IJEE Aug'10 Final

ISSN 0974-5904 August 2010
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering

(Earth Science for Every one)

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(Earth Sciences for Every one)

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Dr. Paul M. Santi
Professor of Geology and
Geological Engineering
CSM, USA
Dr. Choon Sunwoo
Director, Korea Institute of Geo-
Sciencesand Mineral Sources,
Daejon, South Korea
Dr. S. D. Sivasubramanium
School of Science and Technology
Nottingham Trent University
Nottingham, United Kingdom (UK)
Dr. Ganesh R. Joshi
University of the Ryukyus
Okinawa, JAPAN

Dr. Hyung Sik Yang
Geosystem Engineering
Chonnam National University
Gwangju, Republic of Korea
Dr. L. De Girolamo
Dr. Hsin-Yu Shan
National Chiao Tung
University
Hsinchu City, Taiwan
Dr. G. Compton
Nottingham, United Kingdom
Dr. George. A. Buckley
Dr. Christoph Ufer
Institute of Bio-Chemistry
Universittsklinikum Charit
Monbijoustr, Berlin, Germany
Dr. Sandeep Sancheti
Director, National Institute of
Technology, NIT - Karnataka,
Surathkal, Karnataka, INDIA
Dr. Y. Venkateswara Rao
Director, National Institute of
Technology, NIT - Warangal,
Dr. Deepak Vidyarthi
Executive Director Retd.
NMDC Limited
Hyderabad, A.P., INDIA
Dr. K. R. Narshima Murthy
Deputy General Manager Retd.
Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL)
Bangalore, Karnataka, INDIA
Dr. K. Uma Maheshwar Rao
Professor, Mining Engineering
IIT Kharagpur, West-Bengal,
INDIA
Dr. R. P. Singh
Professor, Department of
Bio-Technology, IIT-Roorkee
Uttarakhand, INDIA
Dr. K. Lalkishore
Professor and Rector
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological
University, Hyd, A.P., INDIA
Dr. E. Saibaba Reddy
Professor and Registrar
University, Hyd, A.P., INDIA
Dr. I. V. Murali Krishna
Director Retd., Institute of
Science & Technology
JNTU, Hyd, A.P., INDIA
Dr. Vara Prasad Reddy
Dy Director, Academic Staff
College, Andhra University,
Visakhapatnam, A.P., INDIA
Dr. M. Panduranga Rao
Chairman, New Science Degree &
PG College, Warangal, Andhra
Pradesh, INDIA
Dr. Krishna Pramanik
National Institute of
Technology, NIT Rourkela,
Rourkela, Orissa, INDIA
Dr. R. Pavanaguru
Professor of Geology Retd.,
Osmania University
Dr. Sanjay N. Talbar
Professor and Registrar
Shri Guru Gobind Singhji Institute
of Engineering, Nanded, INDIA
Dr. P. Appala Naidu
Officer on Special Duty Retd.
JNTU, Hyderabad, A.P.,
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Dr. N. Vidyavathi
Head, Department of Bio-
Technology, NMAMIT, Nitte,
Karnataka, INDIA
Dr. P. V. V. V. Prasad Rao
HOD, Department of
Environmental Sciences, Andhra
University, A.P, INDIA
Dr. Gurtek Singh Gill
Professor of Geology
Punjab University
Chandigarh, Punjab, INDIA
Dr. M. M. M. Sarcar
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
Andhra University,
Dr. Shiva Kumar
Reader, Department of Geology
Mizoram University
Aizawl, Mizoram, INDIA
Dr. H. P. Sharma
University Department of
Botany, Ranchi University,
Ranchi, Jharkhand, INDIA
Dr. Y. Mallikarjuna Reddy
Nalanda Institute of Engineering
and Technology, Guntur District
Dr. E. V. Krishna Rao
L.B.R. College of Engineering
Krishna District, Andhra Pradesh,
INDIA
Dr. N. Rajkumar
New Horizon College of
Engineering
Bangalore, Karnataka, INDIA
Dr. R. Rajesh
Bharathiar University
Combatore, Tamil Nadu, INDIA
Dr. P. Sreenivas Sarma
HOD, Dept. of Civil Engg.
Chaitanya Bharathi Institute
of Technology, Hyderabad, INDIA

Executive Committee:

HEAD QUARTERS

PRESIDENT
Dr. D. Venkat Reddy
Professor of Geology
NIT-Karnataka, INDIA

VICE-PRESIDENT
Dr. S.D. Sivasubramanium

SECRETARY GENERAL
Mr. P. Nikhil Prakash
National Institute of Information
Technology NIIT, A.P., INDIA

TREASURER
Mr. T. Prakash Raju
IBM Ltd. Hi-Tech City

JOINT SECRETARY
Mr. Mohd Niyazuddin
Royal College of Engineering
Hyd., A.P., INDIA

UK COUNCIL

CHAIRMAN
Dr. L. De Girolamo

VICE CHAIRMAN
Dr. George. A. Buckley

INDIA COUNCIL

CHAIRMAN
Dr. Trilok N. Singh
IIT-Bombay, Powai, Mumbai,
Maharashtra, INDIA

VICE-CHAIRMAN
Dr. Bijay Singh
Ranchi University, Ranchi
Jharkhand, INDIA

SECRETARY
Dr. R. Pradeep Kumar
IIIT Gachibowli, Hyderabad,
MAHARASHTRA SECTION

CHAIRMAN
Dr. R. K. Bajpai
Scientist F, Bhabha Atomic
Research Centre (BARC),
Maharashtra, INDIA
VICE-CHAIRMAN
Shri. Amit Kumar Verma
Project Scientist
Maharashtra, INDIA
SECRETARY
Dr. N. R. Thote
Head, Dept. of Mining Engg.
NIT-Nagpur, Nagpur,
Maharashtra, INDIA
JOINT SECRETARY
Mr. Vikram Vishal
Monash Research Fellow
Maharashtra, INDIA

JHARKHAND SECTION
VICE- CHAIRMAN
Dr. Prsant Kumar Mishra
Reader, University Department
of Botany, Vinoba Bhave
University, Hazaribag

SECRETARY
Dr. (Mrs) Kiran Shukla
Reader, Department of Botany
Graduate School College for
Women, Kolhan University
Jamshedpur

JOINT SECRETARY
Dr. Sutanu Lal Bondya
Lecturer, University Department
of Botany, Sidhu Kanhu Murmu
University, Dumka

RAJASTHAN SECTION

CHAIRMAN
Dr. Manoj Khandelwal
Maharana Pratap University of
Agriculture & Technology,
Rajasthan, INDIA

VICE CHAIRMAN
Dr. A. S. Sheoran
Head, Department of Mining
Engineering, Jai Narayan Vyas
University, Rajasthan, INDIA

SECRETARY
Shri. P. K. Sharma
Geologist (Jr)
Geological Survey of India
Jaipur, Rajasthan, INDIA

JOINT SECRETARY
Mr. Ankush Saxena
Final Year B.E. (Mining)
Maharana Pratap University of
Agriculture & Technology,
Rajasthan, INDIA

ANDHRA PRADESH SECTION
CHAIRMAN
Dr. AGS Reddy
Scientist & Hydro-Geologist
Central Ground Water
Development Board (CGWD),
VICE-CHAIRMAN
Mr. Hafeez Basha. R
Dept. of CSE, Acharya
Nagarjuna University (CDE)

SECRETARY
Mr. Raju. A
University, Hyd., A.P., INDIA

INDEX
Earth Science for everyone

Volume 03 August 2010 No.04

EDITORIAL NOTE

A Note on Sea Level Rise
By ANANT PAREKH

RESEARCH PAPERS

Strength Analysis of Hard Rock of Madhyapara Hard Rock Mining
Project Area, Dinajpur
By M. FARHAD HOWLADAR
449-453
A Correlation between Elastic Properties of Coal and Seismic Wave
Velocities Vis--Vis Cleat Density and its Orientation
By KULDEEP SINGH, ASHOK JAISWAL, C. S. SINGH and B. K. SHRIVASTVA
454-458
Mineralogical and Chemical Characteristics of Talc and Tremolite
Asbestos Hosting Proterozoic Ultramafic Rocks of Jharol Area,
Udaipur, Rajasthan
By M. S. SHEKHAWAT, M. S. RANAWAT and P. S. RANAWAT
459-474
Amplification Studies of Local Soils using Applied Element Method
By SUSHMA PULIKANTI, MOHAMMAD AHMED HUSSAIN and RAMANCHARLA
PRADEEP KUMAR
475-486
Landfill Site Selection by using Geographic Information System - A
Case Study of Shivamogga Town, Shivamogga District Karnataka
State, India.
By S. L. ARUNKUMAR and G. CHANDRAKANTHA
487-496
Sediment Yield Index & Morphometric Index based Prioritization of
Upper Subarnarekha Watershed
By VINOD KR. V. H, VIVEK KR. SINGH and A. T. JEYASEELAN
497-511
Remote Sensing and GIS for the Study of Coastal Ecosystem Changes
and its Conservation
By K. DHARANIRAJAN, M. THANIKACHALAM, B. GURUGNANAM,
R. M. NARAYANAM and GOPAL CHANDRA FALIA
512-524
Prediction of Sediment Deposition in Reservoirs Using Artificial Neural
Network
By T. BASKARAN, S. NAGAN and S. RAJAMOHAN
525-531
Thirty Years of Disasters and its Impact in the State of Tamil Nadu A
Spatio and Temporal Analysis
By G. P. GANAPATHY and D. P. KOTHARI
532-537
On Numerical Modelling of Waves, Currents and Sediment Movement
around Gurupur-Netravathi River Mouth
By RADHESHYAM. B, SUBBA RAO and KIRAN G. SHIRLAL
538-552
Effect of Climate Change on Netravathi Riverflow
By SHETKAR RAJEEV. V and A. MAHESHA
553-560
Development and Analysis of a Prototype Dismountable Tensegrity
Structure for Shelter Purposes
By RAMAKANTA PANIGRAHI, SURESH BHALLA and ASHOK GUPTA
561-578
Utilization of Copper Slag as a Partial Replacement of Fine Aggregate
in Concrete
By D. BRINDHA AND S. NAGAN
579-585
Strength Efficiency of Commonly used Block Work Masonry
By MANGALA KESHAVA, K. V. VIJAYENDRA and S. RAGHUNATH
586-598
Identification of Artificial Recharge Sites in Hard Rock Terrain Using
RS and GIS in Chintapally Mandal, Nalgonda District, Andhra Pradesh,
India
By RAJU. A, A. G. S. REDDY and D. VENKAT REDDY
599-608

News and Notes

Announcements/Forthcoming seminars/conferences/technical meets i-ii

ISSN 0974-5904 CAS Ref. No.: 172238
Volume 3, No. 4, August 2010
ANANT PAREKH
Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune - 411008, India
Email: anant.iitm@gmail.com

Introduction:

Sea level rise over the globe is one of the serious issues related to the oceanography. It has
very strong socioeconomic impact. Sea level rise leads to the submerging of coastal area
and as we know most of the population is located in the coastal areas. Sea level rise is
dependent on the following processes (Figure 1) (1) Thermal expansion due to temperature
rise (which is known as thermostatic effect) (2) Due to salinity change (halosteric effect)
(Steric sea level represents sea level change due to ocean volume change that results
from temperature and salinity variations). (3) Melting of Sea ice (4) Terrestrial water
storage (Eustatic sea level change represents water mass added to (or removed from) the
oceans as a result of water mass exchange between the oceans and other surface reservoirs
(ice sheets, glaciers, land water reservoirs, and the atmosphere)) (5) Sediment deposition
at the coast. It is not clear whether observed changes in sea level are related to
anthropogenic or natural causes. The best estimate of sea level change over the last
century was based mainly on tide gauge observations is 1.5 0.5 mm/yr, with a range of
12 mm/yr [Church et al., 2001]. However, independent estimates of the individual
contributions to sea level change (thermal expansion, melting ice, terrestrial water storage,
etc.) are much more uncertain and, when summed, suggest a total sea level change of
0.71.5mm/yr. Ultimately, even if the total sea level change can be precisely determined,
the cause of sea level change will not be determined until we know the relative contributions
of the main components, which are still highly uncertain. Thus determining the rate of sea
level change over the last century (the historical rate) is critically important in order to
determine if the present-day rate of sea level change has changed appreciably. As will be
discussed, the present-day rate of sea level change is determined from satellite altimetry
measurements over the last decade to be +2.8 0.4 mm/yr (3.1 mm/yr after correcting for
the effects of postglacial rebound).

Thus this could already represent a significant increase depending on what value is accepted
for the historical rate. The purpose of this note is to summarize the current knowledge of
present-day sea level rise with special emphasis to Indian Ocean and its impact on different
systems and last section will be discussion about future scenario.

Sea Level Observations:

There are essentially two types of observations that measure sea level directly: (1) tide
gauge measurements, (Some of the tide gauges have more than 100 years observations),
and (2) satellite altimeter measurements, which are available only over almost 2 decade.
Other measurements provide constraints on different aspects of sea level change but
indirectly. For example, ocean temperature measurements in sufficient quantity and
distribution can be used to infer the sea level change due to thermal expansion, and ocean
salinity measurements have been used to infer the amount of freshwater entering the ocean
from the continents. Being sensitive to surface mass redistribution, changes in the Earths
rotation rate, and/or gravitational oblateness (J2) also provide indirect constraints on ocean
mass change due to meltwater mass exchange between mountain glaciers or ice sheets and
the oceans.

Editorial Note

Figure 1: Contribution of different Component to Sea Level Rise and Level of uncertainty
for Estimation Individual Component (Adopted from Cazenave and Nerem 2004)

Tide Gauges:

Tide gauge measurements are the principal data set to determine the historical rate (last
50100 years) of sea level change [Douglas, 2001; Woodworth and Player, 2003]. Tide
gauge measurements suffer from two main limitations: (1) They have poor spatial
distribution, being located only on the continental margins and ocean islands (Figure 2), and
(2) they are attached to the land, which can move vertically [Cazenave et al., 1999; Nerem
and Mitchum, 2002]. While geodetic leveling is used to monitor the position of the tide
gauge relative to a benchmark on the land. Thus a possibly larger error source for historical
sea level change estimates is the poor spatial sampling of the tide gauges, which could bias
the global sea level rise estimates too high [Cabanes et al., 2001b]. There is some
disagreement on the interpretation of this result, and further research is needed so that the
tide gauge measurements can be interpreted in the proper context with satellite altimetry.

Satellite Altimetry:

The era of precision satellite altimetry began with the launch of TOPEX/Poseidon in 1992,
although the road to success with T/P was paved by earlier less accurate missions such as
GEOS-3, Seasat, Geosat, and ERS-1. T/P ushered in a new paradigm in satellite altimetry,
largely because of advances in the instruments, the orbit determination [Tapley et al.,
1994], and the instrument calibration [Christensen et al., 1994; Mitchum, 1994]. With the
launch of the Jason mission in 2001 the decade-long time series of precision satellite
altimetry measurements seamlessly extended. Estimating global mean sea level variations
from the T/P measurements is a reasonably straightforward exercise if careful attention is
paid to the measurement corrections and the instrument calibration. The altimeter
measures the range between the satellite and the sea surface at two different microwave
frequencies (which are combined into a single ionosphere-corrected range). The orbit height
is determined via precision orbit determination techniques [Tapley et al., 1994], then an
uncorrected sea level measurement is computed by subtracting the altimeter range from
ANANT PAREKH
Editorial Note
the orbit height. The final sea level measurement is constructed by applying corrections for
atmospheric delay (dry/wet troposphere and ionosphere), sea state, atmospheric loading
(inverted barometer), and solid Earth and ocean tides [Chelton et al., 2001]. For T/P (and
now Jason) the point-to-point accuracy of these measurements has been shown to be 23
cm [Chelton et al., 2001]. Numerous papers have been published on the scientific results
[Cazenave et al., 1998; Minster et al., 1995; Nerem, 1995a, 1995b; Nerem et al., 1997,
1999; Leuliette et al., 2004], which currently show a rate of sea level rise of +2.8 0.4
mm/yr [Nerem and Mitchum, 2001a, 2001b] , much of which has been suggested to be
steric in origin [Cabanes et al., 2001b]. A significant fraction of this change has also been
shown to arise from changes in the Southern Ocean [Cabanes et al., 2001a]. Figure 3
shows the sea level rise from the Altimeter observations over the northern and southern
Hemisphere. Figure shows that the sea level rise over the southern hemisphere is higher
than (3.27 mm/year) northern hemi sphere (2.15 mm/year). In summary, the altimetric
results are considered to be extremely robust, and the estimate of sea level rise of 2.8
0.4 mm/yr over the last decade is very reliable within these error bars. An important result
of altimetry is mapping of the geographical distribution of sea level change. While in tide
gauge-derived sea level studies most investigators assumed uniform sea level change, now
we have, for the first time, unambiguous evidence of regional variability of sea level change,
some regions exhibiting sea level trends about 10 times the global mean. It is in the
western Pacific and eastern Indian Oceans that sea level rise presents the highest
magnitude. In contrast, sea level has been dropping in some regions (eastern Pacific and
western Indian Oceans), even though in terms of global mean, sea level has been rising.
The record of sea level change from satellite altimetry is now sufficiently long that one may
ask if the measured rate of sea level rise is representative of the long-term rate expected
because of climate change. In order to answer this question one must know the magnitude
of the interannual, decadal, and interdecadal variability of global mean sea level. Tide gauge
measurements cannot provide this, as the variability observed in global mean sea level
determined from tide gauges is likely driven as much by the spatial sampling as by the real
global mean signals. Climate models also suspect, since they may underestimate the true
variability in the Earth system. Recently, similar conclusions were drawn using a
reconstruction of global mean sea level employing tide gauge data and T/P altimeter data
[Chambers et al., 2002]. If these assessments are correct, then tide gauge data will
continue to be important for at least several more decades as a baseline for measuring
climate change using satellite altimetry, since altimetry alone cannot currently detect a
change in the rate.

