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1. IMPLEMENTATION OF WSN
The implementation of the WSN can be divided in two parts. Hardware Software
1.1 HARDWARE
The three different hardware components required for every wireless sensor network are, The mote platform Sensor boards 2
Wireless Sensor Networks 61meters) and can transmit approximately 40,000 bits per second. When it is off, the radio consumes less than one microamp. When receiving data, it consumes 10 milliamps. When transmitting, it consumes 25 milliamps. Conserving radio power is key to long battery life. Power consumption, size and cost are the barriers to longer distances. Since a fundamental concept with motes is tiny size (and associated tiny cost), small and lowpower radios are normal. Motes can either run off of batteries, or they can tap into the power-grid in certain applications. As motes shrink in size and power consumption, it is possible to imagine solar power or even something exotic like vibration power to keep them running. All of these parts are packaged together in the smallest container possible. The battery is usually the biggest part of the package right now. The different mote platforms considered were the Mica, Mica2, Mica2dot, MicaZ, and TelosB. Each platform offers different data rates, size, and flexibility of adding sensors.
Wireless Sensor Networks Wireless Sensor Networks are found to be useful when talk about the surveillance. It may be surveillance for military application, home appliances, seismic applications, monitoring the wild life, structures monitoring, environment monitoring etc. The advantage of wireless sensor network is that they can be used with ease in the environment where wired system cannot be used or if used where it need to be very cautious for example in medical treatment. The sensor motes can also be deployed to monitor patients and assist disabled patients. Some other commercial applications include managing inventory, monitoring product quality, and monitoring disaster areas. These areas can be differentiated in three main categories Monitoring space, Monitoring things, and Monitoring the interactions of things with each other and the encompassing space. The first category includes environmental and habitat monitoring, precision agriculture, indoor climate control, surveillance, treaty verification, and intelligent alarms. The second includes structural monitoring, ecophysiology and condition-based equipment maintenance and medical diagnostics. The most dramatic applications involve monitoring complex interactions, including wildlife habitats, disaster management, emergency response, ubiquitous computing environments, asset tracking, healthcare, and manufacturing process flow. The wireless Sensor motes (WSM) can be deployed to have more than one sensing capability if the different sensors are put on the same WSM. So it can have different data at the same time i.e. acoustics, seismic, environmental etc. transmitted through the WSM to the base station. This data can be processed at the base station to get the various kinds of information at the same time.
Wireless Sensor Networks The transmission of the data can be achieved using infrared (IR) and radio frequency (RF). IR requires line of sight (LOS) path between the transmitter and receiver and hence is not used frequently. Instead, RF is used in wireless sensor network as it implements a wireless link in which the waves can penetrate a limited number of walls. Greatest excitement about motes comes from the idea of using large numbers of motes that communicate with each other and form ad hoc networks. The "mote" concept creates a new way of thinking about computers. Motes are a relatively new development in the field of WSN but with further developments, they can become a central technology. There are motes capable of tapping into a power grid while motes capable of harnessing solar or vibration power are still being developed.
MPR2400 (MICAZ)
The MICAz is a 2.4GHz, IEEE 802.15.4 compliant, Mote module used for enabling low-power, wireless sensor networks. It uses Chipcons CC2420 radio that employs OQPSK (offset quadrature phase shift keying) with half sine pulse shaping. The 802.15.4 radio includes a DSSS (digital direct sequence spread spectrum) baseband modem providing a spreading gain of 9 dB and an effective data rate of 250 kbps. It supports the TinyOS and MantisOS programming platforms.
