j + 1) 1 ai a j . = (d j + 1) 1 d d i j
(21)
Equation (21), along with the fact that the regions of phase-space are split by the x-axis and the y-axis, tells us that for any diagonalised map the parameter regions of existence for period-two-fixed points will be divided given by inequalities of the form existence will be the four quadrants by the
< 0, > 0, < 0 and > 0. and axes.
Therefore these regions of
Recall that the stability depends on the eigenvalues of
A j A i . Since Ai and A j are diagonalised then so is
A j A i , with diagonal entries ai a j and d i d j . Since the eigenvalues of a diagonalised matrix are the
diagonal elements, we have that for
x(ij)
1, 2 = ai a j , d i d j .
5.2.1 Six Types of Period-Two Fixed Points
(22)
Recall that a period-two fixed point cannot have both iterates in the same region of phase-space. Note also that the orbit of
x(ij) , namely i,j,i,j,i,j, , is the same as that of x(ji) , namely j,i,j,i,j,i, , but one iterate out
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Mark Ekins
of phase. In other words
x(ij)
and
x(ji)
are the same fixed point. Then by inspection we can deduce that there
are six unique period-two fixed points. These are illustrated in Figure 5.2, below.
x (12) , x (13) , x (14) , x (23) , x (24)
and
x (34) .
They are
Figure 5.2: The six types of period-two points. In region 1 ai = a and d i = d and in region 2
ai = e and d i = d
which gives:
x (12)
(e + 1) = 1 ae with 1, 2 = ae, d 2 1 d
Repeating this process for each
x(ij) gives Table 5.4, below.
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Mark Ekins
Equation for the fixed point
Eigenvalues
x (12)
(e + 1) = 1 ae 1 d (e + 1) = 1 ae (h + 1) 1 dh = 1 a (h + 1) 1 dh = 1 e (h + 1) 1 dh (a + 1) = 1 ae (h + 1) 1 dh (a + 1) = 1 ae 1 h
1, 2 = ae, d 2
x (13)
1, 2 = ae, dh
x (14)
1, 2 = a 2 , dh
x (23)
1, 2 = e2 , dh
x (24)
1, 2 = ae, dh
x (34)
1, 2 = ae, h 2
Table 5.4: The period-two fixed points of Map 1.
5.2.2
Existence
We will conduct the analysis in detail for the fixed point between merely present the results but not the detail as it very similar. Recall that
R1 and R2
but for the others we will
x (12) must be in R1 . Therefore it must satisfy

x (12) = (e + 1) <0 1 ae
(23)
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Mark Ekins
and
y (12) =
To determine
1 d
< 0.
(24)
we have from (12) that
e < 1 which gives e + 1 < 0 , and from (14) we have that
ae < 1 which gives 1 ae > 0 . Substituting these into (23) gives > 0. Similarly for we have from (12) (11) that d < 1 which gives 1 d > 0 . Substituting this into (24) gives < 0. So we have that x is in R1 only if
>0
Recall also that
and
< 0.
and
(25)
x (21)
must be in region
R2 . Therefore conditions (26) and (27), below, on

(a + 1) >0 1 ae
must
also be satisfied. So let us finish determining the region of existence in parameter space. We have
x ( 21) =
and
(26)
y ( 21) =
To determine
1 d
< 0.
(27)
we have from (10) that
1 < a < 1 which gives a + 1 > 0 , and from (14) we have that
ae < 1 which gives 1 ae > 0 . Substituting these into (26) gives > 0. Similarly for we have from (21) (11) that d < 1 which gives 1 d > 0 . Substituting this into (27) gives < 0. So we have that x is in R2 only if > 0 and < 0. (28)
Combining (25) and (28) gives us that the period-two fixed point between
R1 and R2 will exist when
>0
and
< 0.
R1 and R2 would
Note that if (25) and (28) contradicted each other then the period-two fixed point between not exist for this map. Completing this analysis yields Table 5.5, below. Fixed point
Region of existence in parameter space
x (12) x (13) x (14)
> 0 and < 0 > 0 and < 0 < 0 and < 0
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Mark Ekins
x (23) x (24) x (34)
> 0 and < 0 > 0 and < 0 > 0 and > 0
Table 5.5: Existence regions of period-two fixed points of Map 1.
5.2.3
Stability
Again we will conduct the analysis in detail for the fixed point between will present the results but not the detail. From Table 5.4 we have that the two eigenvalues of we have that
R1 and R2 but for the others we
ae < 1
and
d < 1. Thus
x (12) are 1, 2 = ae, d 2 . From (14) and (11) on page 20 1 < 1 and 2 > 1. Therefore from Definition 3, on page 7,
x (12) is unstable.
Similar analysis yields that
x (23)
is also unstable and that
x (13) , x (14) , x (24)
and
x (34)
are all stable. Table
5.6 summarises our period-two analysis. Fixed point Region of existence in parameter space Stable no yes yes no yes yes
x (12) x (13) x (14) x (23) x (24) x (34)
> 0 and < 0 > 0 and < 0 < 0 and < 0 > 0 and < 0 > 0 and < 0 > 0 and > 0
Table 5.6: Summary of existence regions and stability of period-two fixed point in Map 1.
5.3 Bifurcations in this Map