Selected IPCC (2007) findings on Sea-Level Rise:

Observations since 1961 show that the average temperature of the global ocean has
increased to depths of at least 3000 m and that the ocean has been absorbing more than
80% of the heat added to the climate system. Such warming causes seawater to expand,
contributing to sea-level rise
Mountain glaciers and snow cover have declined on average in both hemispheres.
Widespread decreases in glaciers and ice caps have contributed to sea-level rise (ice caps
do not include contributions from the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets)
New data show that losses from the ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica have very
likely contributed to sea-level rise between 1993 and 2003
Global average sea level rose at an average rate of 1.8 [1.3 to 2.3] mm per year between
1961 and 2003. The rate was faster between 1993 and 2003: about 3.1 [2.4 to 3.8] mm
per year. Whether the faster rate for 1993 to 2003 reflects decadal variability or an increase
in the longer term trend is unclear.
Global average sea level in the last interglacial period (about 125,000 years ago) was
likely 4 to 6 m higher than during the 20th century, mainly due to the retreat of polar ice.
Ice core data indicate that average polar temperatures at that time were 3C to 5C higher
Editorial Note
than present, because of differences in the Earths orbit. The Greenland ice sheet and other
arctic ice fields likely contributed no more than 4 m of theobserved sea-level rise. There
may also have been contributions from Antarctica ice sheet melting.

Figure 2: Locations of Tide Gauges all along the Indian Coast.
(Adopted from Unnikrishnan et al., 2006)

Figure 3: Sea Level Rise from Altimeter observations over the North and South
Hemisphere.

ANANT PAREKH
Editorial Note
Tide Gauge observations for Sea Level Rise over the North Indian Ocean:

Mean sea level changes were estimated by analysing tide gauge data at different ports
along the Indian coasts. Measurements of sea level by tide gauges at various ports are
usually available at hourly interval. These measurements contain tides, which are
deterministic and can be predicted. Tides are filtered from the observed sea level for the
study of long term changes in mean sea level. Usually, monthly mean/yearly means values
of sea level are used for estimating sea level rise. These data are available with the
Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level (PSMSL), at the Proudman Oceanographic
Laboratory, UK. Mean sea level changes obtained by an analysis of trends (figure 4) could
be either caused by global warming or due to vertical movements of the land, where the
instrument is located. In order to get the net sea level rise at a place, rates of vertical land
movements need to be included. The location of tide gauge stations along the Indian coast
is shown in Figure 2. Mumbai is one of the few stations in the world, which has a record of
more than 100 years of sea level data. The results are shown only for some selected
stations, namely, Mumbai, Diamond Harbour, Kochi, and Vishakhapatnam (Figure 4). It
shows clearly that there is a rising trend in the tide gauge data. For the Mumbai longest
time series (more than 100 years) observations are available, while rest of the cases at
least fifty years data is available. Tide gauge provides sea level in mm. Figure (4)
represents anomaly (i.e, deviation from the long term mean). From the linear trend analysis
it is found that the level rise at Mumbai is 0.78 mm/year, over the Diamondharbour it is
4.84 mm/year, (which is highest among the four stations reported here), over the Kochi it is
1.38 mm/year and over the Vishakhapatnum it is 0.74 mm/year. Thus the highest rate of
sea level rise is reported in the North Bay of Bengal and lowest among these four stations
are at Vishakhaputnum and Mumbai. This numbers are with agreement of finding of
Unnikrishnan and Shankar (2007) using tides data all along the Indian Ocean coast.

Altimeter observations for Sea Level Rise over the North Indian Ocean:

Figure 5 shows the sea level rise over the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal from the TOPEX
Posidon Altimeter monthly mean observations since 1993 to 2009. It is an area averaged
sea level rise over the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal respectively. It depict that the rate
over the Arabian Sea (figure 5(a) is 0.48 mm/year and over the Bay of Bengal (figure 5(b))
is 0.72 mm/year. Thus BoB Sea level rise is 50% higher than the Arabian Sea.

Editorial Note

Figure 4: Tide Gauge Observations in mm at (a) Mumbai, (b) Diamondharbour (c) Kochi
and (d) Vishakhaputnam.

ANANT PAREKH
Editorial Note

Figure 5: Altimeter Observations for the Sea Level Rise over the (a) Arabian Sea and
(b) Bay of Bengal.

Sea-Level Rise will lead to Problems:

Sea level rise will have a number of important impacts on ecosystems and humans. About
half the worlds population lives within 200km of the ocean, and many million lives in
coastal areas that are less than 5m above sea level.

Beach Erosion: The area eroded is depending on upon the average slope of the beach out
to a water depth where waves cease to impact the bottom. This means that in many areas a
1 cm rise in sea level would result in a shore line retreat of 1m that is sea level rise to
beach loss ratios 1:100. In areas of stronger wave action, the shore retreat would be even
greater.

Saltwater intrusion in to the ground water: Many coastal and island communities draw
their fresh water from ground water wells, because it is less dense than salt water, fresh
ground water generally collects beneath coastal areas or islands as a fresh water lens
floating on top of intruding subsurface seawater. As sea level rises, such fresh water lenses
will be squeezed into smaller volumes, that is saltwater will intrude into the fresh ground
water.

Flooding of Coastal habitat: Mangrove habitats would be more vulnerable to climatic
changes and resultant sea level rise (SLR) because of their unique location at the interface
of the sea. By altering eco-biological processes, the intertidal and supratidal zones may
extend further inland, resulting in changes in the existing ecological setup. The limitation of
the landward margin would cause vertical rise, resulting in water-logging and ultimately
killing the mangroves and dependent biota.

Flooded by high tides and storm surges: Countries like Bangladesh and South China,
which are examples of regions with very dense human populations have already
Editorial Note
experienced mortalities in the millions from flooding and cyclone driven storm surges. Sea
level rise increase the impact of flooding and cyclone driven storm surges.
Other sensitivity to sea level rise is low laying river deltas, for example the Ganges,
Mississippi, Nile and numerous others. A 1m sea level rise would dramatically change the
physical character of the delta.

Projections of the Future:

Church et al. [2001] also present projections for future sea level rise based on the
predictions of global climate models. The predictions over 19902100 vary between 9 and
88 cm (on average, between 0.8 and 8.0 mm/yr) with a central value of 4.4 mm/yr. The
rate of sea level rise is expected to increase over the next century.
Based on a range of possible greenhouse gas emission scenarios for the next century, the
IPCC estimates the global increase in temperature will likely be between 1.1 and 6.4C.
Estimates of sea-level rise for the same scenarios are 0.18m to 0.59 m, excluding the
contribution from accelerated ice discharges from the Greenland and Antarctica ice sheets.
Extrapolating the recent acceleration of ice discharges from the polar ice sheets would
imply an additional contribution up to 20 cm. If melting of these ice caps increases, larger
values of sea-level rise cannot be excluded.
In addition to sea-level rise, the storms that lead to coastal storm surges could become
moreintense.

References:

[1] Church, J. A., Gregory, J. M., Huybrechts, Kuhn, M., Lambeck, K., Nhuan, M. T., Qin, D.
and Woodworth, P. L., Changes in sea level. In Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis.
Contributionof Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the
IntergovernmentalPanel on Climate Change, Cambridge University, Press, Cambridge, UK,
2001, pp. 639693.
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449
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 03, No. 04, August 2010, pp. 449-453
#02030701 Copyright 2010 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved.
Strength Analysis of Hard Rock of Madhyapara Hard
Rock Mining Project Area, Dinajpur
M. FARHAD HOWLADAR
Department of Petroleum and Georesources Engineering, Shahjalal University of Science
and Technology, Sylhet-3114, Bangladesh
Email: dmfh75@yahoo.com

Abstract: The Madhyapara Underground Hardrock Mine is the first and major mining
project in Bangladesh. Underground Mining itself is a very complicated technology of which
frequently faces problem in the mine. One of such problem is the strength of rocks which
depends on geological, geotechnical and mechanical properties of the respective rocks. With
the intention of getting to the bottom of this dilemma (strength of rocks) in the hardrock
mine, the present research has been acted upon pertaining the direct field investigation and
Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS) laboratory test of three categories rocks. Results of
the tested rock categories- I, II and III divulge that the rocks are dominantly brittle types
while they are mostly belong to the elastic region in the stress-strain diagram and some of
the samples beyond this region. The strength of samples I, II and III are 118.17, 79.40 and
44.34 MPa, respectively which clamor for that the slightly fissured rock, moderately fissured
rock and highly fissured rock are highly, moderately and fairly strength rocks, respectively.

Keywords: Hardrock, Uniaxial Compressive Strength Test, Stress-Strain Diagram,
Madhyapara Hard Rock Mine.

Introduction:

The Madhyapara Hardrock Mine (MHM)
situated in Parbatipur Upazilla of Dinajpur
districts in the northern part of Bangladesh
(fig-1.1). It is about 13km northeast of
Phulbari railway station on Parbatipur-
Santahar broad gauge line and is about the
same distance from Badargonj railway
station.

Figure 1: Location Map of Maddhapara Hardrock Mine (after NAMNAM, 1999).

450
M. FARHAD HOWLADAR
Based on geophysical prospecting, in 1974-
76, the Geological Survey of Bangladesh
(GSB) located hard rock Archean Basement
Complex comprises of Quartz-diorite,
granodiorite, gneiss, amphibolites etc. The
depth of basement complex at Madhyapara
is about 150m. Accordingly NAMNAM started
construction and development work of the
mine in 1995. They drilled 10 boreholes for
getting information of underground
condition and detailed data for construction
of underground tunnel and which can be
assessed as safe and stable in term of
general geological conditions. With the
discovery of hard rock, the Project came into
existence under Bangladesh Mineral
Exploration and Development Corporation
(BMDC). In 1976, Survey of Nennierger
Chenevert inc. Canada (SNC) carried out
study of Madhyapara hard rock in
collaboration with GSB and BMDC to find out
feasibility of hardrock for construction
materials as well as to ascertain its mining
prospect. The Australian Groundwater
Consultant Pvt. Ltd. produced a report in
1983 for BMDC incorporating detailed
hydrogeological and engineering geological
conditions suitable for designing of shaft and
mine. All these previous investigations were
focused on the type, reserve, quality, mining
methods and feasibility study of the Hard
rock found but any organization or
researcher till date undertook no detailed
works on the strength analysis of hard rocks
but it is very essential while the strength of
rock is the principal factors of stabilizing of
any mine structures. In a nutshell the
author carried out a research work to
estimate the strength of hard rock of
Madhyapara Hard rock Mining Project area,
Dinajpur overcoming the geomechanical as
well as geotechnical problems in the Mining
projects.

Geology and Geotechnical Classification
of Rocks:

The geology of Bangladesh is something
complex one and also the study area. A
series of articles worked out concerning the
tectonic framework of Bengal Basin and its
adjoining areas by several workers (e.g.
Alam, 1972; Guha, 1978; Rahman, 1987;
Khan and Rahman,1992 and so on).
Bangladesh constitutes the major part of the
Bengal Basin where immense thickness of
sedimentary formations rest on the ancient
igneous and metamorphic pre-Cambrian
Archaen Basement. These formations range
in age from Permo-Carboniferous, through
Jurassic and Cretaceous, to Tertiary and
Quaternary and are up to 20 km thick in the
vicinity of Dhaka. In the north-western part
of the country (out side of the Bengal Basin)
the basement is present at much shallower
depth where Archean rocks are covered
directly by late-Tertiary sediments, as little
as 128 m thick at Madhyapara Hardrock
Mine area. The study area is plain and
covered mostly by Holocene and Pleistocene
Madhupur Clay; mainly riverine origin is
exposed at places (NAMNAM, 2001).
Tertiary sediments overlie the Basement
Complex as well as Gondwana sediments of
the platform. The subsurface geological
information of the study area and its
surroundings based on the borehole data
shows the general geological succession and
includes the Archean Basement where
shear, fissure zones, joints, fractures and
criss-cross vein lets are observed at places
felsic and mafic banded structure are
present (NAMNAM, 2001). Therefore
considering all of these geologic structures,
the rock of the MHM has been categorized
for their strength analysis which are shown
in Table 1.

Table 1: Category of Rocks along the
Tunnel of MHM (NAMNAM, 2001)

Categories
Representative
Rocks
joint or
fissure
spacing
Category-1
slightly fissured
rock
> 2m
Category-II
Moderately
fissured rock
0.5-2m
Category-III
Highly fissured
rock
< 2m

According to NAMNAM (1999), category-I is
a geotechnically good quality rock while
there is no significant amount of
deformation and thats why no support
required in this part. In category-II and
category-III, little to large deformation may
451
Strength Analysis of Hard Rock of Madhyapara Hard Rock
Mining Project Area, Dinajpur
take place, respectively thus the support
rock bolt and concreting are recommend.

Method of Rock Strength Analysis:

To analyze the strength of rocks, preliminary
the detail field investigations were
performed in and around the mine area and
collect the samples from different parts of
Madhyapara hardrock mine. The collected
samples ware cubic and cylindrical shapes
but the cubic samples (Fig. 2) are mainly
considered to analyze the strength of rocks.

Figure 2: Cubic Shape Rock Samples

The selected samples are prepared by the
rock cutter machine as to the ASTM
(American Standard for Testing Material)
concrete block of around 5.22 cm then the
strength of samples are tested with Uniaxial
or Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS)
test method. During the experiment, the
loads are continued and measured the load
at which the cubic sample reached at failure
(deformation) state. The deformations are
measured at every 20 KN load. Finally, the
average values of the tested samples are
shown in Table 2.

Table2: Strength of Rocks.

Categories of
rocks
Average Value of
Strength (MPa)
Category-1 118.17
Category-II 70.40
Category-III 44.34

As we know, the strength of any materials
thoroughly depends on their relative stress
and strain. Thus the stress and strain of the
materials are measured using the following
formula: Stress () = P/A MPa (Where, P=
deformation in length (height) and A=
Cross-sectional area) and
Strain () = Lo-L/Lo% (Where, Lo= initial
length in cm and L= final length after
vertical pressure).

Results and Discussions:

In order to explain the rocks strain-stain
characteristics and their associate
deformation, this research firstly introduced
the stress-strain diagram (Goodman, 1989)
which can be produced from axial extension,
compression and shear loading condition.
The stress-strain curve shows the
relationship between the stress and strain
where shows that the curve linear within the
elastic range of the material. When the
stress exceeds the elastic limit the material
starts to deform plastically.

This phenomenon is known as yielding of
the material and the point at which it starts
yielding is called yield point. Eventually the
load reaches a maximum value, which is
known as the ultimate tensile strength of
the material. Then the specimen starts
necking before it fails by fracture. Secondly
considering the nature of diagram, the
tested samples are interpreted. From the
tested results of rock category-I, it is clear
that the rocks are brittle in nature (Fig. 4)
which abruptly failed at 118.17 MPa. In this
case, some of the rock samples are failed in
the elastic range and other failed beyond the
elastic range.

452
M. FARHAD HOWLADAR

Figure 3: Nature of Generalized Stress-Strain Diagram.

Figure 4: a, b and c. Experimental Stress-Strain Diagram of Rock Categories I, II and III.

In rock types-II, the rock samples are failed
at 79.40 MPa and stress-strain diagram
reveled that the rocks are of plastic behavior
while most of samples belong to the plastic
range. The plotted values of stress and
strain are shown in Figure 4b which
replicates that the second categories rocks
are brittle too. The stress-strain diagram of
third category rocks are deformed at 44.34
MPa which thoroughly revel that rocks are
fall in the plastic range too and
geotechnically, the rock samples are brittle
in character.

Conclusions:

In the present study, the strength of rocks
of MHM, Dinajpur, Bangladesh analysis has
been performed base on the direct field
investigation and laboratory test of the
selected cubic rock sample of different
categories such as category-1 (slightly
fissured rock); category-II (Moderately
fissured rock) and category-III (Highly
fissured rock). The results of the study are
summarized as follows:
1. The strength of slightly fissured rock is
about 118.17 MPa which reflects the highly
hard and strength rock.
2. Moderately fissured rocks show that the
moderate to highly strength while their
estimated strength is about 79.40 MPa.
3. Geotechnically the third category rocks
belong the fairly to moderate strength scale
rock of which loading capacity is about
44.34 MPa.
4. Therefore, to have any sustainable and
stable design, first category rocks
recommend with no support and in other
cases, the proper support might have to be
considered with more detail research also
453
Strength Analysis of Hard Rock of Madhyapara Hard Rock
Mining Project Area, Dinajpur
suggests for estimating and classifying the
rocks precisely.

Acknowledgements:

Dr. MFH is highly grateful to the
Madhyapara Hardrock Mining Company as
well as the Korea South-South Cooperation
Corporation (NAMNAM) for providing the
necessary data to perform the research well.

References:

[1] ALAM, M. (1972) Tectonic Classification
of Bengal Basin. Geological Society of
America, Bull. 83.
[2] Guha, D.K., (1978) Tectonic Framework
and oil and gas prospect of Bangladesh.
Proc., of 4th Annual Conference, Bangladesh
Geological Society, Dhaka. Pp65-78.
[3] Goodman, R.E., (1989). Introduction to
rock mechanics. John Wiley & Sons, NY,
562p.
[4] Khan, A.A and Rahman T. (1992) An
analysis of gravity and tectonic evaluation of
north-western part of Bangladesh.
Tectophysics, vol.-206, pp351-364.
[5] NAMNAM, (1999) Geological reports of
boreholes drilling of Madhyapara Hard rock
Mining Project (Revision). Unpublished
report of MHM p141.
[6] NAMNAM, (2001) Geological survey data
of underground Roadway of Madhyapara
Hard Rock Mining Project. P1-16.
[7] Rahman A. (1987) Geology of
Madhyapara area, Dinajpur Districts,
Bangladesh. Records of Geological Survey of
Bangladesh. vol.5, part-2, p61.
454
A Correlation between Elastic Properties of Coal
and Seismic Wave Velocities Vis--Vis Cleat Density
and its Orientation
KULDEEP SINGH, ASHOK JAISWAL, C. S. SINGH and B. K. SHRIVASTVA
Department of Mining Engineering, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi - 221005, India
Email: ashokmining@yahoo.com

Abstract: Elastic modulus and Poissons ratio are also very important parameters for
numerical modelling of coal pillars for assessing the stability. Various attempts have been
made to establish the correlation between physico- mechanical properties and seismic wave
velocities. In the present paper, an attempt has been made to determine the youngs
modulus of coal by non-destructive seismic technique. A laboratory investigation has been
carried out to correlate the static and dynamic elastic properties vis--vis cleat density. Two
prediction models (along and cross the cleat direction) has been established based on
laboratory work for determination of youngs modulus.

