Chapter 10

Chapter 10
Cycles
Read BS, Chapters 11, 12
In this chapter, we will delve more deeply into some thermodynamic cycles.
10.1 Rankine
Large electric power plants typically utilize a vapor power cycle. Regardless of the heat
source, be it nuclear or combustion of coal, oil, natural gas, wood chips, etc., the remaining
details of these plants are similar. Typically a pure working uid, usually water, is circulated
through a cycle, and that uid trades heat and work with its surroundings. We sketch a
typical power plant cycle for electricity generation in Fig. 10.1. The ideal Rankine cycle was
rst described in 1859 by William John Macquorn Rankine, long after the steam engine was
in wide usage. The cycle has the following steps:
1 2: isentropic compression in a pump,
2 3: isobaric heating in a boiler,
3 4: isentropic expansion in a turbine, and
4 1: isobaric cooling in a condenser.
Two variants of the T s diagram are given in Fig. 10.2. The rst is more ecient as it has
the appearance of a Carnot cycle. However, it is impractical, as it induces liquid water in
the turbine, which can damage its blades. So the second is more common.
The thermal eciency is
=
W
net
Q
H
=
W
turbine
+

W
pump
Q
boiler
. (10.1)
287
288 CHAPTER 10. CYCLES
1 2
3
4
turbine
boiler
condenser
pump
fuel
air
work
in
combustion
exhaust
generator
+
-
. .
cooling
tower
cold water
hot water
Figure 10.1: Rankine cycle schematic.
This reduces to
=
m((h
3
h
4
) + (h
1
h
2
))
m(h
3
h
2
)
, (10.2)
= 1
h
4
h
1
h
3
h
2
, (10.3)
= 1
q
out,condenser
q
in,boiler
. (10.4)
Note that because the Rankine cycle is not a Carnot cycle, we have q
out,condenser
/q
in,boiler
=
T
1
/T
3
.
Power plants are sometimes characterized by their
back work ratio: bwr, the ratio of pump work to turbine work.
Here,
bwr =
|pump work|
|turbine work|
=
h
2
h
1
h
3
h
4
. (10.5)
We model the pump work as an isentropic process. Recall our analysis for isentropic pumps
which generated Eq. (9.46). The Gibbs equation gives Tds = dh vdP. If ds = 0, we have
dh = vdP, (10.6)
CC BY-NC-ND. 04 May 2012, J. M. Powers.
10.1. RANKINE 289
s
T
1
2
3
4
s
T
1
2
3
4
Figure 10.2: T s for two Rankine cycles.
Thus, for the pump
h
2
h
1
= v(P
2
P
1
), (10.7)
since v is nearly constant, so the integration is simple.
It might be tempting to make the Rankine cycle into a Carnot cycle as sketched in
Fig. 10.3. However, it is practically dicult to build a pump to handle two-phase mixtures.
s
T
1
2 3
4
Figure 10.3: Rankine-Carnot cycle.
The gas phase can seriously damage the pump. Some features which could be desirable for
a Rankine cycle include
high power output: One can enhance this by raising the uid to a high temperature
during the combustion process or by pumping the uid to a high pressure. Both
strategies soon run into material limits; turbine blades melt and pipes burst. Another
strategy is to lower the condenser pressure, which means that one must maintain a
vacuum, which can be dicult.
high thermal eciency: The key design strategy here is lies in 1) increasing component
eciencies, and 2) rendering the overall cycle as much like a Carnot cycle as is feasible.
Modern power plants have had revolutionary increases in overall thermal eciency
because of enhancements which make the process more Carnot-like.
There are some important loss mechanisms in the Rankine cycle which inhibit eciency.
They include
Turbine losses: These are the major losses. To avoid these losses requires detailed
consideration of uid mechanics, material science, and heat transfer and is beyond
the scope of classical thermodynamics. Thermodynamics develops broad measures of
turbine eciency such as
turbine
= (h
3
h
4
)/(h
3
h
4s
).
Pump losses: Again, uid mechanics, machine design, and material science are required
to analyze how to actually avoid these losses. Thermodynamics characterizes them by
pump eciency,
pump
= (h
2s
h
1
)/(h
2
h
1
).
Heat transfer losses from components.
Pressure drop in pipes.
Incomplete fuel combustion.
Pollution removal devices.
Loss of heat to surroundings in the condenser.
One simple design strategy to make the system more Carnot-like is to use
Reheat: a design strategy in which steam is extracted from the turbine before it is
fully expanded, then sent to the boiler again, and re-expanded through the remainder
of the turbine.
This has the eect of making the system more like a Carnot cycle. A schematic and T s
diagram for the Rankine cycle with reheat is given in Fig. 10.4.
Example 10.1
Consider water in a Rankine power cycle with reheat. The rst turbine has water enter at P
3
=
8000 kPa, T
3
= 480