In this section we bring together the analysis of the previous two sections. We describe the system behaviour in the different regions in parameter-space and how the system changes as we move from one part of parameter-space to another that is, the bifurcations. We see that there are four codimension-one bifurcations and two codimension-two bifurcations. In these
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Mark Ekins
codimension-two bifurcations all the bifurcations take place at the same place in parameterspace, namely the origin. Thus we see that we have constructed a map exhibiting the type of bifurcation that we desire. In Table 5.3 and Table 5.6 in sections 5.1 and 5.2 we have all of the information that we need to plot all of the period-one and period-two fixed points in parameter space. Following the convention set out in section 4.3 gives us Figure 5.3, below.
3 34
1 14 2 12 13 23 24
Figure 5.3: Parameter-space diagram showing the period-one and period-two fixed points of Map 1. In the region
< 0 and < 0
we can see, for example, that there is an unstable period-one fixed point in
R1 and that there is a stable period-two fixed point between regions R1 and R4 . In Figure 5.4, below, we
represent this in phase-space. We follow the standard convention of a solid black circle for stable points and a hollow circle for unstable points. We join two points with a dashed line to represent period-two orbits. Note that the period-one and the period-two fixed points have the same x-coordinate as a result of the map being diagonalised. y
Figure 5.4: An unstable period-one fixed point in
R1 and a stable period-two fixed point between R1 .and
R4
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Mark Ekins
In Figure 5.5, below, we also draw the phase-space for the other three regions of parameter space. y y -1
x x
a
4
3 34
1 14 2 12 13 23 24
Figure 5.5: An illustration of all the period-one and period-two fixed points of Map 1 for all four regions of parameter-space We can see in Figure 5.5, above, that as we move between the four regions of parameter-space, labelled
(a) ,
(b) , (c)
and
(d) , there are qualitative changes in phase-space, i.e. bifurcations occur. We shall notate the (a)
to
bifurcation that occurs as we move from
(c)
as (a) (c) and so on. We can see that there are four
codimension-one bifurcations and two codimension-two bifurcations. The codimension one bifurcations that can be achieved by varying These occur at the
are (a) (c) and (b) (d) .
-axis.
are (a) (b) and (c) (d).
The codimension one bifurcations that can be achieved by varying These occur at the -axis.
The codimension-two bifurcations are (a) (d) and (c) (b). These can only occur if both and are varied at the same time and they occur at the origin of parameter-space.
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Mark Ekins
In the rest of this section we show what actually occurs as these bifurcations take place. y y
Figure 5.6: Bifurcation in Map 1 as changes from positive to negative and constant.
remains at a negative
Figure 5.6 shows what happens in the bifurcation (a) (c). Using the notation set out in section 2.3.2 it is a bifurcation of the form
A B, AB . As
approaches zero, the period-one fixed point approaches the x-
axis. As it crosses the x-axis the discontinuity - the fixed point loses its stability and undergoes perioddoubling. This results in the birth of a stable period two orbit between regions
R1 and R4 .
y
x x
Figure 5.7: Bifurcation in Map 1 as changes from positive to negative and constant.
remains at a positive
Figure 5.7 shows what happens in the bifurcation (b) (d) . It is also a bifurcation of the form
A B, AB .
As
approaches zero the period-one fixed point and both points in the period-two orbit
approach the x-axis. As each point crosses the x-axis the discontinuity - it changes its stability and undergoes period-doubling. This results in the birth of three more period-two orbits, of which two, are stable and one unstable: The period doubling of the unstable period-one fixed point leads to an unstable period-two orbit between adjacent regions