Keywords: elastic properties, seismic wave velocities, cleat density, coal

Introduction:

Seismic analysis is generally being adopted
for determination of dynamic properties of
rock-mass. It is a non-destructive
technique, thus, becomes very popular in
the area of geotechnical engineering such as
petroleum, mining, civil etc. Various
attempts have been made to investigate the
relationship between rock properties and
seismic wave velocities. There are various
factors affecting wave velocity. One of the
factors is joint characteristic within the rock
(Fred, 1997; Kahraman, 2002; Nakagawa
et.al., 2000; Ziqiong, 2000). The laboratory
investigation to correlate the wave velocity
vis--vis joint frequency has been conducted
on small size specimen (Kahraman, 2001).
The elastic properties of coal are often
required in the numerical analysis of
stability of underground coal mine. By
taking the advantage of seismic technique
as non-destructive test to determine the
elastic properties of rock, it has been used.
Coal is often having two joint set patterns,
mostly, perpendicular to each other. The
cleat characteristic in details has been
reviewed elsewhere (Laubach, 1998). This
cleat system not only affects the static
elastic properties of coal but also affect
seismic wave velocities which pass through
it. The correlation between static and
dynamic properties vis--vis cleat system is
needed. The objective of the present paper
is to evolve the methodology for
determination of elastic properties (Youngs
modulus and Poissons ratio) of laboratory
coal specimen by using seismic technique
considering tertiary cleat system in the coal-
mass.

Laboratory Investigation:

A methodology has been developed by
keeping the research objective in mind. The
process is in four steps. (1) Image analysis
of the coal specimen for determining
percentage damaged area due to inherent
cleats, (2) it involves seismic analysis of
coal specimen for determination of P-wave
and S-wave velocities, (3) estimation of
corresponding seismic wave velocity (P-
wave and S-wave) from static youngs
modulus and Poissons ratio of the tested
coal specimen, and finally, (4) establishment
of correlation between static and dynamic
wave velocities vis--vis damaged area due
to inherent cleats and its preferential
direction. Six coal specimens of different
origin of about 2.5 cubic inch have been
prepared. Two specimens are almost free
from tertiary cleats. Whereas, other four
specimens have preferentially oriented
tertiary cleats.

455
Image Analysis:

Digital photograph of the specimens from all
sides have been taken. These pictures have
been converted in Bit type images for image
analysis to estimate the cleat density. Figure
1 shows photograph of sides of coal
specimen A and corresponding bitmap
images. The area percentage of dark
portion, indicating cracks, has been
calculated and denoted as cleat density.
Similarly, the cleat density for the specimen
E, B & C have also been determined.
Specimens D & F are free from cleats.
Therefore, specimens D & F are not
considered for bit image analysis. Table 1
shows the average percentage cleat density
of the specimens from all four sides.

Seismic Analysis:

Seismic wave (P & S) velocities have been
measured in the coal specimen with the help
of Sonic Viewer SX (Model 5251B). Two
specimens D & F with negligible cleat
density and four specimens namely A, E,
B & C with cleat density are considered for
determining the seismic wave velocities. The
seismic velocity in the specimens A & E
are measured along the cleats whereas, in
specimens B & C, it is measured across
the cleats. The specimens are placed in
between the transducers as shown in fig. 2.
Figure 2 also shows the seismic analysis
setup for specimen A (along the cleats).
Similarly, it is determined for specimen E.
But in case of specimen B & C, the seismic
wave velocities are measured across the
cleats. The seismic wave velocities are
presented in table 2.

Uni-Axial Load Testing:

The uni-axial test has been conducted by
stiff testing machine. Four LVDTs have been
fixed on all four sides of the specimen to
monitor the lateral deformation. The load is
continuously increased and corresponding
deformation has been monitored. These
data are converted in terms of stress-strain
data and average Youngs modulus is
estimated at 50 % of the peak load. The
Poissons ratio is estimated considering
average lateral deformation in both the
sides. The predicted physico-mechanical
properties of coal specimens are
summarized in table 3.

Analysis of the Results:

The static wave velocities (P-wave and S-
wave) have been estimated from the
following equations. The corresponding
seismic velocities of coal specimens are
summarized in table 4.

(1)
G
V
s
= , (2) &
( ) v
E
G
+
=
1 2
(3)
Where,
s p
V and V are P-wave and S-wave
velocities, E and G are Youngs and shear
modulus, and and v are Poissons ratio and
density. The results of specimen A & E
and D & F are considered for the analysis
along the cleats. Similarly, analysis for
across the cleat has also been done
considering results of coal specimen B, C, D
and F. The graph between ratio of static and
dynamic wave velocities, and cleat density
for along and a cross the cleat pattern are
shown in figure 3 and 4 respectively. It is
depicted form the figures that both the P-
wave and S-wave velocities has almost
similar trend for the both the cases. It is
observed that ratio of wave velocities (static
and dynamic) increases with percentage
cleat density. The average statistical
equation for predicting P and S wave
velocities have been established for along
and across the cleat pattern which are as
follows:
For, along the cleat:
( ) 7 . 0 042 . 0 + = X V V
dynamic static
(4)
For across the cleat:
( ) 71 . 0 11 . 0 + = X V V
dynamic static
(5)
Where, V
static
and V
dynamic
static and dynamic
wave velocity respectively.
X is percentage cleat density.

Conclusions:

An attempt has been made to establish a
correlation between physico-mechanical
properties of coal and seismic wave
velocities with respect to percentage cleat
456
KULDEEP SINGH, ASHOK JAISWAL, C. S. SINGH
and B. K. SHRIVASTVA
density and its orientation. It has been
observed that the ratio of static and
dynamic wave velocities increases with
percentage cleat density. The statistical
relationship has also been established for
determination of physico-mechanical
properties of coal considering cleat system.
These expressions are limited to coal only
and need further analysis with variety of
coal from different origin.

Acknowledgements:

Authors are very thankful to Department of
science and technology, New Delhi for
financial support through its fast track
project scheme.

Reference:

[1] Fred K. Boadu1, 1997. Rock Properties
and Seismic Attenuation: Neural Network
Analysis Pure appl. geophys. 149, 507524.
[2] Kahraman, S., 2001. A correlation
between P-wave velocity, number of joints
and Schmidt hammer rebound number. Int J
Rock Mech Min Sci 38, 729733.
[3] Kahraman, S., 2002. The effects of
fracture roughness on P-wave velocity.
Engineering Geology 63, 347 350.
[4] Laubach, S.E., Marrett, R.A., Olson, J.
E., Scott, A. R., 1998. Characteristics and
origins of coal cleat: A review. Int J of Coal
Geo (35), 175207.
[5] Nakagawa, S, Nihei, K.T., Myer, L. R.,
2000. Shear-induced conversion of seismic
waves across single fractures. Int J Rock
Mech Min 37 203-218.
[6] Ziqiong Zheng, 2000. Seismic anisotropy
due to stress-induced cracks. Int J Rock
Mech Min Sci 37, 39-49.

Table 1: Cleat Density in Terms of Percentage of Dark Area

Specimen Side 1 Side 2 Side 3 Side 4 Average
A 7.29 8.08 7.56 4.84 6.95
E 6.86 4.04 6.38 7.38 6.16
B 7.34 2.99 4.42 6.25 5.25
C 6.57 3.44 4.94 4.77 4.93

Table 2: Seismic Wave Velocities in Coal Specimens.

Specimen
P-Wave
Velocity (m/s)
S-Wave
Velocity (m/s)
A (along) 2371 1418
E (along) 2120 1115
B (across) 1500 884
C (across) 1410 828
D 2450 1475
F 2012 1165

Table 3: Physico-Mechanical Properties of Coal Specimens

Specimen
Youngs
modulus (GPa)
Poissons
ratio
Density
(g/cm3)
A (along) 7.1 0.24 1.35
E (along) 3.74 0.26 1.32
B (across) 4.02 0.22 1.44
C (across) 3.89 0.23 1.34
D 3.25 0.23 1.26
F 2.28 0.22 1.33
457

Table 4: Static Wave Velocities Corresponding to Youngs Modulus and Poissons Ratio

Specimen
P-Wave
Velocity (m/s)
S-Wave
Velocity (m/s)
A (along) 2489.8 1456.3
E (along) 1861.9 1060.3
B (across) 1785.3 1069.6
C (across) 1834.5 1086.3
D 1729.2 1024
F 1399 838.2

Figure 1: Photograph of Sides of Specimen A Corresponding with Bitmap Image

Figure 2: Seisimic Anlaysis Setup for Specimen A (along the Cleats).

458
KULDEEP SINGH, ASHOK JAISWAL, C. S. SINGH
and B. K. SHRIVASTVA

Figure 3: Percentage of Cleat Density vs. Ratio of Static and Dynamic (a) P-Wave Velocity
(b) S-Wave Velocity for along the Cleat Pattern

Figure 4: Percentage of Cleat Density vs. Ratio of Static and Dynamic (a) P-Wave Velocity
(b) S-Wave Velocity for Across the Cleat
459
Mineralogical and Chemical Characteristics of Talc
and Tremolite Asbestos Hosting Proterozoic
Ultramafic Rocks of Jharol Area, Udaipur, Rajasthan
M. S. SHEKHAWAT
1
, M. S. RANAWAT
2
and P. S. RANAWAT
1
1
Department of Geology, M. L. Sukhadia University, Udaipur-313002, Rajasthan, India
2
State Department of Groundwater, Bhilwara-311001, Rajasthan, India
Email:

shekhawatgeol@yahoo.com, ms.ranawat10@gmail.com, psranawat@yahoo.com

Abstract: A large number of completely serpentinised and extensively steatitised ultramafic
bodies that host workable deposits of talc and tremolite asbestos occur as elongated pods
and lenticular bodies within the metasediments of the Jharol Group of the Aravalli
Supergroup of Proterozoic age. These rocks are represented as massive serpentinite,
talcose-serpentinite and talc-serpentine-magnesite rock. The talcose-serpentinite and talc-
serpentine-magnesite rocks consist mainly of talc, magnesite, antigorite, tremolite,
actinolite and chlorite, whereas massive serpentinite is composed mainly of antigorite
chrysotile. Magnetite and apatite are present as major accessory minerals in these rocks.
Field and petrochemical evidences indicate that the ultramafic rocks of the studied area
were emplaced concordantly in sub-solid state in the Aravalli sediments through tectonically
developed major fractures in the crust and subsequently subjected to deformation and
metamorphism along with the sediments. The parent ultramafic rock was low temperature
lherzolite (orogenic root zone) sub-type of peridotite. Serpentinisation of the peridotite
might have occurred at certain depth prior to its emplacement in present set up by addition
of sea water that moved down along the fractures in the crust. Steatitisation and
simultaneously carbonatisation of the serpentinised ultramafic rocks took place later than
serpentinisation in the area where the metamorphic fluids had C-O-H components that
produced talc by metasomatic addition of CO
2
. The stable mineral phases (or metamorphic
index minerals) suggest that steatitisation of ultramafic rocks took place at about 330 - 490
C temperature and intensity of steatitisation increased from north to south in the area.

Keywords: Ultramafic rocks, Talc deposit, Tremolite asbestos deposit, Jharol, Rajasthan.

Introduction:

Economically significant occurrences of
ultramafic rocks form a part of the pre-
Aravalli Bhilwara Supergroup, and Aravalli
and Delhi Supergroups in the state of
Rajasthan (Chattopadhyay and
Gangopadhyay, 1984; Gupta et al., 1997;
Sinha-Roy et al., 1998). These ultamafic
rocks host workable deposits of talc,
amphibole asbestos and serpentinite (used
extensively as decorative stone - green
marble, Shekhawat, 2000; DMG, 2009).
These rocks were first described by
Middlemiss (1921) as magnesian rocks
and Ghosh (1933) as talc-serpentine-
chlorite rocks. Heron (1953) in his classic
work described them as intrusive into the
Aravalli metasediments. Patel and Merh
(1967) and Rakshit (1977) suggested that
these rocks have been emplaced along
bedding planes of the metasediments during
early phase of the Aravalli orogeny.
Sychanthavong and Desai (1977), Sen
(1981) and Sinha-Roy (1984) considered
these rocks as part of the obducted oceanic
crust in their orogenic models suggested for
Aravalli-Delhi fold mountain belt.
Chattopadhyay and Gangopadhyay (1984)
carried out a regional petrochemical study of
these ultramafic rocks and speculated a
mantle source for them. Abu-Hamatteh et
al., (1994) in their study on mafic volcanics
suggested komatiitic source for ultramafic
rocks of Jharol area on the basis of general
geochemical characteristics. Gathania et al.,
(1995) also inferred similar source for
Rikhabdev ultramafic suite on the basis of
their preliminary study.

460
M. S. SHEKHAWAT, M. S. RANAWAT and P. S. RANAWAT

Figure 1: (A) Geological Map showing Location of the Study Area (Based on Gupta et al.,
1997). (B) & (C) Geological Maps of the Northern and Southern Parts of the Jharol East
Ultramafic Belt Respectively.

461
Mineralogical and Chemical Characteristics of Talc and Tremolite Asbestos
Hosting Proterozoic Ultramafic Rocks of Jharol Area, Udaipur, Rajasthan
The ultramafic rocks exposed about 55 km
south-west of Udaipur form two long narrow
belts spaced nearly 3 to 4 km apart, and are
designated as Jharol West and East
ultramafic belts (Shekhawat, 1987). The
western ultramafic belt hosts worlds largest
deposit of anthophyllite asbestos (Ross,
1981; Shekhawat, 1987) while, the eastern
belt is characterised by having workable
deposits of talc. Serpentine, the hydrous
magnesium iron phyllosilicate (Mg,Fe)
3
Si
2
O
5

(OH)
4
, is the most common mineral present
in ultramafic rocks of the area. The present
study is carried out to understand geologic,
mineralogic and chemical changes that took
place during serpentinisation and
steatitisation (talc formation) of the
ultramafic rocks and genetic conditions for
formation of talc deposits in the Eastern
ultrmafic belt.

Geology of the Area:

The present study area was first described
by Heron (1953) and subsequently by Gupta
et al., (1997). The principal
metasedimentary rocks exposed in the area
are quartz-mica schist and quartzite
belonging to Jharol Group (Fig.1A) of the
Aravalli Supergroup (2500 to 2000 m.y.) of
Palaeoproterozoic age (Gupta et al., 1997).
These metasediments are considered to be
deposited under deep sea environmental
conditions as the youngest member of the
Aravalli Supergroup (Sinha-Roy et al.,
1998). The other rock types occurring within
these metasediments are amphibolite and
serpentinite.

Owing to the geologic and economic
significance of the ultramafic rocks of Jharol
area, a detailed study was undertaken by
Shekhawat (1987) and Ranawat (1995) in
the western and eastern ultramafic belts
respectively. Major part of the study area is
occupied by quartz-mica schist showing well
developed schistosity. The general strike of
schistosity is NNE-SSW with moderate dips
towards east-south-east in western part and
west-north-west in eastern part indicating
presence of a large-scale synform in the
area (Fig. 1B & C). Quartz-mica schist is
also the main wall-rock of ultramafic bodies
in the area and consists mainly of quartz,
muscovite, biotite and garnet with minor
amounts of tourmaline, magnetite and
apatite. Quartz occurs in the form of small
eye-shaped grains and as thin elongated
detached veins within the micaceous layers
with their longer axes parallel to the
schistosity direction suggesting extensive
deformation in the area (Fig. 2A). Garnet in
quartz-mica schist is scarce in the northern
part, but in southern half of the area, it
occurs abundantly in form of well developed
deep red to light pinkish-brown crystals,
ranging in diameter from 1 mm to 1 cm. The
abundant occurrence of garnet crystals and
magnetite at places along with well
developed schistosity in the quartz-mica
schist suggests higher grade of
metamorphism in the southern part relative
to the northern part of the belt. Quartzite is
generally pinkish to reddish-white, medium
to coarse grained, hard and compact. It has
very sharp contact with the quartz-mica
schist and consists mainly of quartz with
minor amounts of muscovite, sericite and
iron-oxides. Amphibolite is exposed as thin
long continuous bands in the northern part
of the area (Fig.1B). Concordant relationship
with the surrounding metasediments,
compositional banding with darker and
lighter minerals suggests that the
amphibolite may be metasedimentary (Shaw
and Kudo, 1965). Mineralogically, it consists
of hornblende, plagioclase, quartz and
epidote with minor amounts of calcite,
garnet, sphene and apatite. Ultramafic rocks
are exposed mainly in northern and
southern parts of the area (Fig. 1B & C) with
a few small outcrops in central part. They
occur concordantly within the quartz-mica
schist as small lenses, pods, lenticular bands
and sheet-like bodies which vary from 50 m
to 3.5 km in length and 20 m to 500 m in
width. In the southern part, these ultramafic
rocks are comparatively more steatitised
than those of the central and northern parts
and are represented by talcose-serpentinite
and talc-serpentine-magnesite rock
whereas, in the northern and central parts,
these rocks are represented mainly by
massive serpentinite with a few small
outcrops of talcose-serpentinite and talc-
serpentine-magnesite rock. The talcose-
serpentinite and talc-serpentine-magnesite
462

Figure 2: (A) Field Photograph Showing Folded and Detached Lenses of Quartz Veins within
Quartz-Mica Schist Observed on Horizontal Exposure. (B) Quarry Section of Serpentinite
(Green Marble) from Northern Part of the Area.