Figure 1.1: MPR2400MICAz with standard antenna. The MICAz Mote features several new capabilities that enhance the overall functionality of Crossbows MICA family of wireless sensor networking products. These features include: IEEE 802.15.4/ZigBee compliant RF transceiver 2.4 to 2.4835 GHz, a globally compatible ISM band Direct sequence spread spectrum radio which is resistant to RF interference and provides inherent data security Runs TinyOS 1.1.7 and higher, including Crossbows reliable mesh networking stack software modules Plug and play with all of Crossbows sensor boards, data acquisition boards, gateways, and software Designed Specifically for Deeply Embedded Sensor Networks 250 kbps, High Data Rate Radio Wireless Communications with Every Node as Router Capability Expansion Connector for Light, Temperature, RH, Barometric Pressure, Acceleration/Seismic, Acoustic, Magnetic, and other Crossbow Sensor Boards Dept Of Computer Science College Of Engineering Attingal 7
CC2420
The CC2420 is an 802.15.4 compliant transceiver. 802.15.4 has 16 non-overlapping channels, spaced 5 MHz apart, which occupy frequencies 2405-2480 MHz. 802.15.4 uses a direct sequence spread spectrum OQPSK modulation to send chips at 2MHz. 32 chips encode a 4-bit symbol, providing a physical layer bandwidth of 250kbps. 802.15.4 shares the same band as 802.11b and Bluetooth. The CC2420 attaches two pieces of metadata to every received packet, RSSI and CCI. It measures both over the first eight symbols (32 bits, 125s) of a received packet. The RSSI (received signal strength indicator) is the RF signal strength, in dBm. The CCI (chip correlation indicator) ranges from 50 to 110 high is good and is a measure of chip correlation. Roughly speaking, CCI represents a bit error rate. The CC2420 only calculates CCI on received packets, but continuously calculates RSSI. Software can read the RSSI register of the radio at any time in order to measure ambient RF energy. Some of the specifications of CC2420 are shown in the table 1.1.
Frequency(MHz) Wavelength(m) Tx antenna gain(dBi) Rx antenna gain(dBi) Distance(m) Transmit power(dBm) Receive power(dBm) Receiver Sensitivity(dBm) Distance(feet) Tx el 3dB beam width (deg) Tx az 3dB beam width (deg) Tx beam solid angle(sq.deg) Tx beam solid angle(sq.rad) Tx effective aperture Dept Of Computer Science College Of Engineering Attingal
2400 0.125 1.05 1.05 100 -3 -89.95 -90 328.083333 90 360 32400 9.87 1.583E-03 8
Wireless Sensor Networks Rx el 3dB beam width (deg) Rx az 3dB beam width (deg) Rx beam solid angle(sq.deg) Rx beam solid angle(sq.rad) Rx effective aperture Path Loss(dB) Link Margin Tx antenna efficiency(dB) Rx antenna efficiency(dB) Rx noise figure(dB) Tx amp gain(dB) Height above ground(feet) 90 360 32400 9.87 1.583E-03 -86.95 0.05 3 3 3 1 0.25
XM2110 (IRIS)
The IRIS is the latest generation of Motes from Crossbow Technology. The XM2110 (2400 MHz to 2483.5 MHz band) uses the Atmel RF230, IEEE 802.15.4 Dept Of Computer Science College Of Engineering Attingal 9
Wireless Sensor Networks compliant, ZigBee ready radio frequency transceiver integrated with an Atmega1281 micro-controller. These enhancements provide up to three times improved radio range and twice the program memory over previous generation MICA Motes. The same MICA family, 51 pin I/O connector, and serial flash memory is used; all application software and sensor boards are compatible with the XM2110.
Wireless Sensor Networks Processing unit stores the data, process it if necessary and transmit it to the base station. Hence the Sensor unit translates between the physical world and the abstract world of processing unit. Sensor may be classified in two categories according to the data transferred by them to processing unit. Analog Sensor and Digital Sensor.
Analog sensor gives an output as analog signal while a digital sensor gives output as digital signal. The MTS series of sensor boards and MDA series of sensor/data acquisition boards are designed to interface with Crossbows MICA, MICA2, and MICA2DOT family of wireless Motes. The sensor boards allow for a range of different sensing modalities as well as interface to external sensor via prototyping areas or screw terminals. Table 1.2 lists the currently available sensor boards for each mote family. Crossbow Part Name MTS101CA MTS300CA MTS300CB MTS310CA MTS310CB MTS400CA MTS400CB MTS400CC
Motes Supported MICAz, MICA2, MICA IRIS, MICAz, MICA2, MICA IRIS, MICAz, MICA2, MICA
Sensors and Features Light, temperature, prototyping area Light, temperature, microphone, and buzzer Light, temperature, microphone, buzzer, 2-axis accelerometer, and 2-axis magnetometer Ambient light, relative humidity, temperature, 2-axis accelerometer, and barometric pressure
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Wireless Sensor Networks MTS420CA MTS420CB MTS420CC MTS510CA MDA100CA MDA100CB MDA300CA
IRIS, MICAz, MICA2 MICA2DOT IRIS, MICAz, MICA2 IRIS, MICAz, MICA2 IRIS, MICAz, MICA2 MICA2DOT
Same as MTS400CA plus a GPS module Light, microphone, and 2-axis accelerometer Light, temperature, prototyping area Light, relative humidity, general purpose interface for external sensors General purpose interface for external sensors Prototyping area
MDA320CA MDA500CA
MTS310
The MTS310 is a flexible sensor board with a variety of sensing modalities. These modalities can be exploited in developing sensor networks for a variety of applications including vehicle detection, low-performance seismic sensing, movement, acoustic ranging, robotics, and other applications.