C. The water expands to 700 kPa, undergoes reheat, and then expands again to
8 kPa. The mass ow rate is m = 2.63 10
5
kg/hr. We have
t
= 0.88 for each turbine, and
p
= 0.80
for the pump. Find the net power generated, , and the heat transfer to the condenser.
10.1. RANKINE 291
pump
boiler
turbine
condenser
1
2
3
6
5
4
T
s
1
2
3
4
5
6
Figure 10.4: Rankine cycle with reheat schematic and T s diagram.
Let us consider the big picture rst. The net specic power will be the positive eect of the two
turbines and the negative eect of the pump:
w
net
= (h
3
h
4
)
. .
turbine 1
+(h
5
h
6
)
. .
turbine 2
+(h
1
h
2
)
. .
pump
. (10.8)
Now, the heat input for the reheat is in two stages:
q
in
= (h
3
h
2
) + (h
5
h
4
). (10.9)
Lastly, the heat rejection in the condenser is
q
out
= h
6
h
1
. (10.10)
Let us start at the entrance of the rst turbine, at 3. We are given P
3
and T
3
, so we consult the
tables and nd
h
3
= 3348.4
kJ
kg
, s
3
= 6.6586
kJ
kg K
. (10.11)
We are given P
4
= 7 bar = 700 kPa. Now, let us get the ideal behavior of the turbine: s
4s
= s
3
=
6.6586 kJ/kg/K. At this condition, we nd state 4 is a two-phase mixture. At 700 kPa, we nd
s
f
= 1.9922 kJ/kg/K, s
g
= 6.7080 kJ/kg/K. So
x
4s
=
s
4s
s
f
s
g
s
f
=
_
6.6586
kJ
kg K
_
_
1.9922
kJ
kg K
_
_
6.7080
kJ
kg K
_
_
1.9922
kJ
kg K
_ = 0.9895. (10.12)
We can thus get h
4s
by consulting the tables to nd
h
4s
= h
f
+ x
4s
h
fg
=
_
697.22
kJ
kg
_
+ (0.9895)
_
2066.3
kJ
kg
_
= 2741.8
kJ
kg
. (10.13)
Now,
t
= (h
3
h
4
)/(h
3
h
4s
), so
h
4
= h
3
t
(h
3
h
4s
), (10.14)
=
_
3348.4
kJ
kg
_
(0.88)
__
3348.4
kJ
kg
_
_
2741.8
kJ
kg
__
, (10.15)
= 2814.6
kJ
kg
. (10.16)
Now, state 5 is after the reheat, which was isobaric at P
4
= P
5
= 700 kPa, and the reheating returns the
temperature to T
5
= 480

C. From interpolation of the superheat tables, we nd h
5
= 3361.15 kJ/kg,
s
5
= 6.73695 kJ/kg/K. After expansion in the second turbine, we have s
6s
= s
5
= 6.73695 kJ/kg.
And we were given P
6
= 8 kPa. We consult the saturation tables to nd at this pressure s
f
=
0.5926 kJ/kg/K, s
g
= 8.2287 kJ/kg/K. Thus,
x
6s
=
s
6s
s
f
s
g
s
f
=
_
6.73695
kJ
kg K
_
_
0.5926
kJ
kg K
_
_
8.2287
kJ
kg K
_
_
0.5926
kJ
kg K
_ = 0.804645. (10.17)
The tables then give the necessary information to compute h
6s
:
h
6s
= h
f
+ x
6s
h
fg
=
_
173.88
kJ
kg
_
+ (0.804645)
_
2403.1
kJ
kg
_
= 2107.52
kJ
kg
. (10.18)
Now, the actual h
6
is found via
h
6
= h
5
t
(h
5
h
6s
) =
_
3361.15
kJ
kg
_
(0.88)
__
3361.15
kJ
kg
_
_
2107.52
kJ
kg
__
= 2257.96
kJ
kg
. (10.19)
Now, the tables give us
h
1
= h
f
= 173.88
kJ
kg
, v
1
= v
f
= 0.001084
m
3
kg
. (10.20)
For the pump, we have P
1
= P
6
= 8 kPa and P
2
= P
3
= 8000 kPa. So
p
=
w
s
w
p
, (10.21)
w
p
=
w
s
p
, (10.22)
=
v
1
(P
2
P
1
)
p
, (10.23)
=
_
0.001084
m
3
kg
_
((8000 kPa) (8 kPa))
0.8
, (10.24)
= 10.83
kJ
kg
. (10.25)
So
h
2
= h
1
+ w
p
, (10.26)
=
_
173.88
kJ
kg
_
+
_
10.83
kJ
kg
_
, (10.27)
= 184.709
kJ
kg
. (10.28)
10.1. RANKINE 293
Now, substitute all these values into Eq. (10.8) and get
w
net
=
__
3348.4
kJ
kg
_
_
2814.6
kJ
kg
__
. .
turbine 1
+
__
3361.15
kJ
kg
_
_
2257.96
kJ
kg
__
. .
turbine 2
+
__
173.88
kJ
kg
_
_
184.709
kJ
kg
__
. .
pump
, (10.29)
= 1626.11
kJ
kg
. (10.30)
On a mass basis, we have
W = mw
net
=
_
2.63 10
5
kg
hr
__
hr
3600 s
__
1626.11
kJ
kg
_
= 1.19 10
5
kW. (10.31)
From Eq. (10.9), the heat added is
q
in
=
__
3348.4
kJ
kg
_
_
184.709
kJ
kg
__
. .
rst boiling
+
__
3361.15
kJ
kg
_
_
2814.6
kJ
kg
__
. .
second boiling
, (10.32)
= 3710.18
kJ
kg
. (10.33)
So the cycles thermal eciency is
=
w
net
q
in
=
1626.11
kJ
kg
3710.18
kJ
kg
= 0.438282. (10.34)
The heat per unit mass rejected in the condenser is from Eq. (10.10):
q
out
=
_
2257.96
kJ
kg
_
_
173.88
kJ
kg
_
= 2084.08
kJ
kg
. (10.35)
So the power rejected as heat is
Q
L
= mq
out
=
_
2.63 10
5
kg
hr
__
hr
3600 s
__
2084.08
kJ
kg
_
= 1.52 10
5
kW. (10.36)
Example 10.2
Repeat the previous analysis without reheat.
In this case state 4 would be taken down to 8 kPa. We would have
x
4s
=
s
4s
s
f
s
g
s
f
=
_
6.6586
kJ
kg K
_
_
0.5926
kJ
kg K
_
_
8.2287
kJ
kg K
_
_
0.5926
kJ
kg K
_ = 0.794. (10.37)
We can thus get h
4s
by consulting the tables to nd
h
4s
= h
f
+ x
4s
h
fg
=
_
173.88
kJ
kg
_
+ (0.794)
_
2403.1
kJ
kg
_
= 2082.87
kJ
kg
. (10.38)
Now
h
4
= h
3
t
(h
3
h
4s
), (10.39)
=
_
3348.4
kJ
kg
_
(0.88)
__
3348.4
kJ
kg
_
_
2082.87
kJ
kg
__
, (10.40)
= 2234.73
kJ
kg
. (10.41)
We then get
w
net
= h
3
h
4
w
p
=
_
3348.4
kJ
kg
_
_
2234.73
kJ
kg
_
_
10.83
kJ
kg
_
= 1102.84
kJ
kg
. (10.42)
We also get
q
in
= h
3
h
2
=
_
3348.4
kJ
kg
_
_
184.709
kJ
kg
_
= 3163.69
kJ
kg
. (10.43)
So
=
w
net
q
in
=
1102.84
kJ
kg
3163.69
kJ
kg
= 0.348593. (10.44)
The thermal eciency without reheat (0.348593) is less than that with reheat (0.438282). The reheat
altered the topology of the T s diagram to make it more Carnot-like, and thus generated a more
ecient use of resources.
Example 10.3
A Rankine power cycle with water as the working uid has
t
=
p
= 0.88. The turbine inlet
pressure and temperature are at P
3
= 1200 psia, T
3
= 1000