Figure 3: Generalised Sketch Plans and Sections of Talc (A & B) and Tremolite Asbestos (C
& D) Ore Bodies showing Lithological Zoning that Serves as Guide to Prospecting in the
Area.

463
rock are quite similar in their massive
nature and earthy-brown to olive-green
colour. However, talcose-serpentinite is
comparatively soft and less hard than talc-
serpentine-magnesite rock due to the
presence of high content of talc. The talc-
serpentine-magnesite rock exposed in the
northern part also differs from that of
southern part in having smaller proportion
of magnesite grains and by the absence of
tremolite and actinolite. The massive
serpentinite is dark-green, hard, compact
and fine-grained. However, at the margins,
the serpentinite has been partly steatitised
forming a thin zone of talcose-serpentinite
and talc-serpentine-magnesite rock, varying
in width from about 0.5 m to 2m. At a few
places, these serpentinites are traversed by
thin impersistant, ribbon-shaped, irregularly
distributed veins of cross-fiber chrysotile.
The massive serpentinites are extensively
quarried in the form of large sized blocks
and utilised as decorative and dimensional
stones commercially known as green
marble (Fig. 2B).

Talc Deposits:

Talc deposits of Jharol area occur at the
contact of steatitised ultramafic bodies
(talcose-serpentinite) and the country rock
quartz-mica schist. The talc bodies are
generally parallel to the trend of host and
country rocks and have steep dips. They
show pinch and swell and pod like structures
and also occur as thin bands. The talc bodies
are characterised by presence of lithological
zoning, which is clearly observed in nearly
all working pits of talc. The general
sequence of these zones from outer margin
is: (i) phlogopite zone, (ii) chlorite zone and
(iii) talc zone (Fig. 3A & B).

Phlogopite zone:

The phlogopite zone which is outermost,
consists mainly of deep-yellow to dark-
brown flaky phlogopite and shows well
developed schistosity which is parallel to the
schistosity in the quartz-mica schist. It also
contains small amounts of translucent
quartz as thin veins and occasionally
disseminated deep-green perfect to
imperfect hexagonal crystals of apatite. The
width of phlogopite zone varies from 2 cm to
50 cm and it extends parallel to the entire
length of talcose body. The contact of this
zone with outer quartz-mica schist is very
sharp but with inner chlorite zone, it is
gradational.

Chlorite zone:

The inner chlorite zone is mainly composed
of deep-green flaky chlorite with abundant
occurrence of magnetite as thin veinlets,
fine to coarse anhedral grains and perfect
small octahedral crystals. The chlorite zone
persists along entire length as well as depth
of the talcose bodies and shows well
developed schistosity parallel to the strike
direction of talcose lenses and the
schistosity in the country rock quartz-mica
schist. The width of this zone varies
generally from 5 cm to 1 m. Just as the
phlogopite zone, the chlorite zone also
contains randomly disseminated deep-green
perfect hexagonal crystals of apatite.

Talc zone:

It is the innermost zone consisting mainly of
talc and represents talc deposits of the area.
The talc of this zone is generally massive to
foliated showing different shades of grey
and green colours. The length and width of
this zone varies from 10 m to 50 m and 0.5
m to 10 m respectively. The maximum
explored depth as observed in the few
working pits in the area is about 30 m.
Other minerals occurring in association with
talc are calcite, apatite and magnetite.
Calcite is milky-white to off-white and
occurs in the form of thin veinlets, while
apatite is green to yellow and occurs as
perfect to imperfect hexagonal disseminated
crystals. Magnetite occurs as irregularly
distributed fine anhedral grains and as
octahedral crystals. At several places,
micaceous variety of talc is also present in
the form of thin irregularly distributed veins
which hosted by main bodies of talc and
talcose-serpentinite.

Tremolite Asbestos Deposits:

The deposits of tremolite variety of asbestos
are located mainly near the villages of
Damana, Magwas and Nayagaon in southern
part of the area (Fig. 1C). The mineralised
belt extends for a length of about 3 km with
464
a maximum width of 600 m. In the entire
belt, nearly 20 small open pits have been
worked out to produce asbestos. Tremolite
asbestos deposits occur in the form of
parallel to sub-parallel bands which vary
from 10 cm to 2 m in width and 10 m to 50
m in length with explored depth of about 15
m in several developed pits. The strike
direction of the tremolite bands vary from
N-S to NNE-SSW with vertical to steep
westerly dips. The tremolite occurs as
aggregates of columnar fibers, which are
oriented parallel to the confining walls of the
bands. These aggregates of columnar fibers
have cross fractures, which are always
occupied by hydrous iron oxide and show
varying shades of green, yellow and white
colours. Tremolite fibers have good flexibility
and fiber length which varies from 2 cm to
20 cm, but poor tensile strength. These
deposits occur mostly at the contact of
country rock and talc-serpentine-magnesite
rock. Tremolite asbestos deposits are also
characterised by the lithological zoning (Fig.
3C & D) which differs from that observed at
talcose bodies in having an additional
acicular actinolite-chlorite zone and by the
absence of phlogopite zone. These
lithological zones are important guides to
prospectors in predicting either talc or
tremolite mineralisation. Mineral zoning
around talc and tremolite asbestos bodies
and occurrence of disseminated large
crystals of apatite in them, demonstrate the
role of metamorphic differentiation added by
metasomatism.

Mineral Identification and Petrography:

XRD Study:

Four representative samples of amphibole
asbestos, two each of talc and chlorite and
one each of brown mica and carbonate were
collected from working pits of talc and
asbestos. They were prepared for powder
XRD analyses (Cullity, 1978) using a Phillips
PD 1730 diffractometer (ADP-10) with Ni-
filtered CuK radiation at 40 kV and 30 nA
at the CRDL of Hindustan Zinc Limited,
Debari, Udaipur. XRD data obtained for
these minerals are given in Tables 1. The d-
spacing values obtained for the samples
were compared with the standard values
given in JCPDS cards. XRD data presented in
Table 1 show that amphibole asbestos of the
area is tremolite, chlorite is thuringite,
brown mica is phlogopite and carbonate
mineral is magnesite.

Petrography:

The main mineral assemblages observed in
serpentinites of the area include: (i)
antigorite chrysotile, (ii) talc-antigorite,
(iii) talc-antigorite-magnesite, (iv) antigorite
talc tremolite-actinolite,(v) talc
tremolite, (vi) actinolite-chlorite, (vii)
tremolite-chlorite and (viii) antigorite-talc-
magnesite. The first four mineral
assemblages are predominantly developed
in the northern part, while the other four are
observed mainly in the southern part of the
area. Magnetite is present in all the mineral
assemblages as a major accessory mineral
with occasional apatite. Antigorite is the
main serpentine mineral developed
abundantly in ultramafic bodies of the
northern part. It occurs mostly as a mass of
felted flakes and in most of the sections, it
constitutes the entire rock. A few thin
sections show a characteristic mesh texture
where only outlines of polygonal grains of
olivine with irregular fractures are preserved
in a rock that is wholly made up of antigorite
and talc (Fig. 4A). Similarly, an irregular
network of magnetite veins showing
appearance very similar to spider web have
been observed in dark-green serpentinite
which also reflects parent olivine outline.
The inner part of these veins is completely
replaced by fine grained granular mass of
antigorite resulting in pseudomorphic mesh
texture (cf. Wicks and Whittaker, 1977;
Maltman, 1978). In some of the thin
sections, fine grained antigorite of
pseudomorphic mesh textures has been
replaced by medium to coarse grained
antigorite laths or blades showing
interlocking habit and thus, exhibits non-
pseudomorphic interlocking texture (Fig. 4B,
cf. Wicks and Whittaker, 1977; Blais and
Auvray, 1990). Similarly, medium to coarse
grained antigorite laths and needles also
display feathery growth, which is deformed
at places, giving rise to interpenetrating
texture (cf. Wicks and Whittaker, 1977;
Blais and Auvray, 1990). Chrysotile occurs
465

466

Figure 4: Photomicrographs Showing: (A) Pseudomorphic Mesh Texture after Olivine
Developed due to Formation of Talc (Ta) and Antigorite (An). Bar=77 . (B) Non-
Pseudomorphic Interlocking Texture Displayed by Antigorite (An). Bar=77 . (C) Cross-
Fiber Texture where Veins of Chrysotile (Cry) Traverses across Antigorite (An). Bar=77 .
(D) Granular Aggregates of Antigorite (An) partially replaced by Talc Flakes (Ta). Bar=77 .
(E) Long Bladed or Columnar Aggregates of Tremolite (Tr.) Intergrown with Fine Talc (Ta)
Flakes which forms Interfiber Space Fillings. Bar=77. (F) Actinolite (Ac) Acicles Showing
One Set of Cleavage occurring in the Groundmass of Chlorite (Cl). Bar=77. (G)
Disseminated Grains of Magnesite (Ma) within the Aggregates of Antigorite (An). Bar=77.
(H) Thin Skeletal Aggregates of Released Magnetite (Mt) observed in Serpentinite from
Northern Part of the Area. Bar=77.
467
rarely as thin continuous, ribbon shaped
veins that traverse the felted scaly mass of
antigorite without any discontinuity
suggesting its formation later than
antigorite. The fibers of chrysotile are
arranged perpendicular to the walls of vein
and extend from one wall to other without
any break displaying cross-fiber texture
(Fig. 4C). In some samples, chrysotile veins
can be seen with unaided eyes with its
peculiar fibrous, splintery and columnar
habit. Talc is a major constituent of talcose-
serpentinite and talc-serpentine magnesite
rock. It occurs as fine flakes or fibrous
aggregates and also as thin veins irregularly
distributed within the fine to medium
granular aggregates or scaly mass of
antigorite (Fig. 4D) suggesting its formation
later than antigorite. In southern part of the
area, talc is also present in association with
tremolite where it occurs as interfiber space
fillings in the form of fibrous aggregates
(Fig.4E) indicating its co-genetic relationship
with tremolite.

Tremolite is a major constituent of
serpentinite of southern part of the belt
where it occurs as broad columnar fibrous
aggregates showing well developed cross
fractures which are filled in with iron oxides
(Fig. 4E). Actinolite occurs in association
with chlorite mostly in southern part of the
area (Fig. 4F). Its longitudinal sections are
acicular to columnar in habit with one set of
cleavages, while the cross sections show
rhombic shape with two sets of cleavages.
Chlorite is a sole constitute of the chlorite
schist occurring as a lithological zone
adjacent to talc lenses and tremolite
asbestos ore bodies. It occurs predominantly
as irregular flakes with perfect cleavages in
one direction. In a few thin sections, chlorite
flakes also host acicular tremolite,
suggesting that chlorite pre-dates the
formation of tremolite actinolite.

Calcite and magnesite are present
predominantly in ultramafic bodies of
southern part of the area. Calcite is
generally found in the form of thin veins or
coarse grains within the talc lenses, whereas
magnesite occurs as isolated grains of
variable size and also as thin veinlets in
association with talc shreds within a
groundmass of antigorite (Fig. 4G).

Magnetite is a major accessory mineral of
the serpentinites. It occurs as granular
aggregates and thin veinlets (Fig. 4H) and
also as anhedral grains with hematite flakes.
Apatite is another accessory mineral present
as small disseminated grains.

Petrochemistry:

To understand the petrochemical changes in
the ultramafic rocks during serpentinisation
and steatitisation, 29 fresh and
representative samples were collected from
the quarries and fresh outcrops and
analysed for major and trace elements by
Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry using
Varian AA-775 and Backmen DU-2,
Spectrophotometer following the procedure
given by Shapiro and Brannock (1962) and
Srivastava (1977) at the University
Department of Geology, Udaipur. The major
and trace element analyses presented in
Table 2 show that there is no significant
compositional variation in rock samples
having serpentine as the major constituent,
viz. massive serpentinite, talcose-
serpentinite and talc-serpentine-magnesite
rock (analysis 1-19) and therefore, they
have been treated as single petrochemical
unit to understand the chemical changes
during serpentinisation of the parent
ultramafic rock. The steatitised samples (20-
22) and samples of tremolite (23 & 24), and
actinolite including actinolite-chlorite schist
(25-29) show a significant variation in their
bulk chemical composition. Therefore, they
have been considered as separate units for
assessing chemical changes accompanying
asbestos formation and steatitisation. In
spite of large variation in mineralogy and
textures, the major element chemistry of
the serpentinites of the area show a broad
similarity with those of the serpentinites
studied by Challis (1965), Aumento and
Loubat (1971) and Blais and Auvray (1990).
However, a few samples (11, 14 & 17) show
slightly higher content of silica, which may
have been added during serpentinisation as
observed by Sobolev (1959) or during
subsequent alteration as pointed out by
Malakhov (1965). The low CaO content
468

469
470
(0.25 to 0.80 wt %) except in two samples
of talc-serpentine-magnesite rock (samples
18 & 19), indicates that the parent
ultramafic rocks were deficient in calcium
(cf. Canil (1990). Coleman (1966) attributed
low CaO content to the loss of this
constituent during serpentinisation. The
variation in Fe
2
O
3
and FeO is probably
because of presence of magnetite (cf. Basta
and Kadar, 1969). TiO
2
concentration in
most of the samples approaches almost zero
(Table 2) which might be due to its loss
during serpentinization as also noted by
Miyashiro et al., (1969). Major oxides
chemistry of the serpentinite (Table 2)
demonstrates that water was also one of the
major components that were added during
serpentinisation.

The Ni content (3734-6142 ppm) in these
serpentinites is comparatively higher than
the average values of 2000 ppm (Turekian
and Wedepohl, 1961) and 1500 ppm (Goles,
1967) reported for ultramafic rocks. The Cr
content (1033-1979 ppm) except in three
samples (7, 14 & 17) is much lower than the
average values of 2980 ppm determined for
ultramafic rocks (Stueber and Goles, 1967).
Similarly, Co content (128-186 ppm) is
higher than average values of 110 ppm for
ultramafic rocks (Goles, 1967). It implies
that parent ultramafic rock was rich in Ni
and Co and depleted in Cr content. The
MgO+FeO
t
/SiO
2
ratio averaging 1.00 in the
serpentinites of the area suggests either
incorporation of SiO
2
or removal of MgO or
FeO
t
during serpentinisation. The FeO
t
/MgO
ratio averaging 0.21 (Table 2) is identical to
the value of average mantle peridotite
(Schulze, 1986) and suggests that it did not
change during the process of
serpentinisation. A comparison of the
composition of serpentinite (1-19) and its
steatitised products (20-29) reveals that
there is a significant increase in SiO
2
and
corresponding decrease in MgO in the
steatitised rocks. Similarly, CaO content
which ranges from 0.25-0.80 wt% in
serpentinite except for the two samples (18
& 19), increases with steatitisation.

Discussion and Conclusions:

In Jharol East ultramafic belt, nearly 42
discrete small to medium sized completely
serpentinised and metamorphosed
ultramafic bodies occur as elongated pods or
lenses concordant to schistosity planes of
the quartz-mica schist (Fig. 1B & C). They
exhibit pinch and swell structures and share
the effects of ductile deformation of the
country rocks- the Jharol quartz-mica schist
and quartzite (Fig. 2A) - indicating that they
were emplaced prior to the folding of the
rocks of Aravalli Supergroup. At their
contact there is no evidence of thermal
metamorphism which suggests that they
were emplaced in sub-solid state (cf. Bowen
and Tuttle, 1949; Turner and Verhoogen,
1961; Jahns, 1967) through major fractures
developed in the crust during Aravalli
orogeny (Sinha-Roy et al., 1998).
Microscopic presence of a few
pseudomorphs of olivine and predominant
presence of antigorite supports the
conclusion that serpentinisation of the
parent rock took place prior to its
emplacement or during its transport.

The presence of antigorite as sole
constituent of the massive serpentinite (Fig.
4B) and absence of lizardite suggest that
antigorite-serpentinisation occurred through
the interaction of anhydrous peridotite with
water and silica which may have been
derived from sediments (cf. Schulze, 1986).
Serpentinisation might have occurred at a
temperature higher than 200 C, which is
above the stability limit of lizardite-
serpentinisation (25-200 C; cf. Ikin and
Harmon, 1983). Formation of antigorite can
be explained by the following equations
given by Coleman (1977):
2Mg
2
SiO
4
+2H
2
O Mg
3
Si
2
O
5
(OH)
4
+ MgO
olivine serpentinite
3Mg
2
SiO
4
+4H
2
O + SiO
2
2Mg
3
SiO
5
(OH)
4

olivine serpentinite
Addition of H
2
O, SiO
2
and disseminated
nature of magnetite grains formed from
initially banded habit indicate large volume
increase during the process of
serpentinization (cf. Aumento and Loubat,
1971).

471
Thin section studies reveal that the original
textures of the ultramafic rocks have been
obliterated and obscured initially as a result
of serpentinization. However, the most
common textures observed in serpentinites
of the area are classed as pseudomorphic
mesh texture (Fig. 4A) and non-
pseudomorphic interlocking (Fig. 4B) and
interpenetrating textures. The textural
variations represent a break in the
serpentinisation or they may have resulted
from variations in availability of water and
temperature conditions as suggested by
Martin and Fyfe (1970). The magnetite is
also a major accessory mineral in
serpentinites of the area (Fig. 4H). It has
been formed by serpentinisation of olivine
(cf. Wicks and Whittaker, 1977). Thus, the
presence of pseudomorphic mesh texture
which is a characteristic feature of altered
olivine and abundance of magnetite suggest
that the parent ultramafic rock might be
peridotite or dunite rather than pyroxenite.