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Wireless Sensor Networks Figure1.3: MTS310CA The various sensors present in MTS310 are Light, temperature, microphone, buzzer, 2-axis accelerometer, and 2-axis magnetometer.
Microphone
The microphone circuit has two principal uses: First is for acoustic ranging and second is for general acoustic recording and measurement. This circuit amplifies the lowlevel microphone output. This output can be fed directly into the analog-digital converter (ADC2).
Sounder
The sounder or buzzer is a simple 4 kHz fixed frequency piezoelectric resonator. The drive and frequency control circuitry is built into the sounder. The only signal required to turn the sounder on and off, is Sounder_Power.
Two-Axis Accelerometer
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Wireless Sensor Networks The accelerometer is a MEMS surface micro-machined 2-axis, 2 g device. It features very low current draw (< 1mA) and 10-bit resolution. The sensor can be used for tilt detection, movement, vibration, and/or seismic measurement. The analog data is sampled on ADC3 and ADC4.
Two-Axis Magnetometer
The magnetometer circuit is a silicon sensor that has a unique bridge resistor coated in a highly sensitive NiFe coating. This NiFe coating causes the bridge resistance of the circuit to change. The bridge is highly sensitive and can measure the Earths field and other small magnetic fields. A useful application is vehicle detection. Successful test have detected disturbances from automobiles at a radius of 15 feet. The amplified output is available at ADC5 and ADC6. A novel application of the sounder and tone detector is acoustic ranging. In this application, a Mote pulses the sounder and sends an RF packet via radio at the same time. A second Mote listens for the RF packet and notes the time of arrival by resetting a timer/counter on its processor. It then increments a counter until the tone detector detects the sounder. The counter value is the time-of-flight of the sound wave between the two Motes. The time-of-flight value can be converted into an approximate distance between Motes.
1.1.3 GATEWAYS
Mote Interface Boards (MIB) can be used as network base stations and programming interfaces.
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Wireless Sensor Networks The MIB300/MIB500 interface boards are multi-purpose interface boards used in conjunction with the MICA Family of products. They supply power to the devices through an external power adapter option, and provide interfaces for an RS232 serial port and reprogramming port (using the parallel printer interface). The MIB300 can only be used with an external 3 VDC supply, or it can take advantage of the battery power supplied from the mote. The MIB500 has an on-board regulator that will accept 5 to 7 VDC, and supplies a regulated 3 VDC to the MICA. The MIB510 interface board is a multi-purpose interface board used with the IRIS and MICA family of products. It supplies power to the devices through an external power adapter option, and provides an interface for a RS-232 Mote serial port and reprogramming port. The MIB520 provides USB connectivity to the IRIS and MICA family of Motes for communication and in-system programming. It supplies power to the devices through USB bus. MIB520CB has a male connector while MIB520CA has female connector. The MIB600 provides Ethernet (10/100 Base-T) connectivity to IRIS and MICA family Motes for communication and in-system programming. Its two standard configurations are An Ethernet Gateway for a Mote network and A Mote network programming and out-band diagnostic channel.
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Wireless Sensor Networks A base station allows the aggregation of sensor network data onto a PC or other computer platform. Any MICAz Mote can function as a base station by plugging the MPR2400CA Processor/Radio Board into an MIB520CA serial interface board.
1.2 SOFTWARE
A programmer writes software to control the mote and make it perform a certain way. Software on MICA motes is built on an operating system called TinyOS and is programmed in the NesC (network embedded systems C) programming language, a component-oriented variant of C. TinyOS is helpful because it deals with the radio and power management systems and makes it much easier to write software for the mote. With the ability to put the mote to sleep and wake it up to take data readings the battery life of each mote can be prolonged. Each mote can be programmed to take these sensor readings when the mote is in an awake mode. Typically, the application can be prototyped either using the TOSSIM simulation environment or with a handful of motes. There are several softwares developed to work with wireless sensor motes. Some of the softwares used in motes are Moteworks, Moteconfig and MoteView.