R2
and
R3 . The period doubling of the two points in the stable period-two
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Mark Ekins
orbit leads to two more period-two orbits. These are between the non-adjacent regions between non-adjacent
R1 and R3 and
R2 and R4
y
and are both stable.
x x
Figure 5.8: Bifurcation in Map 1 as
changes from negative to positive and remains at a positive constant.
Figure 5.8 shows what happens in the bifurcation (a) (b) . It is a bifurcation of the form is qualitatively the same as (a) (c), described on page 31. As point in
A B, AB
and
approaches zero the period-one fixed
R4
approaches the y-axis. As it crosses the y-axis - the discontinuity - the fixed point loses its
stability and undergoes period-doubling. This results in the birth of a stable period two orbit.
Figure 5.9: Bifurcation in Map 1 as
changes from negative to positive and remains at a negative constant.
Figure 5.9 shows what happens in the bifurcation (c) (d). It is a bifurcation of the form is qualitatively the same as (b) (d), described on page 31. As
A B, AB
and
approaches zero the period-one fixed
points and both points in the period-two orbit approach the y-axis. As each point crosses the y-axis - the discontinuity - its stability changes and it undergoes period-doubling. The period doubling of the unstable period-one fixed point leads to an unstable period-two orbit between adjacent regions
R1 and R2 . The
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Mark Ekins
period doubling of the two points in the stable period-two orbit leads to two more period-two orbits. These are between the non-adjacent regions
R1 and R3
and between non-adjacent
R2 and R4
y
and are both stable.
x x
Figure 5.10: Bifurcation in Map 1 as and change from negative to positive at the same time, i.e. the vector passes through the origin. Figure 5.10 shows what happens in the bifurcation (c) (b). This bifurcation is qualitatively different from the previous four. It is a codimension-two bifurcation. As period-one fixed point in region
and
simultaneously approach zero, the
R1 and both points in the period-two orbit between region R1 and R4
approach the origin. As each point reaches the origin the point where the two discontinuities meet it ceases to exist. There then emerges from the origin an unstable period-one fixed point in period-two fixed point between
R4
and a stable
R4 and R3 .
Note that everything takes place at one point in phase-space,
namely, at the origin. This bifurcation possesses all of the properties we desire in our codimension-two bifurcation. The end result is the same as (c) (a) followed by (a) (b) . We will notate this as
(c) (a) (a) (b).
Figure 5.11: Bifurcation in Map 1 as changes from negative to positive at the same time as changes from positive to negative, i.e. the vector passes through the origin.
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Mark Ekins
Figure 5.11 shows what happens in the bifurcation (a) (d) . This bifurcation is qualitatively different from the five described so for and is the most interesting. Like the last bifurcation it is also a codimension-two bifurcation. As
and simultaneously approach zero, the period-one fixed point in region
R4
approaches
the origin. As it reaches the origin the point where the two discontinuities meet it ceases to exist. There then emerges from the origin a stable period-one fixed point in between between
R2 , an unstable period-two fixed point R1 and R2 , an unstable period-two fixed point between R2 and R3 , a stable period-two fixed point R1 and R3 and a stable period-two fixed point between R2 and R4 . Note that everything takes
place at one point in phase-space, namely, at the origin. This bifurcation also possesses all of the properties we desire in our codimension-two bifurcation. The end result is the same as (a) (b) followed by
(b) (d) . We shall notate this as (a) (b) (b) (d) .