Antigorite composition of the serpentinite of
Jharol area and absence of lizardite suggest
that the parent ultramafic rocks may not be
ophiolites. Chemically, harzburgites have
lower concentration of Al
2
O
3
(Coleman,
1977) as compared to lherzolite (Jackson
and Thayer, 1972; Coleman, 1977). In
harzburgite and dunite, mean Al
2
O
3
content
is 0.89% and 0.35% respectively whereas in
lherzolite, it is 3.6% which is almost nearer
to Al
2
O
3
content present in serpentinites of
the Jharol area (Table 2). The CaO content
is comparatively lower than in lherzolite
which might be due to its depletion in parent
mantle material. The content of Na
2
O and
K
2
O is also higher in serpentinites of the
area than reported values for dunite
(0.005% Na
2
O, 0.0002 % K
2
O) and
harzburgite (0.012% Na
2
O, 0.001% K
2
O)
(Loney et al., 1971). The lower MgO/SiO
2

ratio of serpentinites of the area (averages
0.88, Table 2) as compared to ophiolitic
harzburgite (1.02) is also a characteristic
feature of the lherzolite (Coleman, 1977).
Similarly, the mean MgO/MgO+FeO
t
ratio
(Table 2) is also closer to lherzolite sub-type
(0.84) instead of dunite (0.86) and
harzburgite (0.85) (cf. Coleman, 1977).
Thus, based on petromineralogic and
geochemical parameters, the ultramafic rock
of the area falls under lherzolite sub-type.

The field and petrographic evidences
indicate that the talc-carbonate alteration in
the study area post-dates serpentinisation.
The absence of magnesite in antigorite
bearing massive serpentinite (Fig. 4B) and
its co-existence with medium to coarse
grained bladed antigorite (Fig. 4G) and talc
blades in talc-serpentine-magnesite rock,
where both talc and magnesite replaces
antigorite, suggests that talc is formed by
alteration of antigorite rather than olivine.
Similarly, formation of talc as observed in
talcose-serpentinite (Fig. 4D) and talc-
serpentine-magnesite rock by conversion of
serpentine is considered to occur by CO
2

metasomatism during steatitisation, post-
dating serpentinisation. It is considered that
talc was formed by the reaction
2Serpentine+3CO
2
Talc+3Magnesite+3H
2
O
during carbonatisation following the study of
Groves et al. (1974).

The formation of tremolite and actinolite
may occur either isochemically or
metasomatically (cf. Robinson et al., 1982).
The amphiboles of metasomatic origin occur
only at contact between ultramafic bodies
and country rocks in association with a black
wall zone of chlorite and they are generally
monomineralic or bimineralic having
association like mg-amphibole/talc/chlorite/
diopside/phlogopite. In Jharol, tremolite ore
lenses occur at the contact of ultramafic
bodies and country rocks followed outward
by a zone of bimineralic acicular actinolite-
chlorite schist and black wall zone of chlorite
schist (Fig. 3C & D) with rare association of
talc with inner tremolite zone. A chemical
comparison between samples of serpentinite
and amphiboles indicates that amphiboles
have higher concentration of silica and
calcium and lower content of magnesia as
compared to serpentinite (Table 2). Thus, it
is reasonable to conclude that metasomatic
addition of silica and calcium is favourable in
the formation of tremolite and actinolite in
the area. The presence of chlorite and rarely
phlogopite zoning at the contact of talc
lenses and country rock is a typical feature
observed in Jharol area (Fig. 3A & B). The
chlorite is identified as thuringite. These
472
zones might have been formed by the
alteration of country rock around the
ultramafic bodies because as is evidenced by
the presence of foliation analogous to those
in quartz-mica schist. Thin section study
indicates that columnar fibers of tremolite
and actinolite accommodate substantial
amount of chlorite flakes. Field study also
confirms that these zones do not represent
complete mineral assemblages as observed
in the adjoining quartz-mica schist.
Moreover, chlorite at places has large
amount of disseminated crystals of
magnetite which might have got released
during the process of metamorphism and
incorporated in the chlorite zone. Hence,
formation of chlorite is related to the time of
steatitisation.

The geochemical data (Table 2) reveals that
the serpentinite and talcose-serpentinite
contain 36.71-47.82 wt% silica, 28.87-
42.13 wt% magnesia and 1.36-4.53 wt%
alumina whereas actinolite-chlorite schist
shows a relatively higher content of silica
(43.11-56.55 wt%), alumina (9.56-12.27
wt%) and calcium (4.30-12.11 wt%), and
lower concentration of magnesia (6.80-
17.07 wt%). Thus, the major variation in
chemistry from serpentinite and talcose-
serpentinite to actinolite-chlorite schist
indicates metasomatic addition of SiO
2
,
Al
2
O
3
and

CaO from country rocks into
ultramafic bodies which is responsible for
the formation of chlorite zone at the contact
of talc and tremolite ore lenses and country
rock (cf. Scotford and Williams, 1983). The
zone of phlogopite resulted due to removal
of MgO from the ultramafic bodies towards
country rocks (cf. Jahns. 1967).
Steatitisation and simultaneous
carbonatisation in the southern part of the
area, where carbonic fluids were operative
(Ranawat and Shekhawat, 1986; Ranawat,
2007) produced talcose-serpentinite and
talc-serpentine-magnesite rock.
Furthermore, within the belt from north to
south an increase in degree of steatitisation
is evident as reflected by increase in
presence of garnet, tremolite, magnesite
and greater steatitisation of serpentinite.

Petrographic studies reveal that talc and
serpentine (antigorite) association is the
most stable assemblage observed in Jharol
East ultramafic belt (Fig. 4A & D). The upper
stability limit of serpentine at 490 C
(Yoder, 1966) and temperature of formation
of talc at above 330 C (Johannes, 1969)
indicates that the temperature of talc
formation in the study area falls between
330 C to 490 C and the rocks were
regionally metamorphosed under upper-
green schist to lower amphibolite facies
conditions.

Acknowledgements:

The authors are thankful to late Prof. R. K.
Srivastava, In-charge Geochemical Lab,
University Department of Geology, Udaipur
for his help in major and trace elements
analyses. They are also thankful to Dr. R. N.
Roy, the then Senior Manager (Geology)
CRDL, HZL, Udaipur for providing XRD
laboratory facilities. The Heads, University
Department of Geology, Udaipur are
gratefully acknowledged for extending other
required facilities for completing this work.
The State Department of Science and
Technology, Government of Rajasthan, is
thankfully acknowledged for providing
financial support for this work in form of an
R&D project.

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475
Amplification Studies of Local Soils using Applied
Element Method
SUSHMA PULIKANTI, MOHAMMAD AHMED HUSSAIN
and RAMANCHARLA PRADEEP KUMAR

Earthquake Engineering Research Centre, International Institute of Information Technology
Hyderabad, Gachibowli, Hyderabad 500 032
Email: ramancharla@iiit.ac.in

Abstract: The amplification of ground motion is being observed during major earthquake
events all over the world and is highly dependent on the local geological, topography and
geotechnical conditions. In view of this there is a great need to study the local site effects in
a seismically active region. In this paper, the numerical modeling of infinite media is carried
out by using transmitting boundary condition. Wave interaction with different kinds of
boundaries like fixed and viscous boundary is discussed. The heterogeneities in the soil
media are taken into account by considering the soft clay and the rock inside the half-space.
Peak ground acceleration at the surface is plotted and local amplification of soils is studied
by giving Elcentro ground motion as input at the bed rock for both the cases. In the half-
space where clay is present, PGA is amplified by a factor of 2.5 with respect to input. More
energy is concentrated in the half-space where clay is present. In the half-space where rock
is present the area adjacent to the rock is getting amplified as energy is concentrated
around the rock.

Keywords: Applied Element Method (AEM), Local site effects / Site amplification, Silent
boundary, Viscous damping

Introduction:

Past earthquake history all over the world
shows that the amplification of ground
motion is highly dependent on the local
geological, topography and geotechnical
conditions. Many studies have been devoted
for the estimation of local site effects (Wills
and Siliva, (1998); Topal et al., (2003);
Pitilakis, (2004); Neelima (2006)). It is
observed that large concentration of
damage in specific areas during an
earthquake is due to site dependent factors
related to surface geological conditions and
local soil altering seismic motion. Generally,
the soil layers over the firm bedrock may
attenuate or amplify the bed rock
earthquake motion depending upon
geotechnical characteristics, their depth and
arrangement of layers (Steven L Kramer,
(2003)). Local amplification of the ground is
often controlled by the soft surface layer,
which leads to the trapping of the seismic
energy, due to the impedance contrast
between the soft surface soils and the
underlying bedrock.
There are several problems in numerical
modeling where media is either infinite or
semi-infinite. One of them is modeling of soil
underneath the footing. During past few
decades, it is very well recognized that
structure resting on soil interacts
dynamically with soil during earthquakes.
Modeling of this problem becomes difficult
due to the reason that soil extends up to
infinity. A wave that is radiated from the
source travels up to infinity before its
amplitude is reduced to insignificant value.
One simple solution to carry out the analysis
is to model the boundary at infinitely large
distance such that influence of the boundary
is not affecting the results in the vicinity of
the source. However, such a system takes
huge amount of computation time and
resources. For this reason, many
researchers studied the problem by
modeling the media incorporating absorbing
boundary condition like viscous boundary
condition proposed by Lysmer et al. (1969),
doubly asymptotic approximation method
proposed by Geers et al. (2003). In this it
uses the concept of applying viscous
476
dampers to degree of freedom on the
boundary element.
In this paper numerical modelling of infinite
media is carried out by considering discrete
modelling Applied Element Method, which
can perform linear as well as highly
nonlinear analysis such as problems with
huge cracks in the media. The
heterogeneities in the soil media is taken
into account by considering the soft clay
block and the rock block. PGA at surface is
plotted and local amplification of soils is
studied by giving Elcentro ground motion as
input at the bed rock with peak ground
acceleration of 0.318 g.

Applied Element Method

In AEM (Tagel-Din (1998), Meguro et al.
(2000), Meguro et al. (2001)), structure is
modelled as an assembly of small elements
that are made by dividing of the structure
virtually, as shown in Fig. 1 (a). The two
elements shown in Fig. 1 (b) are assumed to
be connected by pairs of normal and shear
springs located at contact locations that are
distributed around the element edges. Each
pair of springs totally represents stresses
and deformations of a certain area (hatched
area in Fig. 1 (b)) of the studied elements.
The spring stiffness is determined as shown
in Eq. (1):
a
T d E
K
n

=
and
a
T d G
K
s

=

(1)
Where, d is the distance between springs, T
is the thickness of the element and "a" is
the length of the representative area, E and
G are the Youngs and shear modulus of the
material, respectively. The above equation
indicates that each spring represents the
stiffness of an area (d x T) with length "a" of
the studied material. In case of
reinforcement, this area is replaced by that
of the reinforcement bar. The above
equation indicates that the spring stiffness is
calculated as if the spring connects the
element centre lines.

Normal and Shear Springs
and shear springs
by a pair of normal
Area represented
b
d
a
d/2
a
d
b
a
Reinforcement bar
Structure boundary

Figure 1: Element Formulation in 2D-AEM

In 2D AEM, three degrees of freedom are
assumed for each element. These degrees of
freedom represent the rigid body motion of
the element. Although the element motion is
a rigid body motion, its internal stresses and
deformations can be calculated by the spring
deformation around each element. This
means that although the element shape
doesn't change during analysis, the behavior
of assembly of elements is deformable. The
two elements shown in Fig. 2 are assumed
to be connected by only one pair of normal
477
(stiffness: Kn) and shear (stiffness: Ks)
springs. The values of (dx and dy)
correspond to the relative coordinate of the
contact point with respect to the centroid.
To have a general stiffness matrix, the
locations of element and contact springs are
assumed in a general position. The stiffness
matrix components corresponding to each
degree of freedom are determined by
assuming a unit displacement in the studied
direction and by determining forces at the
centroid of each element. The element
stiffness matrix size is only (6 x 6). Table
(1) shows the components of the upper left
quarter of the stiffness matrix. All used
notations in this equation are shown in Fig.
2. It is clear that the stiffness matrix
depends on the contact spring stiffness and
the spring location.

dy2
dx2
dy1
dx1
L
u3
u1
u2
Ks
Kn
Ks
Contact
Location
u4
u5
u6
dy2
dx2
dy1
dx1
L
u3
u1
u2
Ks
Kn
Ks
Contact
Location
u4
u5
dy2
dx2
dy1
dx1
L
u3
u1
u2
Ks
Kn
Ks
Contact
Location
u4
u5
u6

Figure 2: Spring Connectivity

The stiffness matrix in Table 1 is for only
one pair of contact springs. However, the
global stiffness matrix is determined by
summing up the stiffness matrices of
individual pair of springs around each
element. Consequently, the developed
stiffness matrix is an average stiffness
matrix for the element according to the
stress situation around the element. This
technique can be used both in load and
displacement control cases. The governing
equation is
[ ][ ] [ ] F K
G
=

(2)
Where, [KG] is the global stiffness matrix;
[] the displacement vector and [F] the
applied load vector. In load control case, the
vector, [F], is known before the analysis. In
displacement control case, the load is
applied by unit virtual displacement for one
or more degrees of freedom. By using the
advantage of AEM's simplicity in formulation
and accuracy in non-linear range, fault
rupture zone is modelled Pradeep et al. (Aug
2001), Pradeep et al. (Dec 2001), Pradeep
et al. (2002).

Table 1: One-Quarter of Stiffness Matrix

( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
+

+ +
+
+
+
+ +
+
+ +
+
+ + +
+ +
+
+
+ + +
+ +
+ +
+
s
2 2
n
2 2
s
n
n
s
s
n
n
2
s
2
s
n
n
s
s
n
s
2
n
2
K Sin L
K Cos L
LSin K Sin
LCos K Cos
LCos K Sin
LSin K Cos
LSin K Sin
LCos K Cos
K Cos
K Sin
Cos Sin K
Cos Sin K
LCos K Sin
LSin K Cos
Cos Sin K
Cos Sin K
K Cos
K Sin

Numerical Modeling of Infinite Media:

Numerical modelling of an unbounded
medium is a difficult task (John P Wolf et al.
(1996)). The boundary condition at infinity
often called the radiation condition, states
that no energy be radiated from infinity
towards the structure. For each increase in
time, an additional part of the unbounded
medium that at rest, adjacent to the wave
front is incorporated in the domain of
influence. This requires energy, which is
supplied through the structure medium
478
interface. As far as the structures response
is concerned, this corresponds to radiation
damping. Loads acting on the structure
leads to waves propagating from the
structure medium interface towards infinity
in a soil-structure interaction analysis. As
the amplitudes of all body and surface
waves in three dimensions decay owing to
geometric spreading, the non-linearity will
be limited to the irregular bounded medium
when chosen sufficiently large. The
remaining regular unbounded medium will
thus behave linearly.

The uniqueness theorem can be formulated
to calculate the response of the unbounded
medium at the initial time. The direction
perpendicular to the infinitesimal area
dA
(see Fig. 3) of the structure medium
interface is addressed. The unbounded
media is initially at rest. After applying the
load per unit area p during the first
infinitesimal time
dt
, the wave front is at
the distance
dt C
p (dilatational wave
velocity p
C
) and the domain of influence
dtdA C
p . The law of conservation of
momentum is applied for the first
infinitesimal time
dt
.
The initial momentum vanishes. The
momentum (mass times velocity) at
dt

equals
.
. . u dA dt C
p

.
. . . . u dA dt C dt pdA
p
=
(3)
.
. u C p
p
=
(4)

The initial response perpendicular to the
structure medium interface of the
unbounded medium is thus modelled by a
dashpot with the coefficient per unit
area p
C
, which is called the impedance.
Analogously the initial response in the
tangential directions is described by
dashpots with the same coefficient s
C

(Shear wave velocity, s
C
).

Wave Interaction with Boundary:

The portion of the wave field that has
penetrated the boundary is referred to as
the refracted wave. Also can be explained
that part of the wave that has bounced off
of, or reflected off of, the boundary. This
part of the wave field is referred to as the
reflected wave. Finally, part of the wave
field has not interacted with the boundary at
all. This part of the wave field is called the
direct wave. Lets now watch the seismic
waves propagate through the medium and
see how they interact with the boundary.
Two cases are considered for studying the
wave interaction with boundary. First one is
the semi-infinite rod and the second one
being 2D half-space.

Figure 3: Unbounded Media

Semi-Infinite Rod:

Simple method to check the applicability of
the numerical model to study the
unbounded media is to check the accuracy
of the method by comparing it with the
theoretical results. In this section, a semi
infinite rod is modelled by using 26
elements. The size of each element is
10x10x10 m. One end of the rod is free and
the other end is modelled as fixed boundary
as given in the Fig. 4.
Fi xe dBounda r y Fi xe dBounda r y Fi xe dBounda r y
Figure 4: I D rod with fixed boundary

Material properties used in the analysis are
as follows: modulus of elasticity, E =
66x10
6
kN/m
2
, density,
= 26.5 kN/m
3
. An
impulse of 1x10
5
kN is given at the free end
of the rod and the displacement response of
479
each element is observed by using both AEM
and FEM. Fig. 5 (a) and Fig. 5 (c) shows
the displacement time histories of all the
elements along the direction of the impulse
plotted using AEM and FEM respectively.
From these figures, it can be seen that there
is the time lag between the points at which
the element the element starts vibration. If
we draw a straight line along these points
and measure the slope, it will indicate the
velocity of the wave. Fig. 5 (b) and Fig. 5
(d) shows the changes in kinetic energy and
potential energy during the vibration of the
rod plotted using AEM and FEM respectively.
However, the total energy is always
constant because there is no energy loss
from the system.

Figure 5: (a) Displacement Time History (AEM); (b) Variation of Total Kinetic and Potential
Energy (AEM); (c) Displacement Time History (FEM) and (d) Variation of Total Kinetic and
Potential Energy (FEM) for Fixed Boundary Condition

In order to remove the reflections that arise
when the wave interacts with the boundary,
the fixed boundary is replaced by viscous
damper (see Fig. 6) at the end of the rod.
Again the analysis is carried out by giving an
impulse of 1x10
5
kN at the free end of the
480
rod. Fig. 7 (a) and Fig. 7 (c) shows the
displacement time history of all elements
along the direction of impulse plotted using
AEM and FEM respectively. From these
figures it can be seen that waves does not
reflect back.