Wireless Sensor Networks sensors modules. It is a component-based operating system in which components interact through typed interfaces. The OS is written in nesC, a dialect of C with support for components, interfaces, concurrency analysis, and network types. Building a TinyOS application involves connecting the interfaces of components together. Interfaces are bidirectional, in that they can describe both the call that a user can make on a service provider (commands) as well as calls a provider can make on a user (events). For example, sending a packet is a command, while receiving a packet is an event. A complete TinyOS application is a graph of components, each of which is an independent computational entity. Components have three computational concepts: commands, events, and tasks
Commands and events are mechanisms for inter-component communication, while tasks are used to express intra-component concurrency. A command is typically a request to a component to perform a service. TinyOS is designed to have no file system, supports only static memory allocation, implement a simple task model, and provide minimal device and networking abstractions. Like other operating systems, TinyOS organizes its software components into layers. The lower the layer the closer it is to the hardware; the higher the component, the closer it is to the application. Its component model is designed to minimize application code size by linking in only needed functionality, and to speed application development through component reuse. TinyOS does not support blocking. Instead, slow operationsespecially those that involve hardware latenciesare split-phase. The basic packet communication interface is SendMsg. Rather than wait until an operation (e.g., SendMsg.send) completes, the interface Dept Of Computer Science College Of Engineering Attingal 17
Wireless Sensor Networks command returns immediately, allowing the application to continue processing. When the operation does complete, the interface signals the completion event (e.g., SendMsg.sendDone), at which point the user can reclaim the packet buffer. The split-phase semantics has a number of advantages but it also creates difficulties for developers, who are forced to explicitly maintain component state across multiple invocations. interface SendMsg { command result_t send (uint16_t addr, TOS_MsgPtr, uint8_t len); event result_t sendDone (TOS_MsgPtr, result_t success); } The benefits of components are Components enable fine-grained code reuse This approach has been successful in creating applications that make very efficient use of the limited code and data memory on sensor network nodes. Rapid application development through black-box reuse. Remains largely unrealized because in many cases interfaces have implied usage constraints that can be the source of frustrating program errors.
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Wireless Sensor Networks Typically commands call downwards, i.e., from application components to those closer to the hardware, while events call upwards. Certain primitive events are bound to hardware interrupts. Components are statically linked to each other via their interfaces. This increases runtime efficiency, encourages robust design, and allows for better static analysis of programs. NesC is designed under the expectation that code will be generated by wholeprogram compilers. This should also allow for better code generation and analysis.
Wireless Sensor Networks algorithm and medium access protocols etc. These constraints can be considered due to power consumption. The hardware constraint includes availability of the ICs, size of the motes, low power consumption; low production cost, unattended operation and adaptability to the environment etc.
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
Applications for example, the military plans to use them to gather information on battlefields, and engineers plan to mix them into concrete and use them to internally monitor the health of buildings and bridges. There are thousands of different ways that motes might be used, and as people get familiar with the concept they come up with even more. It is a completely new paradigm for distributed sensing and it is opening up a fascinating new way to look at computers. It is possible to think of motes as lone sensors. For example: The motes can be embedded in bridges when the concrete is poured. The mote could have a sensor on it that can detect the salt concentration within the concrete. Then once a month drive a truck over the bridge that sends a powerful magnetic field into the bridge. The magnetic field would allow the motes, which are buried within the concrete of the bridge, to power on and transmit the salt concentration. Salt (perhaps from deicing or ocean spray) weakens concrete and corrodes the steel rebar that strengthens the concrete. Salt sensors would let bridge maintenance personnel gauge how much damage salt is doing. Other possible sensors embedded into the concrete of a bridge might detect vibration, stress, temperature swings, cracking, etc., all of which would help maintenance personnel spot problems long before they become critical. Sensors can be connected to a mote that can monitor the condition of machinery -temperature, number of revolutions, oil level, etc. and log it in the mote's memory. Then, when a truck drives by, the mote could transmit all the logged data. This would allow detailed maintenance records to be kept on machinery (for example, in Dept Of Computer Science College Of Engineering Attingal 21
Wireless Sensor Networks an oil field), without maintenance personnel having to go measure all of those parameters themselves. Motes can be attached to the water meters or power meters in a neighborhood. The motes would log power and water consumption for a customer. When a truck drives by, the motes get a signal from the truck and they send their data. This would allow a person to read all the meters in a neighborhood very easily, simply by driving down the street. Wireless sensor network is an emerging technology with wide range of potential applications such as environment monitoring, earthquake detection, patient monitoring systems etc. Sensor networks are also being deployed for many military applications, such as target tracking, surveillance and security management.