So in Map 1 we have found two of the type of bifurcation we are looking for. The bifurcations (c) (b) and (a) (d) are codimension-two, are the result of two simultaneous C-bifurcations and all of the bifurcation behaviour occurs at one place in phase-space.
5.4 All Types of Codimension-Two Bifurcation in a General Diagonalised Map.

In this section we identify all of the types of codimension-two bifurcation that can occur in a diagonalised map. Recall from section 2.3.2 that the following C-bifurcations can take place at a single boundary:
Smooth transition: Annihilation: Smooth Transition + Period-doubling: Annihilation + Period doubling: Annihilation + Reverse Period-doubling:
A B
A, B A B, AB A, B AB A, B, AB
The parameter-space of the general diagonalised map is split up into four regions as we saw in sections 5.1 and 5.2. So as we move between adjacent regions in parameter-space we will get codimension-one bifurcations of the above type occurring. It can be shown that any such map that contains one of these bifurcations at one of the boundaries in parameter-space must contain the reverse of that bifurcation at the opposite boundary in the following way:
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Mark Ekins
If a map contains:
then it must also contain:
A, B A, B
A, B
Figure 5.12: Example of bifurcation configuration restriction. and similarly for the boundary formed by the codimension-one bifurcation.
-axis.
So a diagonalised map will contain two types of
In section 5.3 we saw that in Map 1 the codimension-two bifurcations combined two codimension-one bifurcations in the following way:
(c) (b) was A, AB B A B, AB (a) (d) was A B, AB A B, AB
Note that from
A, AB B A B, AB
we can deduce
A B, AB A B, AB
(or vice versa)
because of the principle of the existence of the reverse bifurcation that we have just explained. Then to describe the two codimension-two bifurcations in any diagonalised map we need just to know the two types of codimension-one bifurcation that occur at any two perpendicular boundaries of parameter-space. So all the possible combinations of codimension-one bifurcations are given by:
A B A B A, B A, B A B, AB A B, AB A, B AB A, B AB A, B, AB A, B, AB
(7)
Thus there are fifteen unique combinations. That is, there are fifteen topologically different diagonalised maps. If we take any one of these we can deduce the number (thought not the stability) of period-one and period-two fixed points in each region of parameter-space by considering the codimension-one bifurcations that take place. Once we know this we can see what types of codimension-two bifurcations will take place.
5.5 Classifying the Bifurcations by the Map Eigenvalues

Recall that [3] presented a scheme for classifying bifurcations by the eigenvalues of the map. In this section we apply this classification scheme to pairs of adjacent phase-space regions in
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Mark Ekins
Map 1 and classify the codimension-one bifurcations. From these we successfully classify the codimension-two bifurcations. We then show, however, that this scheme cannot directly classify the codimension-two bifurcations by examining only the eigenvalues of the map as a whole and that this is an open problem. Recall section 2.3.3. For an n-dimensional map with 1 discontinuity we are able, by looking at the total number of a maps eigenvalues greater that 1 and the total number less than 1, to classify the type of codimension-one bifurcation that will occur. We apply this scheme to regions and
R4 and R3
and to regions
R3
R2 as follows:
Define
i+
as the number of eigenvalues of
Ai
greater than 1 and
as the number of eigenvalues of
Ai
less than 1. From Table 5.1 we have that the eigenvalues of
and (13) we have that
1 < a < 1 and 1 < h < 1 . Thus
A 4 are a and h . From equations (10) + 4 = 0 and 4 = 0 . From Table 5.1 we have
A 3 are e and h . From equations (12) and (13) we have that e < 1 and + 1 < h < 1 . Thus 3+ = 0 and 3 = 1 . Thus we have that 4 + 3+ = 0 is even, which implies a smooth transition at the bifurcation, and that 4 + 3 = 1 is odd, which implies period doubling. So the codimension-one bifurcation at the boundary between R4 and R3 is of the type A B, AB . Similar + + analysis yields that 3 + 2 is also even and that 3 + 2 is also odd. Therefore the codimension-one bifurcation at the boundary between R3 and R2 is also of the type A B, AB . Thus we can deduce that the codimension-two bifurcations that occur are of the type A B, AB A B, AB and A, AB B A B, AB . Note that this is exactly what we discovered in chapter 5.
that the eigenvalues of Now rather than examining pairs of regions we attempt to apply the scheme to the map as a whole. By examination of the eigenvalues in Table 5.1 and from equations (10) - (13) we have that
+ + 1+ + 2 + 3+ + 4 = even and 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = even.
(29)
Notice, though, that both