Figure 7: (a) Displacement Time History (AEM); (b) Variation of Total Kinetic and Potential
Energy (AEM); (c) Displacement Time History (FEM) and (d) Variation of Total Kinetic and
Potential Energy (FEM) for Viscous Boundary Condition

481
V i s c o u s B o u n d a r y C o n d i t i o n
P - - - - - - - I m p u l s e l o a d i n g
L - - - - - - - L e n g t h o f t h e r o d
A - - - - - - A r e a o f c r o s s s e c t i o n
d a s h p o t
L
P
V i s c o u s B o u n d a r y C o n d i t i o n
P - - - - - - - I m p u l s e l o a d i n g
L - - - - - - - L e n g t h o f t h e r o d
A - - - - - - A r e a o f c r o s s s e c t i o n
d a s h p o t
L
P
L
P

Figure 6: I D Rod with Viscous Boundary

Figure 7

This is due to the presence of viscous
boundary that absorbs the energy.
However, in this we can see the permanent
displacement of all the elements that is
equal to the deformation of the damper. Fig.
7 (b) and Fig. 7 (d) shows the changes in
kinetic energy and potential energy during
the vibration of the rod plotted using AEM
and FEM respectively. In these figures, we
can see that the total energy is not constant
because of the presence of the viscous
damper. As the wave reaches the boundary,
the energy inside the system starts reducing
and finally it comes to zero. From this figure
also we can find the velocity of the wave,
which is equal to the length of the rod
divided by the time at which the energy
starts reducing from 100%.

2D Half-Space:

Two dimensional half-space is modeled
using 1006 square elements. Size of each
element is again 10x10x10 m as shown in
the Fig. 8 and the properties of materials
considered are given in Table (2).
482

Figure 8: Modeling of Half-Space

Displacement time history of the Elcentro
acceleration record is given as input at the
bed rock as shown in Fig. 9 and the free
field response of the elements on the
surface near the boundary is plotted using
AEM and FEM for viscous and fixed
boundary conditions respectively.

Table 2: Material Properties

Figure 9: Input Displacement Time History
5 10 15 20 25 30
-0.015
-0.01
-0.005
0
0.005
0.01
time(secs)
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

FEM
AEM

Figure 10: Response on the Surface near
the Boundary due to Fixed Boundary
Condition

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
-0.25
-0.2
-0.15
-0.1
-0.05
0
0.05
0.1
time(sec)
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

FEM
AEM

Figure 11: Response on the Surface near
the Boundary due to Fixed Boundary
Condition

In Fig. 10 we can see that lot of reflections
are present in the media due to the fixed
boundary condition, where as these
reflections are not there in the actual field
condition since the soil is not surrounded by
any sort of boundary and the waves coming
out will be traveled to infinite distance. To
avoid these unwanted reflections viscous
boundary condition (John P Wolf et al
(1996)) has been used. Fig. 11 shows the
free field response near boundary with
viscous boundary condition. In this figure we
Viscous boundary
Soil
Rock
483
can observe that the effect of boundary is
not there in the response.

By considering the heterogeneities inside
the soil media two case studies have been
considered one with clay at some part of the
half-space and the other by considering rock
at some part of the half-space.

Case 1 (Clay):

The model of the half-space with clay is
shown in Fig. 12. The peak ground
acceleration at the surface of the half-space
is plotted as shown in Fig. 13.

Figure 12: Modeling of Half-Space with
different Material Properties

Figure 13: Peak Ground Acceleration at
Surface

Due to the presence of clay the PGA has
been amplified by a factor of 2.5 with
respect to input. Fig. 14 and Fig. 15 show
the acceleration and total energy time
histories at the centre of clay block.

Figure 14: Acceleration Time History at the
Centre of Clay Block

Figure 15: Total energy time history at the
centre of clay block

From the figures it can be seen that PGA is
more at the same time instant where more
energy is concentrated. The energy
concentration at that time instant is shown
in Fig 16. The reason for more energy
concentration in the clay is because of
trapping of waves.

Clay
Soil
Rock
484

Figure 16: Total Energy at the Centre of
Clay Block

Case 2 (Rock):

The model of the half-space with rock is
shown in Fig. 17. The peak ground
acceleration at the surface of the half-space
is plotted as shown in Fig. 18.

Figure 17: Modeling of Half-Space with
different Material Properties

Figure 18: Peak Ground Acceleration at the
Surface

Due to the presence of rock the PGA has
been amplified by a factor of 1.1 with
respect to input. Fig. 19 and Fig. 20 show
the acceleration and total energy time
histories adjacent to the rock.

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Time in Sec
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

i
n

g

Figure 19: Acceleration time History
adjacent to Rock

Rock
Rock
Soil
485
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
T
o
t
a
l

E
n
e
r
g
y
Time in Sec

Figure 20: Total Energy Time History
adjacent to Rock

The energy concentration at that time
instant is discussed by plotting the energy
contours as shown in Fig. 21. The reason for
increase in PGA adjacent to rock is because
of energy is getting trapped around the rock
medium and also multiple reflections of
seismic waves with the rock media

Figure 21: Total Energy adjacent to Rock

Conclusions:

Numerical modeling of infinite media using
AEM is presented in this paper. Viscous
boundary condition is considered. First,
semi-infinite rod is studied using the fixed
boundary, and then the effect of
transmitting boundary condition is tested. It
is found from the numerical results that the
effect of viscous dampers is significant in
controlling the amplitude of vibration.
Two-dimensional half-space is modeled
using viscous boundary condition. The
heterogeneities in the soil media is taken
into account by considering clay and rock at
some portion of half-space.

More amplification is observed in soft clay
deposits when compared to rock strata as
the local amplification of the ground is often
controlled by the soft surface layer, which
leads to the trapping of the seismic energy.

The soil adjacent to rock block is amplified
more because of waves interacting with the
rock material and getting reflected on to the
adjacent soil. The energy concentration in
the system is clearly discussed by plotting
total energy contours for both the cases.
From these figures it can be clearly seen
that more energy is concentrated in the
half-space where clay is present and also
the area adjacent to the rock.

References:

[1] Felippa, C.A. (1980). A family of early-
time approximations for fluid-structure
interaction. Journal of applied mechanics,
47: 703-708.
[2] Geers, T.L. and Lewis, B.A. (2003).
Doubly asymptotic approximations for
transient elastodynamics. International
journal of solids & structures, Vol 47, No.
11: 1293-1305.
[3] John, P. Wolf and Song, C. (1996).
Finite-element modelling of unbounded
media. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., West
Sussex, England
[4] Lysmer, J. and Kuhlemeyer, R.L. (1969).
Finite dynamic model for infinite media.
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Applied element method for structural
analysis: Theory and application for linear
materials. Structural Eng. / Earthquake
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[6] Meguro, K. and Tagel-Din, H. (2001).
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under cyclic loading. Journal of Structural
Eng., ASCE, Vol. 127, No. 11, Nov.
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microzonation of Delhi Region, Ph. D thesis,
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Recent Advances in Earthquake Geotechnical
Engg. and Microzonation, 139-197.
486
[9] Pradeep Kumar Ramancharla and
Meguro, K. (Aug 2001). Dynamic
Simulation of Fault Motion for Studying
Ground Surface Deformation. Proceedings
3
rd
International Summer Symposium, JSCE,
pp. 97-100.
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Attenuation Characteristics of Peak
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Applied Element Method. Seisan-Kenkyu
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[11] Pradeep K Ramancharla and Meguro, K.
(2002). Non-linear Static Modelling of Dip-
slip Faults for Studying Ground Surface
Deformation using Applied Element Method.
Structural Engg. / Earthquake Engg. JSCE,
Vol. 9, No. 2, pp.169-178.
[12] Steven L Kramer, (2003).
Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering.
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Delhi, India.
[13] Tagel-Din, H. (1998). A new efficient
method for nonlinear, large deformation and
collapse analysis of structures. Ph.D. thesis,
Civil Eng. Dept., The University of Tokyo.
[14] Topal T., V. Doyuran, Karahanoglu N,
Toprak V, Suzen M, and Yesilnakar E.
(2003). Microzonation for Earthquake
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Turkey. Engineering Geology 70, 93-108.
[15] Wills C. J. and Silva W. (1998). Shear-
Wave Velocity Characteristics of Geologic
units in California . Earthquake Spectra
14(3) 533-556.
487
Landfill Site Selection by using Geographic
Information System - A Case Study of Shivamogga
Town, Shivamogga District Karnataka State, India.
S. L. ARUNKUMAR and G. CHANDRAKANTHA
Dept of Applied Geology, Kuvempu University, Jnanasahyadri, Shankaraghatta 577451
Email: arunsl.smglingaraju@gmail.com

Abstract: Most of the urban areas in modern days face serious and growing potential problem
in shortage of land for waste disposal. Although, some methods and efforts are being made to,
recover and recycle the waste, but landfill is the most common method used for waste disposal
in almost all cities/towns. Landfill site selection in urban areas is a critical issue due to its
negative impact on the economy, ecology, and the environmental health. Therefore,
numerous criteria must be considered and the selection process is a complicated since it has
to integrate social, environmental and technical parameters. In this study, the most suitable
sites for locating landfill in Shivamogga town, as a case study are determined by using
integration of the Geographical Information System (GIS) and Multi Criteria Evaluation
Technique (MCET) method by considering the regulations and constraints on other resources
for waste disposal. In this study an appropriate landfill sites has been identified in the
vicinity of Shivamogga Town by integrating 15 layers viz., topography, settlements (urban
centers, villages), roads (highways & village roads), railways, streams, power lines, soil,
slope, geology, land use and land cover, geomorphology, floodplains, aquifer types and
surface water.

Keywords: Landfill, Shivamogga, Malnad, Capability values, Multi-criteria evaluation
technique,

Introduction:

Now-a-days, rapid increase in population
growth, levels of consumption and increase
per capita income have been resulted in the
generation of waste generation scenario of the
world. The quantity of enormous municipal
solid waste (MSW), causing a serious threat to
environmental quality and human health,
particularly in developing countries where
large quantities of MSW are dumped
haphazardly, thereby putting pressure on
scarce land and water resources and also
affecting the health of human beings, mostly
that of poor who are exposed to it
(Chakrabarti, 2003). MSW is defined as refuse
from households, non-hazardous solid waste
from industrial, commercial and institutional
establishments (including hospitals), market
waste, yard waste and street sweepings
(Schubeler et al., 1996). However, there are
some efforts are made to reduce and
recover the waste but the necessity of
getting rid of solid wastes yields in an
economic approach for waste destination
which is called as land filling (Tchobanoglous
and Kreith 2002). Accomplishing, landfill sites
are very extremely difficult task because, the
site selection process depends upon the
process of different restrictive regulations and
constraints regarding the siting and operations
of landfills (Basak Sener et. al., 2006). It is
becoming increasingly difficult in selecting
landfill sites that satisfies everyone
(Mummolo, 1995), due to the increasing cost,
growing population densities, environmental
awareness over their surroundings, public
health and concerns and less land available
for landfill constructions sites are some of the
difficulties to overcome, and also decreased
amount of governmental and municipal
funding with political and community
opposition also are some of the draw backs in
selecting landfill sites(Lober, 1995).
Environmental factors are very important
because the landfill may effect the biophysical
environment, groundwater contamination,
uncontrolled emission of landfill gasses and
the ecology of the surrounding area (Siddiqui
et al., 1996). Economic factors in the siting of
488
landfills, which include the cost associated
with acquisition, development, and operation
of the site (Erkut and Moran., 1991). Besides
all the problems of environmental, political,
and community opposition, scavengers,
houseflies also get increased in the vicinity of
the landfill sites. It is evident that many
factors must be incorporated into landfill siting
decisions, and geographic information
systems (GIS) is ideal for this kind of
preliminary studies due to its ability to
manage large volumes of spatial data from a
variety of sources and it potentially saves time
that would normally be spent in selecting an
appropriate site. It efficiently stores, retrieves,
analyzes and displays information according to
user-defined specifications (Siddiqui et al.
1996). To decide the most suitable site for a
landfill various publications, guidelines and
suggestions has been made in various
literatures. A number of these studies offer
certain warnings and recommendations in
general qualitative terms. Heitfeld and Olzem
(1982) and Walsh and OLeary (2002) have
drawn attention to the need for impermeable
geological units at landfill sites. Fountoulis et
al (2003) has suggested geological criteria for
landfill selection sites. Frantzis (1993) has
suggested a comparison of landfill sites with a
hypothetical ideal site using environmental,
engineering, and economical criteria. Pastakia
and Jensen (1998) proposed a Rapid Impact
Assessment Matrix procedure in which
physical, chemical, biological, economical,
sociological, cultural, and operational criteria
are considered. Sachpazis (2001) suggested a
two-stage evaluation procedure based on
geological, geotechnical, environmental,
economical, land-use, technical, and social
enterprise criteria. Allen (2001) criticized this
containment approach as unsuitable and too
expensive. He stressed that suitable sites with
natural geological barriers can often be found
with adequate geological hydrogeological
investigations. Central pollution control board
(CPCB) Govt. of India (2003), Ministry of
Environment and Forests, has mentioned
guidelines conducting site selection for
common hazardous waste management
facility. The U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (USEPA, 2003) has pointed out those
wetlands, karstic regions, regions with mass
movement and strong seismic activity, and
flood prone areas cannot be eligible for
landfills. Gupta et al. (2003) investigated
using fuzzy logic to determine weights of
relevant criteria for landfill site location.
Mufide Banar et.al (2006) has suggested a
landfill sites by analytical network by
evaluation to protect natural resources and
prevention of environmental pollution. The
present work describes a type of Multi-criteria
Evaluation Technique (MCET) called Simple
Additive Weighted Method (SAW) in a GIS
environment is used to deal with the
difficulties that the decision makers pose in
handling large and vast amounts of complex
data or information (Hussey et al 1996., Kao
and Lin 1996., Siddiqui et al 1996., Kao et al
1997., Charnpratheep et al 1997). The
principle of this method is to divide the
problem features in the map layers into
smaller units into understandable parts,
analyze each part separately to its weightage
with respect to its potentials and then
integrate the parts in a logical manner to
evaluate the suitability of the outskirts of
Shivamogga city for landfill site selection. The
integration of GIS and MCET is a powerful tool
to solve the landfill site selection problem,
because GIS provides efficient manipulation
and presentation of the data and MCET
supplies consistent ranking of the potential
landfill area based on a value of criteria.

Study Area:

Shivamogga city is one of the 5th largest and
an administrative centre in Karnataka state,
located between 75
0
48' to 75
0
68' E longitude
and 13
0
84' to 14
0
03' N latitude, and it
covered by the Survey of India (SOI)
toposheet 48O/5, 48O/9 and 48N/12,
comprising a region of approximately 445 sq
kms (Fig.1). The climate of the area
experiences hot summer and cold winter
during summer month, the temperature rises
up to a maximum of 35
0
C, while during
winter it goes down to about 15
0
C. Humidity
is relatively high through out the year. The
annual average rainfall is 1812 mm, the major
part that takes between early June and
September. The main land cover types in the
study area are evergreen and semi evergreen
forests, open forests and pastures with
agriculture, tanks and residential areas. The
economic growth has led to increase in
489
Landfill Site Selection by using Geographic Information System - A Case
Study of Shivamogga Town, Shivamogga District Karnataka State, India.
population, leading to urban expansion,
changes in land use pattern automatically
increase in solid waste. Hence, for sustainable
management of the solid waste produced,
there is a need to locate suitable sites for its
disposal for future. Shivamogga city a
municipal corporation located in the central
part of the state of Karnataka, India. It lies on
the banks of Tunga River. Shivamogga is a
part of a region vernacularly known as Malnad
(land of rainfall) in Karnataka state, a region
famous for plentiful rainfall and lush greenery.
Shivamogga City Municipal Corporation
administrative area covers about 50 sqkms
(19.31 square miles), having a population of
2,74,102 (www.Shimoga.net). The majority of
the housing located within 30 kms radius i.e
town centre, having nearly about 52,277
houses. At present, the total amount of SWG
(Solid Waste Generation) per day is about
83.5 tonnes, which is disposed in an area of
approximately 27 hectares in the northern and
western part of the city. To meet a specific
objective, it is frequent the case that several
criteria will need to be evaluated.

Input Data (Materials and Methods):

About 15 thematic layers such as topography,
settlements (Urban centers, villages), roads
(highways, village roads and small roads),
railways, wetlands, infrastructure (power lines
and pipelines), slope, geology, land use,
floodplains, aquifers and surface waters are
integrated on GIS platform, generated from
three map sources like topographical,
hydrogeological and land use and land cover
maps. All the thematic layers are prepared
from scanning, geocoding and digitizing the
relevant information. The information
complied from literature, criteria based on the
guidelines produced by the Ministry of
Environment about the safe distances to a
landfill sites is used to determine the buffer
zones for each layer from various resources.
After creating, the different classes in each
layer with respect to the buffer distance each
layer is converted into individual raster maps.
The layers used buffer zones and ranking
assigned for each layer class summarized in
the Table.1.