F. The condenser pressure is at P
4
=
1 psia. The steam generator provides

Q
H
= 2 10
9
Btu/hr. In the condenser the cooling water enters
at 60

F, and we wish to keep the exit cooling water temperature at 80

F. Find the net power, the
thermal eciency, and the mass ow rate of cooling water, m
cw
.
We interpolate the steam tables to nd
h
3
= 1499.6
Btu
lbm
, s
3
= 1.6297
Btu
lbm

R
. (10.45)
For an isentropic turbine, we have s
4s
= s
3
= 1.6297 Btu/lbm/

R. At P
4
= 1 psia, we nd state 4s is
a two-phase mixture:
x
4s
=
s
4
s
f
s
g
s
f
=
_
1.6297
Btu
lbm

R
_
_
0.1327
Btu
lbm

R
_
_
1.9779
Btu
lbm

R
_
_
0.1327
Btu
lbm

R
_ = 0.811. (10.46)
10.1. RANKINE 295
Thus,
h
4s
= h
f
+ x
4s
h
fg
=
_
69.74
Btu
lbm
_
+ (0.811)
_
1036
Btu
lbm
_
= 909.9
Btu
lbm
. (10.47)
Now, for the actual turbine, we get
h
4
= h
3
t
(h
3
h
4s
), (10.48)
=
_
1499.7
Btu
lbm
_
(0.88)
__
1499.7
Btu
lbm
_
_
909.9
Btu
lbm
__
, (10.49)
= 979.9
Btu
lbm
. (10.50)
Now, after the condenser, we take x
1
= 0, so h
1
= h
f
, s
1
= s
f
, and v
1
= v
f
, all at P
1
= 1 psia. These
are
h
1
= 69.74
Btu
lbm
, s
1
= 0.1327
Btu
lbm

R
, v
1
= 0.01614
ft
3
lbm
. (10.51)
Now,
w
p
=
w
s
p
, (10.52)
=
v(P
4
P
3
)
p
, (10.53)
=
_
0.01614
ft
3
lbm
___
1200
lbf
in
2
_
_
1
lbf
in
2
__
0.88
144 in
2
ft
2
Btu
778 ft lbf
, (10.54)
= 4.07
Btu
lbm
. (10.55)
Now,
h
2
= h
1
+ w
p
=
_
69.74
Btu
lbm
_
+
_
4.07
Btu
lbm
_
= 73.81
Btu
lbm
. (10.56)
In the boiler, we have
Q
H
= m(h
3
h
2
), (10.57)
m =
Q
H
h
3
h
2
, (10.58)
=
2 10
9 Btu
hr
_
1499.7
Btu
lbm
_
_
73.81
Btu
lbm
_
hr
3600 s
, (10.59)
= 390
lbm
s
. (10.60)
We also note
Q
H
=
_
2 10
9
Btu
hr
_
hr
3600 s
= 5.556 10
5
Btu
s
. (10.61)
Now, the net power is the sum of the turbine and pump work:
W
net
= m((h
3
h
4
) + (h
1
h
2
)) , (10.62)
=
_
390
lbm
s
___
1499.6
Btu
lbm
_
_
979.9
Btu
lbm
__
+
__
69.74
Btu
lbm
_
_
73.81
Btu
lbm
__
, (10.63)
= 2.01 10
5
Btu
s
. (10.64)
The thermal eciency is thus
=
W
net
Q
H
=
2.01 10
5 Btu
s
5.556 10
5
Btu
s
= 0.3618. (10.65)
The cooling water and the water in the Rankine cycle exchange heat in the condenser. This is
sketched in Fig. 10.5. The rst law for the heat exchanger is
mh
4
mh
1
T
hot
= 80 F T
cold
= 60 F
cooling water
Rankine cycle water
.
.
m
cw
.
m
cw
.
Figure 10.5: Rankine cycle condenser/heat exchanger.
dE
cv
dt
. .
=0
=