+ 1+ + 2 = even, 3+ + 4+ = even, 1 + 2 = odd, 3 + 4 = odd
(30)
and
+ 1+ + 2 = even, 3+ + 4+ = even, 1 + 2 = even, 3 + 4 = even
(31)
would both give (29). The situation in (30) implies two codimension-one bifurcations of the type
A B, AB and thus codimension-two bifurcations of the type A, AB B A B, AB and A, AB B A B, AB . The situation in (31), however, implies codimension-one bifurcations of the type A B and A B and thus two codimension-two bifurcations of the type A B A B .
Clearly then, (29) does not give us sufficient information to be able to predict the type of codimension-two
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Mark Ekins
bifurcations that will occur. We cannot classify codimension-two bifurcations by just considering the eigenvalues of the map as a whole
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6 The General Map

In this section we analyse the most general form of the map. We see that the findings of chapter 5 are not valid for the general map. The configuration of the regions of existence in parameterspace is much more complicated than in the diagonalised map and this leads to a greater quantity of types of codimension-two bifurcations at the origin. It also has the effect that, in general, the disappearance of one period-one fixed point does not necessarily coincide with the simultaneous disappearance or appearance of another period-one fixed point, nor does the appearance of a period-two fixed point necessarily coincide with a period-one fixed point hitting a boundary in phase-space. This is contrary to the behaviour observed in the diagonalised map and in [3]. If we could transform the general map to the form of a diagonalised map then all of our findings from chapter 5 would also be valid for the general map. Unfortunately this is not possible. Observe that for any two adjacent regions the transformations that will diagonalise each are not necessarily the same. On could be a rotation for example and the other a stretch. Clearly the map would no longer be continuous and thus there is not, in general, a way to transform the general map into a diagonalised map. Therefore, in order to analyse the bifurcations in a general map we need to go through the existence and stability analysis that was outlined in chapter 4.

We begin by examining the regions of existence of the period-one fixed points. We conduct the analysis in detail for
x(1) but merely present the results for the other three points.
Ri is given by
Recall from section 4.1.1 that a period-one fixed point in
bi (d i 1) (a 1)(d 1) b c i i i x (i) = i ci (ai 1) (ai 1)(d i 1) bi ci

and
(32)
x (i)
must be in region
Ri . This gives rise to two inequalities in and that define the region of
existence in parameter-space for each
x (i) . For x(1) these are

b (d 1) <0 (a 1)(d 1) bc
(33)
x (1) =
and
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Mark Ekins
y (1) =
Now, noting that
c (a 1) < 0. (a 1)(d 1) bc
(34)
and
only appear in the numerator of (33) and (34), then the region of existence in
parameter-space can be defined by
b (d 1) < 0
and
(35)
c (a 1) < 0 .
Rearranging these gives that the region of existence will be bounded by the lines
(36)
= f x(1) =
and
(d 1)
b
(37)
= f y(1) =
We use
c . (a 1)
(38)
f x(1) to denote the line in parameter-space at which x(1) ceases to exist because the x-component, x (1) , will leave the region R1 as it crosses the y-axis; and f y(1) to denote the line in parameter-space at (1) (1) which x ceases to exist because the y-component, y , will leave the region R1 as it crosses the x-axis.
Whether the region of existence is the region bounded by depends upon the sign of
< f x(1)
or
> f x(1)
and
< f y(1)
or
> f y(1)
b and of (a 1) and the effect this has on the inequalities when we rearrange (35)
and (36) to arrive at (37) and (38). Completing this analysis for all of the period-one fixed points gives Table 6.1, below. Fixed Point
x(1)
x(2)
f x(i )
(d 1)
b
(d 1)
b
x(3) (h 1) f
g (e 1)
x(4) (h 1) f
c (a 1)
f y(i )
c (a 1)
g (e 1)
Table 6.1: Existence lines for period-one fixed points of the general map. Note that
f x(1) = f x( 2 ) , f x( 3) = f x( 4 ) , f y(1) = f y( 4) and f y( 2) = f y(3) . We shall denote these as f x(1),( 2) , f x(3),( 4 ) , f y(1),( 4) and f y( 2),(3) respectively. Also note that these lines are completely independent from one
another. Thus we have four lines in parameter-space that can be arranged completely freely with respect to each other (in the diagonalised map we saw that all of the lines were either
=0
or
= 0 ). Notice that
since the regions of existence can be configured in any way then the disappearance of one period-one fixed
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Mark Ekins
point does not (as they do in the diagonalised map and the class of system investigated in [3]) necessarily coincide with the simultaneous disappearance or appearance of another period-one fixed point.
In Figure 6.1, below, we have presented one possible configuration. L3 and
f x(1),( 2) is L1, f x(3),( 4 ) is L2, f y(1),( 4) is