Simple Additive Weighing Method (Saw):

Simple additive method is one of the simplest
and most often used as Multi-Criteria
Evaluation technique (MCET) of several
methods available for determining interclass/
intermap dependency. The 15 map layers,
each of which defines a criterion necessary to
be considered in landfill site selection are
prepared. A probability weighted approach has
been adopted that allows a linear combination
of probability weights of each thematic map
(W) with the individual capability value (CV).
Different categories of derived thematic maps
have been assigned scores in a numeric scale
of 0 to 5 depending upon their suitability to
landfill location. These scores are converted to
capability values using Bayesian statistics. The
set of feasible alternatives that are the pixels
of the map suitable for landfill siting are
obtained by rules and physical constraints.
Because the scores of the criteria are given on
different scales, they must be standardized to
a common dimensionless unit. Using
Arithmetic overlay procedure, these capability
values (CVi) are then multiplied with the
respective probability weight of each thematic
map (Table.2). An aggregation of these
product values leads to the final weight map.
(Eastman et al., 1995 and Eastman, 1996).
Mathematically, this can be defined as:
Lf = f (Se, Vl, Sw, Rf, Wl, Sr, Sl, Gl, Lu, Gm,
So, Po, Hg, Sm, Ri,)
(where Lf is Landfill, Se is settlements, Vl is
Village, Sw is surface water, Rf is river flood,
Wl is water level, Sr is Streams, Sl is Slope, Gl
is Geology, Lu is land use and land cover, Gm
is Geomorphology, So is Soil, Po is Power
lines, Hg is Highways, Sm is Small roads, Ri is
Railway tracks)
LF = Wi CVi, with Wi =1.
Where:
Lf is the landfill zonation map value,
Wi is the probability value of each thematic
map,
CVi is the individual capability value.
The above equation can be written as a
summation of:
(0.113636 x CV
se
) + (0.102273 x CV
Vi
) +
(0.090909 x CV
Sw
) + (0.090909 x CV
Rf
) +
(0.090909 x CV
wl
) + (0.090909 x CV
Sr
) +
(0.079545 x CV
Sl
) + (0.079545 x CV
Gl
) +
(0.068182 x CV Lu) + (0.056818 x CV
Gm
) +
490
(0.045455 x CV
So
) + (0.034091 x CV
Po
) +
(0.022727 x CV
Hg
) + ( 0.022727 x CV
Sm
) +
(0.011364 x CV
Ri
).
The resultant final weight map indicates
potentiality of landfill sites in vicinity of
Shivamogga city. This map has then been
classified into three designated zones are
introduced indicating Appropriate, (Suitable),
Fairly appropriate (Fairly Suitable) and
Inappropriate lands (Unsuitable) (Fig.2). The
zones belong to the Appropriate (suitable)
zone covers 7.62 %, Fairly appropriate
(Fairly suitable) zone covers 27.56 % and
inappropriate (Unsuitable) zone covers
64.80%.

Discussion:

Superposing all the raster type layers like
Settlements, Village, Surface water,
floodplains, water level, streams, slope,
geology, land use and land cover,
geomorphology, soil, power lines, Highways,
Small roads, railways, the final zoning of
Appropriate (Suitable), fairly appropriate
(Fairly Suitable) and inappropriate
(Unsuitable) zones have been identified.
Considering relative priority of all criteria, a
specific weight is designated to each criterion
according to their total influence on the whole
process of decision making. According to the
final weight of each criteria in combination
with different selected zones, sites are finally
categorized in a final weight decreasing order,
among which the first three priority sites are
located (numbered) are shown in Fig.3. Which
are classified as appropriate (Suitable) zones
of land fill sites in the city area are located at
(i) North and northeastern, (ii) Southern
eastern (iii) Western part. The results
achieved by this study during the site
selection criteria, the political and financial
/economical constraints are not considered.

Acknowledgements:

The authors express their gratitude to Dr.
K.S. Anantha Murthy, Professor, and staff
members of Dept. of Applied Geology,
Kuvempu University for their valuable
suggestions and moral support to carry out
and publish this research work. Our sincere
thanks to The Co-ordinator, UGC
Innovative Programme and UGCSAP (DRS)
for extending GIS Laboratory facilities
established under UGC Innovative
programme and providing travel assistance
under UGC SAP programme for carrying
out fieldwork.

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492

Figure 1: Location Map of the Study Area

493

Figure 2: Classification of Designated Zones.

494

Figure 3: Priority Sites Selected for Landfill in the Study Area

Table 1: The Summary of the Input Layers used in the Analysis

Sl.No. Layer Name Source Map Buffer Zone (mts) Ranking Area %
1
Settlement areas/
urban settlements
1:25,000
0 0 12.7
0 1,000m 1 7.7
1,000 2,000 2 8.84
> 2,000 3 70.74
2 Villages 1:25,000
0 0 11.98
0 500m 1 18.92
500 m 1000 m 2 18.07
> 1000m 3 51.01
3 River 1:25,000
0 m 2000m 1 20.11
2000m 3000m 2 9.56
> 3000m 3 70.32
4
Roads
highways
1:50,000
0 m 1 4.86
0 500m 2 4.67
500 1000 3 4.49
> 1000 4 85.96
495
5
Roads
Small roads
1:50,000
0 50m 1 4.3
50 100 2 4.29
> 100 3 91.4
6 Railways 1:50,000
0 m 1 1.3
0 100m 2 1.3
100 200 3 1.3
> 200 4 96.08
7 Geology 1:50,000
Basal Polymict Conglomerate 1 0.5
Granite 2 82.59
Quartz chlorite schist 3 0.38
Quartz chlorite schist with
orthoquartzite
4 13.98
Amphibolitic metapelitic schist
/pelitic schist,calc-silicate rock
5 0.53
Ultra mafic schist 6 1.99
8 Land use /land cover 1:50,000
Water bodies 1 9.64
Agriculture 2 69.18
Forest 3 14.86
Fallow 4 0.01
Wastelands 5 6.28
9 Streams 1:50,000
Streams Buffered 0 6.67
> 40 1 93.32
10 Surface water bodies 1:50,000
0 500m 1 51.57
500 1000 2 31.8
> 1000 3 18.68
11 Slope 1:50,000
Slope class1 1 43.89
Slope class2 2 43.59
Slope class3 3 6.33
Slope class4 4 1.71
Slope class5 5 2.29
Slope class6 2 2.29
Slope class7 1 0.9
12 Power lines 1:50,000
Not suitable 0 2.66
Suitable 1 97.33
13 Soils 1:50,000
Type 1 1 14.93
Type 2 2 31.45
Type 3 3 13.87
Type 4 4 14.61
Type 5 5 15.92
Type 6 6 9.18
496
14 Geomorphology 1:50,000
Channel Island and water
bodies
1 5.63
Pediplain Shallow 2 43.69
Pediplain Moderate Under
Canal Command
3 24.65
Pediplain Moderate 4 15.92
Pediment 5 4.3
Structural Hills 6 5.78
15
Water level
(Groundwater level below
MSL)
1:50,000
640-660 1 11.33
620-640 2 31.92
600-620 3 36.35
590-600 4 16.04
570-590 5 4.34

Table 2: The Summary of the Input Layers used in the Analysis

Sl.No Data Layer Weight Normalized Weights
1 Settlements 10 0.113636
2 Villages 9 0.102273
3 Ponds 8 0.090909
4 River flood 8 0.090909
5 Aquifer 8 0.090909
6 Streams 8 0.090909
7 Slope 7 0.079545
8 Geology 7 0.079545
9 Land use and land cover 6 0.068182
10 Geomorphology 5 0.056818
11 Soil 4 0.045455
12 Power lines 3 0.034091
13 Main roads 2 0.022727
14 Village roads 2 0.022727
15 Railway lines 1 0.011364

497
Sediment Yield Index & Morphometric Index based
Prioritization of Upper Subarnarekha Watershed
VINOD KR. V. H, VIVEK KR. SINGH and A. T. JEYASEELAN
Jharkhand Space Application Center, Department of Information Technology, Government of
Jharkhand, Ranchi-834004
Email: vinod_win@hotmail.com, vivekearth@gmail.com, jeyaseelanat@yahoo.com

Abstract: Integrated watershed development approach is considered to be the most ideal
for optimum utilization of land and water resources, as it helps in maintaining the ecological
balance. The burgeoning population and resultant pressure on natural resources for food,
fiber, fodders and consequent infrastructure facilities have given rise to competing and
conflicting demands on finite land and water resources. The morphometric analysis/
morphometric index and sediment yield index is a significant tool for prioritization of micro
watershed even without considering soil map. In the present paper An integral part of Upper
Subarnarekha watershed (with an area of 594.68 km
2
) was studied for priority watershed
delineation with the objective of selecting watersheds to undertake soil and water
conservation measures using remote sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS)
techniques. Using the terrain information derived from geocoded satellite data and 1:50,000
topographic maps, 57 micro watersheds were assessed on the basis of their erosivity and
sediment-yield index values. Thematic maps of landform, land use and land-cover, and
slope were digitized using ARC/INFO. On the basis of sediment yield index values the
watersheds were grouped into very high, high, moderate and low priorities. High priority
watersheds with very high SYI value (>80) need immediate attention for soil and water
conservation measures whereas, low priority watershed having good vegetative cover and
low SYI value (<19) may not need immediate attention for such treatments.

Keywords: Priority watersheds; Sediment yield index; Morphometric analysis and Remote
sensing & GIS

Introduction:

Conservation of natural resources is
essential to sustain any development
activity, and such measures especially for
soil and water carried out on a watershed
basis are very useful for watershed
management. In this context, prioritization
of watersheds is required for different
watershed components so as to take any
further relevant conservation measures.
Recent technological advances have brought
remote sensing and geographic information
system (GIS) techniques to the forefront as
tools for recommending these conservation
measures. Drainage basins, catchments and
sub-catchments are the fundamental units
for the management of land and water
resources (Moore et al., 1994). Catchments
and watersheds have been identified as
planning units for administrative purpose to
conserve these precious resources (FAO,
1985; 1987; Honore, 1999; Khan, 1999).
The concept of watershed management
recognizes the inter-relationships between
landuse, soil and water and the linkage
between uplands and downstream areas
(Tideman, 1996). Soil and water
conservation are key issues in watershed
management in India. The average soil loss
rate has been calculated as 1675 t ha
-1
year
-1
which translates into approximately 1 mm
each year (Honore, 1999). Erosion degrades
not only the land; it has direct bearing on
the quantity and quality of water as well. As
the chief agent of erosion, water carries with
it all the loose soil that later gets deposited
in the reservoirs and dams reducing both
their storage capacity and life span. In
comparison to more humid regions, the
problem relating to soil and water erosion is
altogether different in arid regions where
flash floods are common phenomena. In this
study morphometric and sediment yield
index derived from RS & GIS for
498
prioritization of watershed is presented. This
study is based on the available natural
resources survey of the watershed and uses
remote sensing and GIS. The morphometric
analysis/ morphometric index and sediment
yield index is a significant tool for
prioritization of micro watershed even
without considering soil map (Biswas et al.
1999). A drainage pattern refers to terrain
conditions. The linear parameters such as
bifurcation ratio, drainage density, texture
ratio, length of overland flow, stream
frequency and the shape factors are
compactness coefficient, circularity ratio,
elongation ratio, shape factor and form
factor, where linear parameters have direct
relationship with erodibility. The
management and development of various
resources in any parcel of land calls for
maintaining a balance between the
competing demands and protection of the
fragile environment. Thus recognizing the
relevance of integrated approach towards
developmental planning and management.
In order to achieve an environmentally
protected and sustainable development, it is
necessary to design and develop a
comprehensive and systematic watershed
prioritization. Morphometric analysis
requires measurement of the linear features,
gradient of channel network, and
contributing ground slopes of the drainage
basin. Many works have been reported on
morphometric analysis and sediment yield
index based prioritization of micro
watersheds using remote sensing and GIS
techniques. Shrimali et al. (2001) case
study in Sukhana lake catchment in the
Siwalik hills worked for delineation and
prioritization of soil erosion areas by using
remote sensing and GIS techniques.
Srinivasa et al. (2004) has used remote
sensing and GIS techniques in morphometric
analysis of sub-watersheds of pawagada
area, Tumkur district, Karnataka. Chopra et
al. (2005) carried out morphometric analysis
of Bhagra-phungotri and Hara Maja sub-
watershed of Gurdaspur district, Punjab.
Khan et al. (2001) used remote sensing and
GIS techniques for watershed prioritization
in the Guhiya basin, India. Nooka Ratnam et
al. (2005) carried out study on check dam
positioning by prioritization of micro
watersheds using the sediment yield index
(SYI) model and morphometric analysis
using remote sensing and GIS. Watershed
management is the process of formulation
and carrying out a course of action involving
modifications of the natural system of
watershed to achieve specified objectives.
The present study aims at preparation of
micro watershed prioritization management
plan such as land & water resources
development for upper Subarnarekha
watershed by the use of advanced
technologies Remote Sensing and GIS
techniques using the prioritization studies by
morphometric index and sediment yield
index.

Study Area:

The Upper Subarnarekha watershed lies in
the Ranchi District of Jharkhand State
(figure 1). The geographical position of
study area is 23
0
100 to 23
0
400 N and
85
0
100 to 85
0
400 E with an area of
594.68 km
2
. The elevation of the watershed
ranges from 300m to 700m within Ranchi
district. The study area comprising of two
sub watersheds (Kanke and Ormanjhi)
forming a part of Mahanadi and Ganges
river basin around Kanke and Angara block
of Ranchi district. The western area of the
study area is covering agricultural areas and
the Ranchi urban having a slope of 1-3%
and in Middle Eastern part having a slope of
moderate to steep with forest cover.
Transport network connectivity in the study
area is well established with Nation Highway
31, 32 and 33 from the Ranchi City Capital
of Jharkhand state. The nearby City to this
watershed is Ranchi and communication to
all the villages with the capital city is well
established with National Highway, State
Highway and other major roads. The
watershed lies in sub tropical zone. The
average annual rainfall is about 1215 mm.
Monsoon normally breaks in the middle of
June and lasts till Middle of September.
About 80% of the total rainfall is received
from June to September which creates
maximum runoff. May and June are the
hottest months, recording average
maximum temperature of 38
0
C. December
and January months account for lowest
temperature of 17
0
C
499
Data used:

Geocoded False Color Composites (FCCs) of
IRS-P6 LISS-IV (figure 2) of band
combinations of Green, red and Near IR
were used for deriving information on
various parameters of watershed. The data
correspond to nearly the same
period/season in order to minimize seasonal
variations. The survey of India (SOI)
Toposheet no. 73E/7, 8,11,12,15 and 16 on
1:50000 were used for preparation of the
base map. Besides, secondary information
on the study area was collected from the
published and unpublished government
sources, the soil maps are used for the
analysis from available date at Jharkhand
Space application center at 1:50,000 scale.
Ground truth data was also taken as one of
the inputs in the final analysis.

Methodology:

The drainage was initially derived from SOI
Toposheet and later updated using IRS-P6-
LISS-IV. The sub-watershed boundaries
were demarcated on the basis of contour
value, slope, relief and drainage flow
directions and the Upper Subarnarekha
watershed was divided into 57 micro
watersheds (figure 3). The smallest and the
largest micro watershed measure 04.08 Km
2

and 20.46 Km
2
, respectively. The
morphometric parameters such as stream
length, bifurcation ratio, drainage density,
stream frequency, drainage texture, relief
ratio, basin shape, form factor, circulatory
ratio, elongation ratio, length of overland
flow and constant of channel maintenance
were computed using standard methods and
formulae (table 1) (Horton 1932, 1945;
Miller, 1953; Schumn, 1956; Strahler, 1957,
1964; Chopra et al., 2005 Nooka Ratnam et
al., 2005). Standard visual image
interpretation method based on
photographic and geotechnical elements
such as tone, texture, size, shape,
association and field knowledge was
followed to delineate various land use/land
cover categories using satellite image
(figure 4). Limited ground truth verification
was carried out before the finalization of the
maps. Land use/land cover categories such
as Built up land, Agriculture land (single
crop & double crop), Fallow lands,
Plantation, Open Forest, Dense Forest,
Scrub Forest, Forest blank, Land with scrub,
gullied land and water bodies etc., were
delineated on the basis of image
interpretation. In sediment yield index
analysis parameters like land use/land cover
with erosion intensity for each land use
features, delivery ratio, slope factor, soil,
area of micro watershed is calculated and
weightage factors for all the parameters is
assigned for calculating sediment yield for
each micro watershed of upper
Subarnarekha and final Prioritization of all
the micro watershed of upper Subarnarekha
is carried out by calculating the compound
parameter values of morphometric
parameters and sediment yield index
parameters. The micro watersheds with
minimum compound parameter are given
the highest priority. The final integrated
prioritization map is generated by
integrating the sediment yield index and
morphometric index by assigning the
weightage factors for the prioritized values
of morphometric and sediment yield index
classes and final priority is calculated by
averaging the weightage factors of
morphometric and sediment yield index
priority classes. The final prioritization is
classified into four categories Very High,
High, Medium, Low and very Low priority.
The detailed methodology schematic
diagram is given in figure 5.

Results and Discussion:

The drainage network of the upper
Subarnarekha watershed is prepared using
SOI topographical sheets and updation of
thematic layers were carried out using the
satellite imagery (figure 6). The stream
ordering analysis is carried out for entire
watershed using the Hortons method. The
morphometric linear parameters such as
bifurcation ratio, drainage density, texture
ratio, length of overland flow, stream
frequency and the shape factors are
compactness coefficient; circularity ratio,
elongation ratio, shape factor and form
factor are calculated. The Morphometric
parameters could be categorized into two
major groups namely; the measured
parameters and the calculated parameters.
500

Measured & Calculated Morphometric
Parameters:

Basin size is an important factor for the
watersheds functions, which can determine
using soil map (figure 7), contour map,
Slope map (figure 8) & stream network, and
computers with relevant software and other
electronic devices (Gregory & Walling 1985).
Axial length depends on the shape of the
basin, which can be circular, elongated and
curved; most of these features are governed
by morphological characteristics of the basin
(Gupta, 1999). The major calculated
parameters of the basin are the Basin
shape, Bifurcation ratio, Circulatory ratio,
Elongation ratio, Form factor, Compactness
factor, Drainage density, Stream frequency,
Overland flow and the average slope (table
2). Based on the above factors the
prioritization of micro watershed has been
carried out (figure 9).

Sediment Yield Index (SYI):

The SYI method is a very significant for
prioritization of micro-watersheds. SYI
model, which is an integration of the above
discussed basin characteristics is used for
automated demarcation of micro watersheds
for their priority. The priority of micro
watersheds was identified using erosivity
and delivery ratios obtained by overlaying
the thematic inputs. Highest the drainage
density erosion intensity will increase;
distance of watersheds from the water
sources or basin outlet, the delivery ratio for
each micro watersheds are specified (range
is from 0.4 to 0.7). These ratios were used
in obtaining SYI values for each micro-
watershed (table 3). Incorporation the SYI
values of the micro watershed would
determine quantitative priority value of that
micro-watershed (figure 10).