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Figure 2.1: The components of a sensor node Networking unattended sensor nodes may have profound effect on the efficiency of many military and civil applications such as target field imaging, intrusion detection, weather monitoring, security and tactical surveillance, distributed computing, detecting ambient conditions such as temperature, movement, sound, light, or the presence of certain objects, inventory control, and disaster management. Deployment of a sensor network in these applications can be in random fashion (e.g., dropped from an airplane) or can be planted manually (e.g., fire alarm sensors in a facility). For example, in a disaster management application, a large number of sensors can be dropped from a helicopter. Networking these sensors can assist rescue operations by locating survivors, identifying risky areas, and making the rescue team more aware of the over all situation in the disaster area. At the network layer, it is highly desirable to find methods for energy-efficient route discovery and relaying of data from the sensor nodes to the BS so that the lifetime of the network is maximized. Dept Of Computer Science College Of Engineering Attingal 24
Routing in WSNs is very challenging due to the inherent characteristics that distinguish these networks from other wireless networks like mobile ad hoc networks or cellular networks. First, due to the relatively large number of sensor nodes, it is not possible to build a global addressing scheme for the deployment of a large number of sensor nodes as the overhead of ID maintenance is high. Thus, traditional IP-based protocols may not be applied to WSNs. Furthermore, sensor nodes that are deployed in an ad hoc manner need to be self-organizing as the ad hoc deployment of these nodes requires the system to form connections and cope with the resultant nodal distribution especially that the operation of the sensor networks is un-attended. In WSNs, sometimes getting the data is more important than knowing the IDs of which nodes sent the data. Second, in contrast to typical communication networks, almost all applications of sensor networks require the flow of sensed data from multiple sources to a particular BS. This, however, does not prevent the flow of data to be in other forms (e.g., multicast or peer to peer). Third, sensor nodes are tightly constrained in terms of energy, processing, and storage capacities. Thus, they require careful resource management. Fourth, in most application scenarios, nodes in WSNs are generally stationary after deployment except for, may be, a few mobile nodes. Nodes in other traditional wireless networks are free to move, which results in unpredictable and frequent topological changes. However, in some applications, some sensor nodes may be allowed to move and change their location (although with very low mobility). Fourth, sensor networks are application specific, i.e., design requirements of a sensor network change with application. Fifth, position awareness of sensor nodes is important since data collection is normally based on the location. Currently, it is not feasible to use Global Positioning System (GPS) hardware for this purpose. Methods based on triangulation, for example, allow sensor nodes to approximate their position using radio strength from a few known points. Finally, data collected by many sensors in WSNs is typically based on common phenomena, hence there is a high probability that this data has some redundancy. Such redundancy needs to be exploited by the routing protocols to improve energy and bandwidth utilization. Usually, WSNs are data-centric networks in the sense that data is Dept Of Computer Science College Of Engineering Attingal 25
Wireless Sensor Networks requested based on certain attributes, i.e., attribute-based addressing. An attribute-based address is composed of a set of attribute-value pair query. For example, if the query is something like [temperature > 60F], then sensor nodes that sense temperature > 60F only need to respond and report their readings. Due to such differences, many new algorithms have been proposed for the routing problem in WSNs. The task of finding and maintaining routes in WSNs is nontrivial since energy restrictions and sudden changes in node status (e.g., failure) cause frequent and unpredictable topological changes. Almost all of the routing protocols can be classified according to the network structure as flat, hierarchical, or location-based. Furthermore, these protocols can be classied into multipath-based, query-based, negotiation-based, QoS-based, and coherentbased depending on the protocol operation. In flat networks, all nodes play the same role while hierarchical protocols aim at clustering the nodes so that cluster heads can do some aggregation and reduction of data in order to save energy. Location-based protocols utilize the position information to relay the data to the desired regions rather than the whole network. The last category includes routing approaches that are based on the protocol operation, which vary according to the approach used in the protocol.