Q
cv
..
=0

W
cv
..
=0
+ m(h
4
h
1
) + m
cw
c
P
(T
cold
T
hot
), (10.66)
0 = m(h
4
h
1
) + m
cw
c
P
(T
cold
T
hot
), (10.67)
m
cw
=
m(h
4
h
1
)
c
P
(T
hot
T
cold
)
, (10.68)
=
_
390
lbm
s
_ __
979
Btu
lbm

R
_
_
69.74
Btu
lbm

R
__
_
1.00
Btu
lbm

R
_
((80

F) (60

F))
, (10.69)
= 17730
lbm
s
. (10.70)
10.2 Brayton
Gas turbine power plants, both stationary and those for jet engines operate on the Brayton
cycle. The cycle is named after George Brayton, an American mechanical engineer. Brayton
is depicted in Fig. 10.6. It has many similarities to the Rankine cycle. A schematic and
T s and P v diagrams for the Brayton cycle for a power plant is illustrated in Fig. 10.7.
The Brayton cycle is outlined as follows:
1 2: isentropic compression (W added),
2 3: isobaric heat addition (Q added),
10.2. BRAYTON 297
Figure 10.6: George Brayton (1830-1892), American mechanical engineer from Exeter, New
Hampshire; image from http://www.braytonenergy.net/about.
turbine compressor
combustion
chamber
fuel
air
products
environmental exhaust return
1
2
3
4
w
P
v
T
s
1
2
3
4
1
2 3
4
i
s
e
n
t
r
o
p
e
isobar
isobar
is
e
n
t
r
o
p
e
iso
b
a
r
iso
b
a
r
i
s
e
n
t
r
o
p
e
i
s
e
n
t
r
o
p
e
Figure 10.7: Schematic of Brayton cycle along with P v and T s diagrams.
3 4: isentropic expansion (W extracted), and
4 1: isobaric heat rejection (passive exhaust).
Note, the work extracted is greater than the work added, i.e.
|h
3
h
4
| > |h
2
h
1
|. (10.71)
Often we will be dealing with a CPIG, in which case h = c
P
T. If so, then we can say
|T
3
T
4
| > |T
2
T
1
|. (10.72)
Another reason for this is that
isobars diverge in T s space as s increases.
This is easy to understand when we recall the Gibbs equation, Tds = dh vdP. On an
isobar, we have dP = 0, so
Tds = dh, on isobar, (10.73)
Tds = c
P
dT, if IG, (10.74)
T
s
P
=
T
c
P
. (10.75)
Since at a given s, a high T isobar sits above a low T isobar, and the slope of the isobar is
proportional to T, it is easily seen how they must diverge. This is illustrated in Fig. 10.8.
T
s
h
i
g
h
p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
i
s
o
b
a
r
h
i
g
h
e
r
T
, h
i
g
h
e
r
s
l
o
p
e
lo
w
p
re
ssu
re
iso
b
a
r
lo
w
e
r T, lo
w
e
r slo
p
e
Figure 10.8: Sketch of diverging isobars for CPIG in T s plane.
There are other classes of Brayton cycle plants. Schematics are shown next.
Turbojet. In the turbojet, the kinetic energy of the uid becomes important at two
points in the cycle. In the compression, the freestream uid, entering the compressor
at the ight speed, has its pressure increased by the so-called ram eect where the
uid decelerates. Second, the point of the turbojet is to produce thrust, which requires
a signicant exit velocity. The turbine work is used solely to power the compressor.
See Fig. 10.9.
Turbojet with afterburners. We are limited in an ordinary turbojet by how much heat
can be added to the ow in combustion because such ow typically must pass through
the turbine blades, which suer material degradation if the uid is too hot. However,
we can add heat after the turbine in so-called afterburners. This releases chemical
energy, turns it into uid potential energy in the form of high P/, and then converts
to kinetic energy in the nozzle. This can enhance the thrust, though it can be shown
it is not particularly ecient. A sketch is given in Fig. 10.10.
Ramjet. A ramjet is much simpler. The compressor and turbine are removed. We
rely on the ram compression eect alone for compression and convert as much of the
10.2. BRAYTON 299
T
s
v
2
/2
v
2
/2
q
in
q
in
C T
w
t
w
c
Figure 10.9: Sketch of turbojet schematic and associated T s plane.
T
s
C T
v
2
/2
w
c
w
t
v
2
/2
q
in
q
in
q
in
q
in