R1 (this is a new type of
f y( 2),(3)
is L4. As we follow Route 1 through parameter-space we get the following bifurcations: At
first there are no fixed points; As we cross L3, a fixed point appears at the y-axis in
bifurcation); As we cross L2, two fixed points appear at the y-axis, these are in
R3
and
R4
(this is
A, B ); As we cross L1, the fixed point in R1 crosses the y-axis into R2 (this is A B ); As we cross L4 the fixed points in R2 and R3 annihilate each other at the x-axis (this is A, B ).
1 3 4
-1
Figure 6.1: Example configuration of period-one regions of existence in a general map. A complete description of all possible configurations is beyond the scope of this project.

We show that the level of complexity with which parameter-space is divided into regions of existence is very great. Recall from section 4.2.1 that a period-two fixed point between regions
Ri and R j is given by
x (ij)
(a j bi + b j d i )(c j + (d j + 1) ) (bi c j + d i d j 1)((a j + 1) + b j ) (ai a j + b j ci 1)(bi c j + d i d j 1) (ai c j + ci d j )(a j bi + b j d i ) = (ai c j + ci d j )((a j + 1) + b j ) (ai a j + b j ci 1)(c j + (d j + 1) ) (a a + b c 1)(b c + d d 1) (a c + c d )(a b + b d ) i j j i i j i j i j i j j i j i
(39)
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Mark Ekins
x(ij) must be in region Ri and x(ji) must be in region R j . As we saw in section 4.2.1 this gives rise (ij) to four inequalities in and that describe the region of existence in parameter-space for each x . As (i) with the two inequalities for x , (35) and (36), these four inequalities can be rearranged to give us four lines (ij) in parameter space that bind the existence region of x . Since there are six types of period-two orbit there
and that are twenty-four period-two existence lines. Unlike the period-one existence lines, none of the period-two lines are equal to one another in a general map (in the diagonalised map we saw that all of the lines were either
= 0 or = 0 ).
Notice that since period-two existence lines do not necessarily equal period-one existence lines then periodtwo fixed points can appear without having to be accompanied by some change in the period-one fixed points (as they did in the diagonalised map and the class of system investigated in [3]).
Combining our findings for period-one and for period-two fixed points we have that parameter-space will be divided up into regions of existence by twenty-eight lines that pass through the origin. The codimension-one bifurcations that can occur as we move through parameter space are all of those described in [3] as well as the isolated appearance of period-one fixed points and of period-two fixed points. As a result, the types of codimension-two bifurcations that can occur are very varied.
As you can see, the behaviour of the general map is very complicated. We do not attempt to present any examples here. It remains as an open problem for this system to be investigated more fully and for the formulation of a method of classifying the bifurcations by the map eigenvalues.
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Mark Ekins
7 Conclusion
In this section we summarise our motivations, what we have done, what we have found and present some of the open problems.
There are many real life piecewise smooth system in engineering and applied science. These can be modelled as piecewise smooth maps with various normal forms and they display various non-standard bifurcations. In [3], M. di Bernardo et al investigated the codimension-one C-bifurcations that occur at a discontinuity in piecewise linear maps. Our aim has been to construct a map that exhibits codimension-two bifurcations that are a combination of two C-bifurcations.
We have taken a two-dimensional piecewise linear map with discontinuities at x=0 and at y=0. Thus the map has four linear regions in phase-space. Our methodology was to examine the conditions of existence and stability for fixed points of period-one and period-two. We first conducted this analysis on a diagonalised version of the map and then on the general form of the map.
For the diagonalised version of the map the parameter-space was split into four regions, each containing a topologically different phase-space. In an example diagonalised map, Map 1, we found codimension-two bifurcations that were a combination of two C-bifurcations i.e. we fulfilled our principle objective. We went on to show all of the types of codimension-one and codimension-two bifurcations that can occur in a diagonalised map. We have also shown that the classification scheme of [3] cannot be used to directly classify the codimension-two bifurcations.
