BASIC DEFINITIONS

Hydrocarbons
From point of view of chemistry Hydrocarbons are compounds formed by two elements only, hydrogen and carbon. Because of their different molecular structures, they have different chemical and physical properties. One of the main characteristic of hydrocarbons consists in their ability to oxidize quickly releasing a large quantity of thermal energy. For petroleum engineers

Petroleum and natural gas are themselves often referred to as "hydrocarbons. However they often contain substantial amounts of nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen, trace metals, and other elements.

Hydrocarbon reservoir

A subsurface body of rock having sufficient permeability to store and transmit fluids.

porosity

and

Sedimentary rocks are the most common reservoir rocks because they have more porosity than most igneous and metamorphic rocks and form under temperature conditions at which hydrocarbons can be preserved.

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Reserves

Hydrocarbon reserves are the estimated quantities of hydrocarbons that are claimed to be recoverable under existing economic and operating conditions

OHIP: Original Hydrocarbon In Place. Is an estimation of the hydrocarbon volume in a known reservoir prior to any production activity.

Recovery factor = RESERVES / OHIP

ORIGIN OF HYDROCARBONS RESERVOIRS

Origin of hydrocarbon reservoir

For an oil or gas accumulation to exist, four things are required:
source rock: a shale must contain organic material which has not been

oxidized and which is converted to petroleum by burial pressure and temperatures;

reservoir rock: a place that oil migrates to and is held underground. A

sandstone normally has high porosity in which oil and gas can be trapped. That is why sandstone is one of the common reservoir rocks. However, more than 5% of the worlds major hydrocarbon reserves are found within carbonates, limestone and dolostones.

sealing rock - (trap rock): unlike a reservoir rock, which acts like a

sponge, trap rocks act like walls and ceilings, and will not allows fluids to move through. The most common trap rock is shale, which, when compared to many sandstones, has very low permeability. Salt is also a good seal.

trapping mechanism: a set of conditions to hold the petroleum in a

reservoir and prevent its escape by migration.

Origin of hydrocarbon reservoir

STEP 4 STEP 1

STEP 2

STEP 3

STEP 1 - Hydrocarbons formation

Oil and gas form as the result of a precise sequence of environmental conditions:
The presence of organic material Organic remains being trapped and preserved in sediment The material is buried deeply and then slowly "cooked" by increased temperature and pressure

STEP 1 - Hydrocarbons formation

Deposition of sediments and organic matter Where seas and swampy areas rich in microscopic plants and animals

What happened died and slowly sank to the bottom forming thick layers of organic material. This in turn became covered in layers of mud that trapped the organic material

STEP 1 - Hydrocarbons formation

Oil and gas were formed by the anaerobic decay of organic material in conditions of increased temperature and pressure

C O M P A C T I O N
Geothermal gradient ~3 C/100 m

T E M P E R A T U R E

STEP 1 - Hydrocarbons formation

T E M P E R A T U R E

ORGANIC MATTER

D E P -1000 m T H

DIAGENESIS Transformation of sediments into rock and of the organic matter in kerogen

50 C

CATAGENESIS Transformation of kerogene into hydrocarbons OIL -5000 m NATURAL GAS

150 C

STEP 2 - Hydrocarbon Migration

Traditionally, the process of petroleum migration is divided in two stages: Primary migration is the process by which hydrocarbons are expelled from the source rock into an adjacent permeable carrier bed.

Secondary migration movement of hydrocarbons along a "carrier bed" from the source area to the trap. Migration mostly takes place as one or more separate hydrocarbons phases (gas or liquid depending on pressure and temperature conditions).

STEP 2 - Hydrocarbon Migration

Driving forces for migration
Buoyancy: acts vertically and is proportional to the density

difference between water and the hydrocarbon so it is stronger for gas than heavier oil

Hydrodynamic flow: water potential deflect the direction of oil

migration, the effect is usually minor except in over pressured zones (primary migration)

Resisting forces
Capillary pressure: opposes movement of fluid from coarse-grain

to fine-grain rock, also the capillary pressure of the water in the reservoir resists the movement of oil

STEP 3 - Trapping Mechanisms

Any arrangement of strata that permits the accumulation of hydrocarbons in commercial quantities is a trap receives the hydrocarbons prevents their escape From the point of view of the migration process a trap is something that interrupts the migration and prevents it from continuing.

STEP 3 - Trap nomenclature

Crest ( or culmination) is the highest point of the trap

Spill point: lowest point at which hydrocarbons may be contained in the trap. The corresponding horizontal contour is named the spill lane
Closure: vertical distance crest to spill plane Oil-water contact (OWC): deepest level of producible oil. Gas-oil contact (GOC): deepest level of producible gas.

STEP 3 - main types of traps

Structural trap consists of a structural high, such as an anticline or dome, where oil and gas can accumulate and cannot migrate an higher through the reservoir. The sealing rock caps the structural features. For a structural trap to exist, the structural contours must be closed. If there is no closure, the oil can continue to migrate higher.

STEP 3 - main types of traps

Fault Traps the reservoir is displaced by a fault and the reservoir sealt against an impermeable formation. The fault itself also must be sealing, but not all faults provide a seal against fluids traversing the fault to another permeable formation.

Stratigraphic trap the reservoir pinches out against some other impermeable formation, thus trapping the oil from migration higher. The pinchout occur when the reservoir thickness, porosity, or permeability are reduced to zero. For a trap to exist, however, the structural contours of the reservoir must close onto the pinchout

STEP 3 - main types of traps

Hydrodynamic Traps A tilted water/hydrocarbon contact exists. Tilted aquifer occurs when the aquifer is in motion because of a aquifer pressure gradients. Whenever a tilted contact occurs, it displaces oil farther downdip in the direction of the tilt, which is the direction of the aquifer movement. This means that the oil can be displaced off the top of structures or can be trapped in noses. When the reservoir is heterogeneous, oil or gas can even be trapped in monoclines.