Figure 10.10: Sketch of turbojet with afterburners schematic and associated T s plane.
thermal energy as possible into mechanical energy used to generate thrust force. A
sketch is given in Fig. 10.11.
Let us consider an
Air standard analysis: a common set of assumptions used for idealized cyclic
devices.
The air standard make many compromises in order to admit some simple analysis tools to
be used to make simple estimates for the performance of a variety of devices. Actual design
calculations would have to remedy the many shortcomings. But it is useful for a framework
of understanding. We take the air standard to entail
The working uid is air. This ignores any eect of the properties of the fuel or any
other uid which is mixed with the air.
T
s
v
2
/2
v
2
/2
q
in
q
in
Figure 10.11: Sketch of ramjet schematic and associated T s plane.
The working uid is an ideal gas. We will often assume it is a CPIG, but sometimes
not.
We will ignore all details of the combustion process and treat it as a simple heat
addition.
Often in cycle analysis, the formal sign convention is ignored. We take the following
Turbine work: w
t
= h
3
h
4
. Here, the sign convention is maintained.
Compressor work: w
c
= h
2
h
1
. Here, the sign convention is ignored.
Heat addition: q
in
= h
3
h
2
. Here, the sign convention is maintained.
Heat rejection: q
out
= h
4
h
1
. Here, the sign convention is ignored.
The cycle eciency is
=
(h
3
h
4
)
. .
turbine
(h
2
h
1
)
. .
compressor
h
3
h
2
. .
combustor
. (10.76)
Rearranging Eq. (10.76), we can also say
= 1
h
4
h
1
. .
heat rejected
h
3
h
2
. .
heat added
. (10.77)
The back work ratio, bwr, is
bwr =
w
c
w
t
=
h
2
h
1
h
3
h
4
. (10.78)
10.2. BRAYTON 301
Note the back work ratio will be seen to be much larger for gas phase power cycles than it
was for vapor cycles. For Brayton cycles, we may see bwr 0.4. For Rankine cycles, we
usually see bwr 0.01.
Now, if we have a CPIG, we get h =
_
c
P
dT to reduce to h = c
P
T. So Eq. (10.76)
reduces to
=
c
P
(T
3
T
4
) c
P
(T
2
T
1
)
c
P
(T
3
T
2
)
, (10.79)
=
T
3
T
4
T
2
+ T
1
T
3
T
2
, (10.80)
= 1
T
4
T
1
T
3
T
2
, (10.81)
= 1
T
1
T
2
_
T
4
T
1
1
T
3
T
2
1
_
(10.82)
Now, 1 2 is isentropic. Recall for a CPIG which is isentropic that T
2
/T
1
= (P
2
/P
1
)
(k1)/k
.
We also have 3 4 to be isentropic, so T
3
/T
4
= (P
3
/P
4
)
(k1)/k
. But P
2
= P
3
and P
1
= P
4
.
So
T
2
T
1
=
T
3
T
4
, (10.83)
T
4
T
1
=
T
3
T
2
. (10.84)
So
= 1
T
1
T
2
, (10.85)
= 1
1
_
P
2
P
1
_k1
k
. (10.86)
A plot of versus the pressure ratio P
2
/P
1
for k = 7/5 is plotted in Fig. 10.12. As the
pressure ratio, P
2
/P
1
rises, the thermal eciency increases for the Brayton cycle. It still is
much less that unity for P
2
/P
1
= 20. To approach unity, high pressure ratios are needed;
= 0.9 requires P
2
/P
1
3200. Note in terms of temperature, the eciency looks like that
for a Carnot cycle, but it is not. The highest temperature in the Brayton cycle is T
3
, so the
equivalent Carnot eciency would be 1 T
1
/T
3
.
Example 10.4
Consider a CPIG air standard Brayton cycle with xed inlet conditions P
1
and T
1
. We also x the
maximum temperature as the metallurgical limit of the turbine blades, T
max
. Find the pressure ratio
which maximizes the net work. Then nd the pressure ratio which maximizes the thermal eciency.
0 5 10 15 20
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
P
2
/P
1
k = 7/5
Figure 10.12: Thermal eciency versus pressure ratio for air standard Brayton cycle, k =
7/5.
We have
T
2
= T
1
_
P
2
P
1
_
k1
k
, T
3
= T
max
, T
4
= T
3
_
P
4
P
3
_
k1
k
. (10.87)
We also have P
4
= P
1
and P
2
= P
3
. So
T
4
= T
max
_
P
1
P
2
_
k1
k
= T
max
_
P
2
P
1
_
1k
k
. (10.88)
Let us let the modied pressure ratio be dened such that