For the general, map we have shown that the system behaviour is very complicated. Parameter-space is splitup into regions of existence by twenty-eight different lines. As well as the codimension-one C-bifurcations that were investigated in [3] it is also possible to have two other types of codimension-one bifurcations, namely the appearance of a period-one fixed point or of a period-two fixed point without these being associated with changes to other points. Consequently there are many types of codimension-two bifurcations, the analysis of which is particularly complicated and is left as an open problem
All of our findings can be applied directly to any piecewise smooth system that can be modelled by this particular form of linear map. Further to this, our approach can be adapted to any piecewise smooth dynamical system as a means of investigating codimension-one and codimension-two non-standard bifurcations.
This investigation can be continued in many directions. These include investigating the basins of attraction of the stable fixed-points; examining linear maps with more than four regions; examining the effect noise will - 42 -
Mark Ekins
have; investigating non-continuous maps; and extending it to include an analysis of the other normal forms. The most important advancement, however, is the development of a method to classify the codimension-two bifurcations from the eigenvalues of the map as a whole. We hope that this project will serve as a useful starting point for this work.
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Mark Ekins
A.
1 4 2 3
Appendix A
-1
1 4 2 3 1 2 34 1 2 3 4 1 4 2 3 1 4 2 3 1 2 34 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
-1
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1
2 3 2 3 1 4 1 4
1 4
2 3
1 4
2 3
1 4
2 3
1 4
2 3
-1
1 4
2 3
1 4
2 3
1 2 3 4
1 4
2 3
1 4
2 3
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
2 3
1 4
-1
-1
1 4 2 3 1 4 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 1 4 2 3 1 4 2 3 1 2 3 4 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 1 2 3 4 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 1 2 3 4 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 2 3 1 4
4 1
3 2
4 1
3 2
4 1
3 2
4 1
3 2
3 2 3 2
4 1 4 1
4 1
3 2
4 1
3 2
4 1
3 2
4 1
3 2
-1
1 2 3 4 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 1 2 3 4 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 1 2 3 4 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 1 2 3 4 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2
1 4
2 3
1 4
2 3
1 4
2 3
1 4
2 3
2 3
1 4
4 1
3 2
4 1
3 2
4 1
3 2
4 1
3 2
3 2
4 1
4 1
3 2
4 1
3 2
4 1
3 2
4 1
3 2
3 2
4 1
Figure A.1: Illustration of period-one fixed points in the parameter-space of the diagonalised map for all possible a, d, e and h values. The bold dashed lines divide the a-d space into regions divided by a=-1, a= (vertical)1, d=-1 and d=1 (horizontal). Embedded within each of these nine regions is the e-h space. The non-bold dashed lines divide the e-h space into regions divided by e=-1, e=1(vertical), h=-1 and h=1(horizontal). Thus there are eightyone distinct regions. Embedded in each of these is a diagram of the - parameter-space as it appears for that particular combination of a, d, e and h. The vertical is the -axis and the horizontal the -axis (These appear to be different shapes. This is a result of formatting restrictions and does not imply any difference between the sets of axes.). The representation of the fixed points follows the format set out in section 4.3. The grey axes corresponds to Map 1 which was examined in chapter 5.
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Mark Ekins
References
1 M. di Bernardo, P. Kowalczyk, A. Nordmark , Bifurcations of dynamical systems with sliding: derivation of normal-form mappings, Physica D, Vol 170, pp175205, 2002 2 http://eis.bris.ac.uk/~mameh/research.html 3 M. di Bernado, M. Feigin, S. J. Hogan, M. E. Homer, Local Analysis of C-Bifurcations in n-Dimensional Space Piecewise Smooth Dynamical Systems, Chaos, Solitons and Fractals, Vol 10, No 11, pp. 1881-1908, 1999. 4 J. Hale and and H. Kocak, Dynamics and Bifurcations, Springer-Verlag, 1991. 5 A. Jukes, Higher Order Bifurcations in Nonlinear Physical Systems, Dissertation in Support of the Degree of Master of Science, University of Bristol, 2002. 6 B. Brogliato, Nonsmooth Mechanics, Springer-Verlag, 1999. 7 S. H. Strogatz, Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos, Addison-Wesley, 1994. 8 J. Guckenheimer and P. J. Holmes, Nonlinear Oscillations, Dynamical Systems and Bifurcations of Vector Fields, Springer-Verlag, 1986.
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Higher Order Bifurcation in Piecewise Linear Maps