Wireless Sensor Networks adaptive if certain system parameters can be controlled in order to adapt to the current network conditions and available energy levels. Furthermore, these protocols can be classified into multipath-based, query-based, negotiation-based, QoS-based, or coherentbased routing techniques depending on the protocol operation. In addition to the above, routing protocols can be classified into three categories, namely, proactive, reactive, and hybrid protocols depending on how the source finds a route to the destination. In proactive protocols, all routes are computed before they are really needed, while in reactive protocols, routes are computed on demand. Hybrid protocols use a combination of these two ideas. When sensor nodes are static, it is preferable to have table driven routing protocols rather than using reactive protocols. A significant amount of energy is used in route discovery and setup of reactive protocols. Another class of routing protocols is called the cooperative routing protocols. In cooperative routing, nodes send data to a central node where data can be aggregated and may be subject to further processing, hence reducing route cost in terms of energy use. Many other protocols rely on timing and position information.
Network structure
Flat Networks Routing
Protocol operation
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HIERARCHICAL ROUTING
Hierarchical or cluster-based routing, originally proposed in wireline networks, are well-known techniques with special advantages related to scalability and efficient communication. The concept of hierarchical routing is also utilized to perform energyefficient routing in WSNs. In a hierarchical architecture, higher energy nodes can be used to process and send the information while low energy nodes can be used to perform the sensing in the proximity of the target. This means that creation of clusters and assigning special tasks to cluster heads can greatly contribute to overall system scalability, lifetime, and energy efficiency. Hierarchical routing is an efficient way to lower energy consumption within a cluster and by performing data aggregation and fusion in order to decrease the number of transmitted messages to the BS. Hierarchical routing is mainly twoDept Of Computer Science College Of Engineering Attingal 28
Wireless Sensor Networks layer routing where one layer is used to select cluster heads and the other layer is used for routing. Eg: LEACH (Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy), PEGASIS (Power-Efficient Gathering in Sensor Information Systems), TEEN (Threshold-sensitive Energy Efficient sensor Network protocol), APTEEN (Adaptive Periodic Threshold-sensitive Energy Efficient sensor Network protocol), MECN (Small Minimum Energy Communication Network), SOP (Self Organizing Protocol), Virtual Grid Architecture routing (VGA)
Wireless Sensor Networks traffic generation. These alternate paths are kept alive by sending periodic messages. Hence, network reliability can be increased at the expense of increased overhead of maintaining the alternate paths. The path selection can be based on criterions like energy, lifetime of the network, reliability etc. Directed diffusion is a good candidate for robust multipath routing and delivery. The use of multipath routing provides viable alternative for energy efficient recovery from failures in WSN. The motivation of using these braided paths is to keep the cost of maintaining the multipaths low. The costs of alternate paths are comparable to the primary path because they tend to be much closer to the primary path.
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Wireless Sensor Networks more processing by sending the same data by different sensors. The SPIN protocols are designed to disseminate the data of one sensor to all other sensors assuming these sensors are potential base-stations. Hence, the main idea of negotiation based routing in WSNs is to suppress duplicate information and prevent redundant data from being sent to the next sensor or the base-station by conducting a series of negotiation messages before the real data transmission begins.
QoS-BASED ROUTING
In QoS-based routing protocols, the network has to balance between energy consumption and data quality. In particular, the network has to satisfy certain QoS metrics, e.g., delay, energy, bandwidth, etc. when delivering data to the BS. Sequential Assignment Routing (SAR) proposed is one of the first routing protocols for WSNs that introduces the notion of QoS in the routing decisions. Routing decision in SAR is dependent on three factors: energy resources, QoS on each path, and the priority level of each packet.