_
P
2
P
1
_
k1
k
. (10.89)
Really is the temperature ratio, T
2
/T
1
. When the pressure ratio goes up, the temperature ratio goes
up.
Now, the net work is
w
net
= (h
3
h
4
) (h
2
h
1
), (10.90)
= c
P
(T
3
T
4
T
2
+ T
1
), (10.91)
= c
P
(T
max
T
max
1
T
1
+ T
1
), (10.92)
= c
P
T
1
_
T
max
T
1
T
max
T
1
1
+ 1
_
. (10.93)
To nd the maximum w
net
we take dw
net
/d and set to zero:
dw
net
d
= c
P
T
1
_
T
max
T
1
2
1
_
, (10.94)
0 = c
P
T
1
_
T
max
T
1
2
1
_
, (10.95)
=
_
T
max
T
1
. (10.96)
10.2. BRAYTON 303
We take the positive root, since a negative pressure ratio does not make sense:
=
_
T
max
T
1
. (10.97)
The second derivative tells us whether our critical point is a maximum or a minimum.
d
2
w
net
d
2
= 2c
P
T
max
3
. (10.98)
When > 0, d
2
w
net
/d
2
< 0, so we have found a maximum of w
net
. The maximum value is
w
net
= c
P
_
T
max
T
max
_
T
max
T
1
_
1/2
T
1
_
T
max
T
1
_
1/2
+ T
1
_
, (10.99)
= c
P
T
1
_
T
max
T
1
T
max
T
1
_
T
max
T
1
_
1/2
_
T
max
T
1
_
1/2
_
, (10.100)
= c
P
T
1
_
T
max
T
1
2
_
T
max
T
1
_
1/2
_
. (10.101)
Note w
net
= 0 when = 1 and when = T
max
/T
1
.
Now, when is the thermal eciency maximum? Consider
= 1
1
, (10.102)
d
d
=
1
2
. (10.103)
At a maximum, we must have d/d = 0. So we must have in order to have reach a maximum.
But we are limited to T
max
/T
1
. So the eciency at our highest allowable is
= 1
1
Tmax
T1
= 1
T
1
T
max
. (10.104)
But at the value of peak eciency, the net work is approaching zero! So while this is highly ecient,
it is not highly useful!
Lastly, what is the eciency at the point where we maximize work?
= 1
_
T
1
T
max
. (10.105)
A plot of scaled net work, w
net
/c
P
/T
1
versus modied pressure ratio, (P
2
/P
1
)
(k1)/k
is given for
T
max
/T
1
= 10 in Fig. 10.13. For this case the which maximizes w
net
is =
10 = 3.162. At that
value of , we nd w
net
/c
P
/T
1
= 4.675.
Example 10.5
Consider the Brayton power cycle for a space craft sketched in Fig. 10.14. The working uid is
argon, which is well modeled as a CPIG over a wide range of T and P. We take the pressure in the
heating process to be isobaric, P
2
= P
3
= 140 kPa, and the pressure in the cooling process to be
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
1
2
3
4
5
w
net
/(c
P
T
1
)
= (P
2
/P
1
)
((k-1)/k)
4.675
3.162
Figure 10.13: Scaled net work versus modied pressure ratio for Brayton cycle with
T
max
/T
1
= 10.
isobaric, P
4
= P
1
= 35 kPa. We are given that T
1
= 280 K, T
3
= 1100 K. The compressor and turbine
both have component eciencies of
t
=
c
= 0.8. We are to nd the net work, the thermal eciency,
and a plot of the process on a T s diagram.
For argon, we have
R = 0.20813
kJ
kg K
, c
P
= 0.5203
kJ
kg K
, k =
5
3
1.667. (10.106)
Note that c
P
= kR/(k 1).
Let us start at state 1. We rst assume an isentropic compressor. We will quickly relax this to
account for the compressor eciency. But for an isentropic compressor, we have for the CPIG
_
P
2
P
1
_k1
k
=
T
2s
T
1
. (10.107)
Here, T
2s
is the temperature that would be realized if the process were isentropic. We nd
T
2s
= T
1
_
P
2
P
1
_k1
k
= (280 K)
_
140 kPa
35 kPa
_
5/31
5/3
= 487.5 K. (10.108)
Now,
c
= w
s
/w, so
w =
w
s
c
=
h
2s
h
1
c
=
c
P
(T
2s
T
1
)
c
=
_
0.5203
kJ
kg K
_
(487.5 K 280 K)
0.8
= 135.0
kJ
kg
. (10.109)
Now w = h
2
h
1
= c
P
(T
2
T
1
), so
T
2
= T
1
+
w
c
P
= (280 K) +
135
kJ
kg
0.5203
kJ
kg K
= 539.5 K. (10.110)
Notice that T
2
> T
2s
. The ineciency (like friction) is manifested in more work being required to
achieve the nal pressure than that which would have been required had the process been ideal.
In the heater, we have
q
H
= h
3
h
2
= c
P
(T
3
T
2
) =
_
0.5203
kJ
kg K
_
((1100 K) (539.5 K)) = 291.6
kJ
kg
. (10.111)
10.2. BRAYTON 305
q
H
heat source
compressor
turbine
heater
cooler
low temperature
reservoir
1
2 3
4
q
L
P
1
= 35 kPa
T
1
= 280 K
P
4
= 35 kPa
T
3
= 1100 K
P
3
= 140 kPa
P
2
= 140 kPa
c
= 0.8