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Masters of Engineering Final Project Higher Order Bifurcations in Piecewise Linear Maps

Higher Order Bifurcations in Piecewise Linear Maps

2.1 Review of Maps

: x x where x n and x 0 is the initial condition of the system. When we study

Definition 1 (Period-One Fixed Point): A point [4]

x e n is a period-one fixed point of if (xe ) = xe .

x e is a period-n fixed point of

Definition 3 (Stability): A fixed point the Jacobian matrix

x e of is said to be asymptotically stable if all the eigenvalues of

are said to be topologically equivalent if

Definition 5 (Bifurcation): A map undergoes a bifurcation at a parameter

2.2 Motivations and Applications

Example of a Piecewise Smooth System

x = 0 . For x < 0 the motion is governed

= G1 ( x, x, F ,1 ,k1) . For x > 0 x

the motion is governed by a function of the position, the velocity

the driving force, both springs and both dampers, that is

Figure 2.1: Example of an impact oscillator

be an n-dimensional continuous system. Let D be an n-1 dimensional surface of section (see

represents the kth iteration then the Poincar map

Figure 2.2: Schematic of a Poincar section.

2.3 Review of Previous Work

Deriving the Local Map from the System Flow

describes a continuous system where

discontinuity in the first derivative) with countably many

f : n+1 n is piecewise smooth (with p regions, is a parameter vector and

R2 , each one corresponding to a different side of the boundary in phase-space. Let M

be the fixed point at

M at the origin, such that the sign of the nth coordinate

x (k) = (x (k)1 , x (k)2 ,..., x (k)n ) , is in the subplane R1 or R2 (i.e.

A1x(k) + x(k)n > 0 . x (k +1) = A 2 x(k) + x(k)n > 0

Annihilation ( is the change in the bifurcation parameter)

Note that each of these bifurcations can take place in reverse.

1+ = number of real eigenvalues of A1 greater than 1;

1 = number of real eigenvalues of A1 less than - 1;

then the type of bifurcation is determined as follows:

We shall refer back to this result in section 5.5.

R1 , R2 , R3 and R4 as illustrated in Figure 3.1, below.

It is easier to visualise in Figure 3.2, below.

Figure 3.2: Representation of a four region piecewise linear mapping in phase-space.

Figure 3.3: The matrices A1, A2, A3 and A4.

4.1 Period-One Fixed Points

Ri shall be denoted by x (i) . From section 2.1.1 we know that it must

bi (d i 1) (a 1)(d 1) b c i i i . x (i) = i ci (ai 1) (ai 1)(d i 1) bi ci

there will be values of

For example: x must be in region a negative x-value and a negative y-value.

So the following inequalities must hold for the two elements of

x(1) , x (1) and y (1) :

x e of is said to be stable if all the eigenvalues of the

From equation (5) we can thus determine whether or not

4.2 Period-Two Fixed Points

Ri that is mapped to a point in region R j by one iteration and then back

each pair of regions

From section 2.1.1 a period-two fixed point must satisfy

2 (x(ij) ) = j i (x(ij) ) = x(ij) .

x(ij) = A j (Ai x(ij) + ) + .

there will be values of

R1 and 1 (x(13) ) must be in region R3 . Recall from Figure 3.1,

page 13, that this means that

and noting that

So the following inequalities must hold for the two elements of of

x e of is said to be stable if all the eigenvalues of the

C = ((ai a j + b j ci ) + (bi c j + di d j ))2 4[(ai a j + b j ci )(bi c j + di d j ) (a j bi + b j di )(ai c j + ci d j )]