Wireless Sensor Networks Data processing is a major component in the operation of wireless sensor networks. Hence, routing techniques employ different data processing techniques. In general, sensor nodes will cooperate with each other in processing different data flooded in the network area. Two examples of data processing techniques proposed in WSNs are coherent and non-coherent data processing-based routing. In non-coherent data processing routing, nodes will locally process the raw data before being sent to other nodes for further processing. The nodes that perform further processing are called the aggregators. In coherent routing, the data is forwarded to aggregators after minimum processing. The minimum processing typically includes tasks like time stamping, duplicate suppression, etc. To perform energy-effcient routing, coherent processing is normally selected. A single and multiple winner algorithms were proposed for non-coherent and coherent processing, respectively. In the single winner algorithm (SWE), a single aggregator node is elected for complex processing. The election of a node is based on the energy reserves and computational capability of that node. By the end of the SWE process, a minimum-hop spanning tree will completely cover the network. In the multiple winner algorithm (MWE), a simple extension to the single winner algorithm (SWE) is proposed. When all nodes are sources and send their data to the central aggregator node, a large amount of energy will be consumed and hence this process has a high cost. One way to lower the energy cost is to limit the number of sources that can send data to the central aggregator node. Instead of keeping record of only the best candidate node (master aggregator node), each node will keep a record of up to n nodes of those candidates. At the end of the MWE process, each sensor in the network has a set of minimum-energy paths to each source node (SN). After that, the single winner algorithm is used to find the node that yields the minimum energy consumption. This node can then serves as the central node for the coherent processing. Routing in sensor networks is a new area of research, with a limited, but rapidly growing set of research results.
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3. LOCALIZATION
Localization is defined as "assigning ... a definite locality". This definition can be interpreted as computing the coordinates of a position in a given coordinate system. The foremost general applications of localization are navigation and tracking. The main use for these applications include personnel or equipment transportation for military or civilian purposes. Sensor networks are becoming increasingly important in a large number of military and civilian applications. The basic concept is to deploy a large number of low-cost, self powered sensor nodes that acquire and process data. A typical sensor network objective is to detect, track, and classify objects or events in the neighborhood of the network.
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Wireless Sensor Networks Sensor nodes are equipped with a processor, a low-power communication transceiver, and one or more sensing capabilities. A number of such sensor nodes are set out in a planar region. Self-configuring sensor networks hold the potential of many new applications in monitoring and control. For example, climate control, intrusion detection, visitor guidance, and target tracking can be named as such. These networks are comprised of a large number of low power low data rate wireless sensor nodes. The nodes are deployed densely in a sensing environment. Due to the high number of sensor nodes in the environment, self configuration is highly critical. That is, even though a high number of nodes are needed, their deployment is kept manageable by having a self configuring network where many nodes establish their positions, IDs, connectivity, etc. after deployment. The final requirement of sensor networks is that to ensure operation of a high number of nodes over an acceptable length of time without intervention, the nodes need to be consuming very low power such that they can operate on a single battery for years or harvest energy from their surroundings. Wireless sensor nodes operate in a cooperative and distributed manner. Such nodes are usually embedded in the physical environment and report sensed data to a central base station; however, for a sensor network to achieve its purpose, it is essential to know where the information is sensed. The problem of localization can be defined as estimating the position or spatial coordinates of wireless sensor nodes. Localization is an inevitable challenge when dealing with wireless sensor nodes, and a problem which has been studied for many years. Nodes can be equipped with a Global Positioning System (GPS), but this is a costly solution in terms of volume, money and power consumption.
Wireless Sensor Networks Each sensor node in a sensor network monitors and gathers data about its environment. The sensed data is processed and fused together. For effective fusion of the distributed data, the position of each sensor is required. For most sensor deployment methods, it is difficult or impossible to know accurately the location and orientation of each sensor node. One could equip every sensor node with a GPS and compass to obtain location and orientation information, but this adds to the expense and power requirements of the sensor node. So sensor network localization is an area under active research. Most of the techniques developed to estimate node positions rely just on the measurements of distances between neighboring nodes.
\ The distance information could be based on criterion like, Time of arrival Time-difference of arrival Received signal strength.
Based on the accuracy of these distance measurements and processor, power and memory constraints at each of the nodes, there is some degree of error in the distance information. It is assumed that the positions of a few anchor nodes are known. The problem of finding the positions of all the nodes given a few anchor nodes and relative distance information between the nodes is called the position estimation or localization problem.
Wireless Sensor Networks arrival measurements. Distances between neighboring sensors can be estimated from these propagation time measurements.