t
= 0.8
W
Figure 10.14: Schematic of Brayton power cycle for spacecraft.
Now, consider an ideal turbine:
T
4s
T
3
=
_
P
4
P
3
_k1
k
, (10.112)
T
4s
= T
3
_
P
4
P
3
_
k1
k
, (10.113)
= (1100 K)
_
35 kPa
140 kPa
_
5/31
5/3
, (10.114)
= 631.7 K. (10.115)
But for the real turbine,
t
=
w
w
s
, (10.116)
w =
t
w
s
, (10.117)
=
t
(h
3
h
4s
), (10.118)
=
t
c
P
(T
3
T
4s
), (10.119)
= (0.8)
_
0.5203
kJ
kg K
_
((1100 K) (631.7 K)) = 194.9
kJ
kg
. (10.120)
Thus, since w = h
3
h
4
= c
P
(T
3
T
4
), we get
T
4
= T
3
w
c
P
= (1100 K)
194.9
kJ
kg
0.5203
kJ
kg K
= 725.4 K. (10.121)
Note that T
4
is higher than would be for an isentropic process. This indicates that we did not get all
the possible work out of the turbine.
Now, for the cooler,
q
L
= h
4
h
1
= c
P
(T
4
T
1
) =
_
0.5203
kJ
kg K
_
((725.4 K) (280 K)) = 231.7
kJ
kg
. (10.122)
We are now in a position to calculate the thermal eciency for the cycle.
=
w
net
q
H
, (10.123)
=
w
turbine
w
compressor
q
H
, (10.124)
=
c
P
((T
3
T
4
) (T
2
T
1
))
c
P
(T
3
T
2
)
, (10.125)
=
(T
3
T
4
) (T
2
T
1
)
T
3
T
2
, (10.126)
=
((1100 K) (725.4 K)) ((539.5 K) (280 K))
(1100 K) (539.6 K)
, (10.127)
= 0.205. (10.128)
If we had been able to employ a Carnot cycle operating between the same temperature bounds, we
would have found the Carnot eciency to be
Carnot
= 1
T
1
T
3
= 1
280 K
1100 K
= 0.745 > 0.205. (10.129)
A plot of the T s diagram for this Brayton cycle is shown in Fig. 10.15. Note that from 1 to 2
(as well as 3 to 4) there is area under the curve in the T s diagram. But the process is adiabatic!
Recall that isentropic processes are both adiabatic and reversible. The 1-2 process is an example of a
process that is adiabatic but irreversible. So the entropy change is not due to heat addition eects but
instead is due to other eects.
10.2. BRAYTON 307
s
T
P
=
3
5
k
P
a
P
=
1
4
0
k
P
a
1
2
3
4
2s
4s
Figure 10.15: T s diagram of Brayton power cycle for spacecraft with turbine and com-
pressor ineciencies.
Example 10.6
We are given a turbojet ying with a ight speed of 300 m/s. The compression ratio of the
compressor is 7. The ambient air is at T
a
= 300 K, P
a
= 100 kPa. The turbine inlet temperature is
1500 K. The mass ow rate is m = 10 kg/s. All of the turbine work is used to drive the compressor.
Find the exit velocity and the thrust force generated. Assume an air standard with a CPIG; k =
1.4, c
P
= 1.0045 kJ/kg/K.
A plot of the T s diagram for this Brayton cycle is shown in Fig. 10.16. We rst calculate the
ram compression eect:
h
1
+
1
2
v
2
1
..
0
= h
a
+
1
2
v
2
a
. (10.130)
We typically neglect the kinetic energy of the ow once it has been brought to near rest within the
engine. So we get
h
1
h
a
=
1
2
v
2
a
, (10.131)
c
P
(T
1
T
a
) =
1
2
v
2
a
, (10.132)
T
1
= T
a
+
v
2
a
2c
P
, (10.133)
= (300 K) +
_
300
m
s
_
2
2
_
1.0045
kJ
kg K
_
kJ
1000
m
2
s
2
, (10.134)
= 344.8 K. (10.135)
T
s
v
2
/2
q
in
w
t
w
c
a
v
2
/2
1
2
3
4
5
Figure 10.16: T s diagram of Brayton cycle in a turbojet engine.
Now, consider the isentropic compression in the compressor. For this, we have
T
2
T
1
=
_
_
_
_
P
2
P
1
..
=7
_
_
_
_
k1
k
, (10.136)
T
2
= (344.8 K)(7)
1.41
1.4
, (10.137)
= 601.27 K. (10.138)
Let us calculate P
2
/P
a
, which we will need later. From the isentropic relations,
P
2
P
a
=
_
T
2
T
a
_ k
k1
, (10.139)
=
_
601.27 K
300 K
_ 1.4
1.41
, (10.140)
= 11.3977. (10.141)
We were given the turbine inlet temperature, T
3
= 1500 K. Now, the compressor work must equal
the turbine work. This amounts to, ignoring the sign convention,
w
compressor
= w
turbine
, (10.142)
h
2
h
1
= h
3
h
4
, (10.143)
c
P
(T
2
T
1
) = c
P
(T
3
T
4
), (10.144)
T
2
T
1
= T
3
T
4
, (10.145)
T
4
= T
3
T
2
+ T
1
, (10.146)
T
4
= (1500 K) (601.27 K) + (344.8 K), (10.147)
T
4
= 1243.5 K. (10.148)
10.3. REFRIGERATION 309
Now, we use the isentropic relations to get T
5
. Process 3 to 5 is isentropic with P
5
/P
3
= P
a
/P
2
=
1/11.3977 , so we have
P
5
P
3
=
_
T
5
T
3
_ k
k1
, (10.149)
T
5
= T
3
_
P
5
P
3
_k1
k
, (10.150)
T
5
= (1500 K)
_
1
11.3977
_
1.41
1.4
, (10.151)
T
5
= 748.4 K. (10.152)
Now, we need to calculate the exhaust velocity. Take an energy balance through the nozzle to get
h
4
+
1
2
v
2
4
..
0
= h
5
+
1
2
v
2
5
, (10.153)
h
4
= h
5
+
1
2
v
2
5
, (10.154)
v
5
=
_
2(h
4
h
5
), (10.155)
=
_
2c
P
(T
4
T
5
), (10.156)
=
_
2
_
1.0045
kJ
kg K
_
((1243.5 K) (748.4 K))
1000
m
2
s
2
kJ
kg
, (10.157)
= 997.3
m
s
. (10.158)
Now, Newtons second law for a control volume can be shown to be in one dimension with ow with
one inlet and exit.
d
dt
(v) = F
cv
+ mv
i
mv
e
. (10.159)
It says the time rate of change of momentum in the control volume is the net force acting on the control
volume plus the momentum brought in minus the momentum that leaves. We will take the problem to
be steady and take the force to be the thrust force. So
F
cv
= m(v
e
v
i
), (10.160)
= m(v
5
v
a
), (10.161)
=
_
10
kg
s
_
__
997.3
m
s
_
_
300
m
s
__
, (10.162)
= 6973 N. (10.163)
10.3 Refrigeration
A simple way to think of a refrigerator is a cyclic heat engine operating in reverse. Rather
than extracting work from heat transfer from a high temperature source and rejecting heat
to a low temperature source, the refrigerator takes a work input to move heat from a low
temperature source to a high temperature source.
A common refrigerator is based on a vapor-compression cycle. This is a Rankine cycle
in reverse. While one could employ a turbine to extract some work, it is often impractical.
Instead the high pressure gas is simply irreversibly throttled down to low pressure.
One can outline the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle as follows:
1 2: isentropic compression
2 3: isobaric heat transfer to high temperature reservoir in condenser,
3 4: adiabatic expansion in throttling valve, and
4 1: isobaric (and often isothermal) heat transfer from a low temperature reservoir
to an evaporator.
A schematic and associated T s diagram for the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is
shown in Figure 10.17. One goal in design of refrigerators is low work input. There are two
Compressor
4
W
compressor
condenser
evaporator
expansion
valve
3 2
1
T
H
refrigerator
Q
L
Q
H
.
.
Q
in
.
.
T
L
T
s
1
2
3
4
condenser
evaporator
c
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
o
r
v
a
l
v
e
temperature inside
refrigerator
temperature of
surroundings
Figure 10.17: Schematic and T s diagrams for the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.
main strategies in this:
Design the best refrigerator to minimize

Q
in
. This really means reducing the conductive
heat ux through the refrigerator walls. One can use a highly insulating material. One
can also use thick walls. Thick walls will reduce available space for storage however.
This is an example of a design trade-o.
For a given

Q
in
, design the optimal thermodynamic cycle to minimize the work nec-
essary to achieve the goal. In practice, this means making the topology of the cycle
as much as possible resemble that of a Carnot refrigerator. Our vapor compression
refrigeration cycle is actually close to a Carnot cycle.
The eciency does not make sense for a refrigerator as 0 1. Instead, much as our
earlier analysis for Carnot refrigerators, a coecient of performance, , is dened as
=
what one wants
what one pays for
, (10.164)
=
q
L
w
c
. (10.165)
Note that a heat pump is eectively the same as a refrigerator, except one desires q
H
rather than q
L
. So for a heat pump, the coecient of performance,
, is dened as
=
q
H
w
c
. (10.166)
Example 10.7
R-134a, a common refrigerant, enters a compressor at x
1
= 1, T
1
= 15

C. At the compressor
inlet, the volume ow rate is 1 m
3
/min. The R-134a leaves the condenser at T
3
= 35
C, P
3
= 1000 kPa.
Analyze the system.
We have the state at 1, knowing x
1
and T
1
. The tables then give
h
1
= 389.20
kJ
kg
, s
1
= 1.7354
kJ
kg K
, v
1
= 0.12007
m
3
kg
. (10.167)
The process 2 to 3 is along an isobar. We know P
3
= 1000 kPa, so P
2
= 1000 kPa. We assume an
isentropic compression to state 2, where P
2
= 1000 kPa. We have s
2
= s
1
= 1.7354 kJ/kg/K. We
interpolate the superheat tables to get
h
2
= 426.771
kJ
kg
. (10.168)
State 3 is a subcooled liquid, and we have no tables for it. Let us approximate h
3
as h
f
at T
3
= 35

C,
which is
h
3
249.10
kJ
kg
. (10.169)
In the expansion valve, we have
h
4
= h
3
= 249.10
kJ
kg
. (10.170)
Now,
m = Av =
Av
v
1
=
_
1
m
3
min
0.12007
m
3
kg
_
_
min
60 s
_
= 0.138808
kg
s
. (10.171)
Now, the compressor power is
W = m(h
2
h
1
) =
_
0.138808
kg
s
___
426.771
kJ
kg
_
_
389.20
kJ
kg
__
= 5.2152 kW. (10.172)
The refrigeratory capacity is
Q
in
= m(h
1
h
4
) =
_
0.138808
kg
s
___
389.20
kJ
kg
_
_
249.10
kJ
kg
__
= 19.447 kW. (10.173)
With a 5.2152 kW input, we will move 19.447 kW out of the refrigerator.
How much heat exits the back side?
Q
H
= m(h
2
h
3
) =
_
0.138808
kg
s
___
426.771
kJ
kg
_
_
249.10
kJ
kg
__
= 24.6622 kW. (10.174)
Note that
Q
H
=

Q
in
+

W, (10.175)
24.6622 kW = (19.447 kW) + (5.2152 kW). (10.176)
The coecient of performance is
=
Q
in
W
=
19.447 kW
5.2152 kW
= 3.72891. (10.177)
We could also say
=
Q
in
Q
H

Q
in
, (10.178)
=
1
QH
Qin
1
. (10.179)
Because we do not have a Carnot refrigerator for this problem, we realize that

Q
H
/

Q
in
= T
3
/T
1
.
The University of Notre Dame Power Plant also serves as a generator of chilled water for
air conditioning campus buildings. This is eectively a refrigerator on a grand scale, though
we omit details of the actual system here. A photograph of one of the campus chillers is
shown in Fig. 10.18.
Figure 10.18: Chiller in the University of Notre Dame Power Plant, 14 June 2010.

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