Wireless Sensor Networks propagation time. Their method gave fairly accurate distance estimate at the cost of additional hardware and complexity of the system because ultrasonic reception suffers from severe multipath effects caused by reflections from walls and other objects. A recent trend in propagation time measurements is the use of ultra wide band (UWB) signals for accurate distance estimation. A UWB signal is a signal whose bandwidth to center frequency ratio is larger than 0:2 or a signal with a total bandwidth of more than 500 MHz. UWB can achieve higher accuracy because its bandwidth is very large and therefore its pulse has a very short duration. This feature makes fine time resolution of UWB signals and easy separation of multipath signals possible.
Wireless Sensor Networks When distances to multiple nodes are known. The circles centered at these reference nodes with radii equal to the distances are intersected and at the intersection of these circles lies the point with unknown position. The main advantage of triangulation scheme is that, to first order, its functionality does not really depend on the anchor density. Another important consideration is the accuracy of the ranging measurements. It is obvious that the less noisy the range measurements are the more accurate the final position estimation would be.
Wireless Sensor Networks especially worse when the network topology is very irregular and actual distances are much different from the real distances. To reduce the associated position errors using a larger number of anchors and a smaller average hop distance is beneficial. That is, using more nodes as well as more anchor nodes can improve the position estimates. In short, wireless sensor networks are characterized by high density of nodes and low speed communication requirements. As consequences of these two characteristics, mostly the first characteristic, sensor networks need to be self configuring and very low power consuming.
APPENDIX
AD HOC NETWORKS
The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) was among the original patrons of the mote idea. One of the initial mote ideas implemented for DARPA allows motes to sense battlefield conditions. For example, imagine that a commander wants to be able to detect truck movement in a remote area. An airplane flies over the area and scatters thousands of motes, each one equipped with a magnetometer, a vibration sensor and a GPS receiver. The batteryoperated motes are dropped at a density of one every 100 feet (30 meters) or so. Each mote wakes up, senses its position and then sends out a radio signal to find its neighbors. All of the motes in the area create a giant, amorphous network that can collect data. Data funnels through the network and arrives at a collection node, which has a powerful radio able to transmit a signal many miles. When an enemy truck drives through the area, the motes that detect it transmit their location and their sensor readings. Neighboring motes pick up the Dept Of Computer Science College Of Engineering Attingal 39
Wireless Sensor Networks transmissions and forward them to their neighbors and so on, until the signals arrive at the collection node and are transmitted to the commander. The commander can now display the data on a screen and see, in real time, the path that the truck is following through the field of motes. Then a remotely-piloted vehicle can fly over the truck, make sure it belongs to the enemy and drop a bomb to destroy it.
MESH NETWORKS
A mesh network is really a generic name for a class of networked embedded systems that share several characteristics including: Multi-Hopthe capability of sending messages peer-to-peer to a base station, thereby enabling scalable range extension; Self-Configuringcapable of network formation without human intervention; Self-Healingcapable of adding and removing network nodes automatically without having to reset the network; and Dynamic Routingcapable of adaptively determining the route based on dynamic network conditions (e.g., link quality, hop-count, gradient, or other metric). Mesh networks are regularly distributed networks that generally allow transmission only to a nodes nearest neighbors. The nodes in these networks are generally identical, so that mesh nets are also referred to as peer-to-peer (see below) nets. Mesh nets can be good models for large-scale networks of wireless sensors that are distributed over a geographic region, e.g. personnel or vehicle security surveillance systems. The regular structure reflects the communications topology; the actual geographic distribution of the nodes need Dept Of Computer Science College Of Engineering Attingal 40
Wireless Sensor Networks not be a regular mesh. Since there are generally multiple routing paths between nodes, these nets are robust to failure of individual nodes or links. An advantage of mesh nets is that, although all nodes may be identical and have the same computing and transmission capabilities, certain nodes can be designated as group leaders that take on additional functions. If a group leader is disabled, another node can then take over these duties.
REFERENCES
[1] Jamal N. Al-Karaki and Ahmed E. Kamal, Routing Techniques in Wireless Sensor Networks: A Survey, Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011. [2] Tufan Coskun Karalar, Implementation of a Localization System for Sensor Networks, Engineering - Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, 2006. [3] Crossbow Berkeley Motes, available in: http://www.xbow.com [4] F.L. Lewis, Wireless Sensor Networks, Automation and Robotics Research Institute, The University of Texas at Arlington, Texas, email lewis@uta.edu, http://arri.uta.edu/acs
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