Weightage Factor Designation:

Land use/ land cover plays a very important
role in surface soil detachment. Hence
considering land use/ land cover and their
probability of erosion, all land use/ land
cover classes were arranged from minimum
to maximum erosion. A proportionality
factor ranging between 0.7 to 1.4 was given
(table 4). Land use / land cover class having
maximum erosion mitigation has been
assigned a value of 0.7 and less mitigation
1.4 Weightage factors is given. Soil also one
of the major influences on soil erodibility
and transportability during runoff, such as
particle size, organic matter content,
structure, soil depth, texture and
mineralogy, there are 13 soil categories
falling under study area. Weightage factor
has been assigned based on soil properties.
Slope generates velocity of the runoff water
which effects surface soil detachment. The
terrain having gentle slope condition ranging
between 0-1% has been assigned
Weightage factor 1 and steep sloping with
1.25. All the thematic layers were overlaid
through GIS analysis and the sediment yield
index value was calculated. The integrated
prioritization of study area are developed for
sustainable management practice, based on
index maps like sediment yield index and
morphometric index The sediment yield
index is developed using various natural
resources thematic layers derived using
satellite imagery like land use land cover,
geomorphology, soil, slope. In
morphometric index various morphometric
parameters like drainage density, drainage
ordering, elongation ratio, circularity ratio
and other related parameters are used for
developing morphometric index. The final
integrated prioritization is generated by
integrating the sediment yield index and
morphometric index (table 5). The final
prioritization is classified into four categories
(Table 5.) very High, High, medium, Low
and very Low prioritization (figure 11).

References:

[1] Biswas, S., Sudharakar, S. and Desai,
V.R. (1999). Prioritization of sub-watersheds
based on morphometric analysis of drainage
basin A Remote Sensing and GIS approach.
Journal ofln&an Society of Remote Sensing,
2"/(3): 155-166.
[2] Chopra, R., Dhiman, R. and Sharrna, P.K
(2005) Morphometric analysis of sub-
watersheds in Gurdaspur District, Punjab
using Remote Sensing and GIS techniques
Journal of the lndmn Society of Remote
Sensing, 33(4): 531-539.
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(1985). Watershed Development with
501
Special Reference to Soil and Water
Conservation. Soil Bulletin 44, Rome: FAO.
[4] Food and Agricultural Organisations
(1987). Soil and Water Conservation in
Semi-arid Areas. Soil Bulletin 57, Rome:
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Ourselvesa Guide to Watershed
Management in India. New Delhi:
Government of India. 238pp.
[5] Gregory K. J. and Walling D. E. (1985),
Drainage Basin Form and Process; A
Geomorphological approach, Pp 47, 54.
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Hydrology, 3rd Ed. Runoff. Pp. 46-56.
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of streams and their drainage basins;
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morphology. Bull, Geo. Soc. Am. Vol 56, pp.
275370
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P.C. (2001). Watershed prioritization using
remote sensing and geographical
information system a case study' from
Guhiya, India Journal of Arid Environments,
49: 465-475.
[10] Khan, M.A. (1999). Water balance
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components in forested ecosystem in the
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[11] Miller, VC (1953) A quantitative
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Virginia and Teimessee, Proi NR 389-402,
[12] Moore, I.D., Grayson, R.B. & Ladson,
A.R. (1994). Digital terrain modelling. In:
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Hydrological, Geomorphological and
Biologial Application pp. 7}31. Chichester:
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[13] Nookaratnam, K., Srivastava, Y.K.,
Venkateswarao, V., Amminedu, E and
Murthy, K.SR (2005) Check dam positioning
by prioritization of microwatersheds using
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[14] Schumn, S A. (1956) Evolution of
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Samra, J.S. (2001). Prioritizing erosion-
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catchment, Northern India JAG 3(1): 54-60
[16] Srinivasa V.S., Govindaonah, S. and
Home Gowda. H (2004) Morphometric
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[17] Strahler AN (1964) Quantative
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Publishers. 372pp.

502

Figure 1: Location of Study Area

Figure 2: Satellite Imagery IRS-P6 (LISS-IV) of Study Area

503

Figure 3: Micro Watershed Boundary of Study Area

Figure 4: Land use Land Cover of the Study Area

504

Figure 5: Methodology Flow Chart

Figure 6: Stream Network with Drainage ordering for the Study Area

505

Figure 7: Soil Textural Class of the Study Area

Figure 8: Slope Map of the Study Area

506

Figure 9: Morphometric Index based Prioritization of Micro Watersheds of Upper
Subarnarekha

Figure 10: Sediment Yield Index (SYI) based Prioritization of Micro Watersheds of Upper
Subarnarekha

507

Figure 11: Integrated Prioritization Map (Morphometric Index + Sediment Yield Index) of
Study Area

Table 1: Morphometric Parameters

L
b
= 1.312A
0.568
Basin length
D
d
= L/A Drainage density
F
u
= N/A Stream frequency
L
o
= D
d
Length of overland flow
R
b
= N
u
/N
u+1
Bifurcation ratio
R
f
= A/L
B
2
Form factor
B
s
= L
b
2
/A Shape factor
R
e
= 1.28A
0.5
/L
b
Elongation ratio
R
c
= 12.57A/P
2
Circulatory ratio
C
c
= 0.2821P/A
0.5
Compactness coefficient
T = N1/P Textural ratio
A area of the basin in Km
2

P perimeter in Km
L
total length of all channels of all order in the
basin

508

509

510
Table 3: Sediment Yield Index Parameters

Table 4: Weightage Factors Designation for Sediment Yield Index Calculation

Land Use Land Cover
Weightage
Factor
Built-Up Towns/cities (Urban) Mixed Built-up land 1.4
Built-Up Village (Rural)

0.9
Agriculture
Crop land
Kharif 0.8
Kharif + Rabi
(double cropped)
0.85
Fallow Current Fallow 1
Plantation

1.2
Forest Deciduous (Moist/Dry)
Dense/ Closed 1.35
Open 1.3
Scrub Forest 1.25
Forest Blank 1.1
Wastelands
Gullied/ Ravenous Land

0.95
Land with scrub

1.1
Mining/ Industrial waste

1.15
Barren Rocky/ Stony
waste
1.05
Water
bodies
River

0.7
Wetlands Inland Wetlands Marshy/ Swampy 0.75

511
Soil Type Weightage Factor
Fine, Ultic Haplustalfs 0.3
Fine, Typic Haplustepts 1.3
Fine Loamy, Typic endoquipts 0.6
Fine Loamy, Oxyaquic Ustifluents 0.5
Fine Loamy, Aquic Ustorthents 0.4
Fine Loamy, Typic Haplustepts 0.9
Fine Loamy, Typic Rhodustalfs 0.7
Fine Loamy, Ultic Haplustalfs 0.8
Fine Loamy, Typic Dystrustepts 1.1
Loamy skeletal, Typic Ustrothents 1.2
Loamy skeletal, Lithic Ustrothents 1.15
Loamy skeletal, Typic Dystustepts 1.2

Percentage Slope Weightage Factor
0 -1 % 1
1 - 3 % 1.05
3 - 5 % 1.1
5 - 10 % 1.15
10 - 15 % 1.2
15 - 35 % 1.25
>35 % 1.3

Table 5: Classification & Weightage factors with Prioritization of Morphometric Index and
Sediment Yield Index for final Integrated Prioritization of Upper Subarnarekha Watershed

Morphomectric
Index Class
Prioritization
Weightage Factor
for Morphometric
Index to get Final
Priority
Sediment
Yield
Index Class
Prioritization
Weightage Factor
for Sediment
Yield Index to
get Final Priority
< 10 VERY HIGH 5 < 20 VERY HIGH 5
11 12 HIGH 4 21 40 HIGH 4
13 14 MEDIUM 3 41 60 MEDIUM 3
15 16 LOW 2 61 80 LOW 2
> 17 VERY LOW 1 > 81 VERY LOW 1

512
Remote Sensing and GIS for the Study of Coastal
Ecosystem Changes and its Conservation
K. DHARANIRAJAN
1
, M. THANIKACHALAM
2
, B. GURUGNANAM
3
,
R. M. NARAYANAM
4
and GOPAL CHANDRA FALIA
5

1
Department of Ocean Studies and Marine Biology, Pondicherry University, Andaman, India
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Velammal Engineering College, Chennai, India
3
Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai University, Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, India,
4
Institute for Ocean Management, Anna University, Chennai, India,
5
Andaman Public Works Department, Port Blair, Andaman, India
Email: kdharanir@yahoo.co.uk, thanikachalam84@yahoo.com, gurugis@yahoo.co.in,
narayanan.rm@gmail.com, gralia@rediffmail.com

Abstract: Remote sensing and GIS techniques are useful to provide practical and cost-
efficient output for environmental protection and management that can be used easily
operated and maintained. The present study was carried out to delineate and characterize
the coastal ecosystem changes using IRS-1B 1993 and IRS-1D LISS III 2003. The changes
in the coastal sensitive areas such as sandy beaches, coral reefs, mangroves and forest
were studied in South Andaman Islands. A careful assessment of changes that occured in
the coastal ecosystems of South Andaman have were identified and adequate measures for
its conservation and management measures were suggested which forms a major milestone
for effective coastal ecosystem management and leads to sustainable utilization of coastal
resources.

Keywords: Remote sensing, GIS, GPS, Ecosystem, coral reef, mangroves, Sea grass and
sandy beaches

Introduction:

Coastal zones are among the worlds most
diverse and productive environments.
Coastal areas also include complex
ecosystems, such as coral reefs, mangroves,
sandy beaches and sea grass. According to
Odum (1959), an ecosystem is any area of
nature that includes living organisms and
nonliving substances interacting to produce
an exchange of materials between the living
and nonliving parts, One of the important
constituents of coastal ecosystems which
can be studied using remote sensing is
mangrove, coral reef, sandy beach and sea
grass. In South Andaman, the coastline is
dotted with sensitive and fragile ecosystems
such as wetlands, estuaries, seagrass beds,
mudflats, sandy beaches, mangroves and
coral reefs. These are some of the diverse
habitats that make up the coastal
ecosystems that provide invaluable benefits
to humans and marine life. Coastal
ecosystems, especially wetlands,
mangroves, salt marshes and sea grasses
are rapidly being removed for urban,
industrial and recreational growth as well as
for aquaculture ponds. The losses of coastal
habitat are difficult to calculate as the past
data are scare. About 90% of the worlds
marine fish catch (measured by weight)
comes from these areas (FAO 1991). Thus,
degradation of coastal ecosystems can have
long-term consequences for fish
populations. The knowledge about areal
extent, condition and destructive uses of
coastal ecosystem is vital for coastal
management programmes. Orbital remote
sensing, because of the repetitive and
synoptic nature, has proved to be an
excellent tool to monitor extent and
condition of coastal ecosystems like
mangroves, coral reef, sea grass and sandy
beaches. Our country faces the problems of
destruction of wetlands and consequently
loss of fish and wild-life habitats as well as
erosion and siltation along the coastline. In
view of this, mapping of ecosystems
513
K. DHARANIRAJAN, M. THANIKACHALAM, B. GURUGNANAM,
assumes great importance. Remote sensing
and GIS technologies provide useful data for
ecosystem management. Remote sensing
and GIS is used to monitor these ecosystem
in real time manner and suitable
management measures can be derived.

Economic Importance of Ecosystems:

The two important components of the
coastal ecosystems in the study area are
coral reefs and mangroves. Mangroves
provide the nutrients and rich feeding,
spawning and nursery grounds for many
marine species from various trophic levels.
They also serve as a buffer for the mainland
against the ocean storms and protect the
coast from erosion. Coral reefs are the
most productive marine ecosystem with
annual gross production rates in the range
of 2000-5000 gC / m
2
(Mann 1982). Pelagic
fish production from coral reef can be quite
high, up to 20 tonnes / m
2
/ year (Marten
and Poloviar 1981), and heavily fished
coralline shelves are able to produce
sustained harvest of 4-6 tonnes / m
2
/year
(Munro 1985). Seagrass is another
important constituent of wetland ecosystem
in South Andaman. It is used for food
supply, breeding and nursery grounds for a
wide range of invertebrates (crustanceans ,
mollusces and echinoderms), fishes, reptiles
and mammals including some endangered
species. The other important ecosystems are
sandy beaches. The sandy beaches are used
for sand mining, water extraction,
recreation, agriculture and extraction of
minerals.

Study Area:

The study area is richly fringed by
mangroves, coral reefs, Seagrasses and
sea-weed ecosystems. The study area is
(Southern part of South Andaman) located
between 11 27 00 and 114500 N and
923000 and 92 46 47 E (Figure 1). The
island covers a total area of about 44191.76
ha. and the total shore length of the island
was found to be 759.36 km.

Methodology:

The methodology adopted for the
assessment of coastal ecosystem changes in
the study area was based on analysis of
spatial and non-spatial data. Coastal landuse
map were prepared on 1:25000 scale based
on SAC guidelines. Digitized maps were
edited, labeled and projected. Polyconic
projection was adopted for area calculation.
Detailed flow chart is given in Figure 2.


Coastal ecosystem changes were studied
and Coastal landuse and land cover maps
were prepared using IRS-1B 1993 and IRS-
1D 2003 satellite data (Figure 3 & 4). Major
coastal landuse / landcover changes appear
to have occurred in coral reefs, sandy
beaches, forest and mangrove areas.
Coastal ecosystem change study reveals
that there is a substantial decrease in the
following ecosystem (Table 1).

Table 1: Areal distribution of Ecosystems and its Changes

Category
Area (ha)
1993
Area (ha)
2003
Changes
1993-2003
% Change
Coral reef
Reef area 3160.73 2414.08 -746.65 -23.62
Sand over
reef
672.90 1381.00 +708.1 +105.23
Mud over reef - 13.41 +13.41 -
Sand Sandy Beach 459.06 140.43 -318.63 -69.40
Mangroves Dense 3127.65 2743.05 -384.6 -12.29
Sparse 52.42 72.13 +19.71 +37.60
Degraded 50.70 168.49 +117.79 +232.33
Mudflat Mudflat 169.50 169.50 - -
Reef flat Seagrass 17.12 12.52 -4.6 -26.87

514
Remote Sensing and GIS for the Study of Coastal Ecosystem
Changes and its Conservation
Coral Reefs Ecosystem:

The study area harbour the large number of
coral species recorded from India with close
affinity towards the East Asian reefs, which
are considered as the centre of high coral
diversity in world (Pillai 1983a & 1983b).
This island is dominated by Porites
(45.96%), followed by Acropora (22.33%)
and Echinopora (22.29%). Coral reefs in the
study area are grouped into fringing reef
and patch reef. Fringing reefs are reef
adjacent to the coast or separated by a
shallow channel and patch reefs are found
away from the coastal area. Patch reefs are
identified around Pluto Island. These coral
reefs are identified by its turquoise blue
tone with irregular, broad to narrow shape
and smooth texture. These types of fringing
reef are identified in many places in the
study area. Based on the present study,
areal extent of about 3808.49 ha Coral reef
is estimated in the study area. Coral growth
is sparse at 100 m from the shore (Pillai
1983a). It is richer on the west coast than
on the east. Reef production is 1200g
C/m
2
/year near Port Blair. Coral reef in the
study area are further classified into reef
area, sand over reef and mud over reef.
Reef areas are flat and irregular in shape,
greenish blue in colour and smooth in
texture (Figure 5). Reef area is generally
broader on the west and narrower on the
eastern side. Broader reef areas are more
on western side of the study area. It spread
over an area of 3160.73 ha. (41.73%)
during 1993 and 2414.08ha. (33.93%)
during 2003. The notable development of
coral reefs in the west is probably related to
the submarine topography, the folded
mountain range of Arakan Yoma (Ahmed
1972). In Sand over reefs area, sand has
been observed by its white colour, linear
shape and smooth texture. Towards the
leeward-side sand gets deposited (Hopley
1982). The deposition may be migratory in
nature. It consists of coralline sand, broken
molluscan shell etc (Fairbridge 1968).
Sanded reef flat covers the landward portion
of the reef flat and uniformly surrounds the
entire Tarmugli reef (SAC 2003). Although
live corals are present here, yet they could
not be delineated using satellite data. They
mostly comprise of Porites, Acropora and
Pocillopora and cover 5-10% area (SAC
2003).

Figures 5: Satellite Imagery Showing Sand
over Reef

During field visit, many sandy patches have
identified in Tarmugli Island, Jolly Boys
Island and Boat Island islands. Jolly Boys
island has a large sanded reef flat making
up almost 75-85% of the reef system and
extending from sandy beach on the southern
side for about 0.9 km up to the reef slope.
There are very few live corals here (5-10%)
mainly Porites and Turbinaria. Sparse
seagrasses also inhabit this sand flat (SAC
2003). Sanded reef flat have been identified
in Boat Island also. The total area occupied
by sand over reef was 672.90 ha. (8.89%)
and 1381.00 ha (19.41%) during 1993 and
2003 respectively. The deposition of mud
over reef indicates the degraded condition of
the reefs. These depositions have been
mapped near Navy Bay, Flat Bay and around
Chatham Island. The area was estimated to
be 13.41ha (0.19%) during 2003 and it was
not identified in 1993. The muddy reef flat
was first mapped using satellite data of
1990 (Bahuguna and Nayak 1998). The
depositions of the mud may be thick (more
than 1m) or thin (< 1m).

Degradation of Coral Reefs:

Coral reef degradation in the study area has
been well noticed and many authors have
reported that the degradation is severe due
to the human stress (anthropogenic) and
natural agents (Arthur 1996; Dorairaj 1994;
515
Wood 1988; Pillai 1973; Salam 1975;
Venkataramanujam et al 1981; Silas et al
1985a; Anon 1987; Vineeta Hoon 1997). In
the study area live coral cover is less when
compared to dead coral. At Grub Island, live
coral cover is only 57.66%. In Redskin
Island, the live coral cover was 32.6% and
dominated by Porites (56.44%). In Jolly
Boys Island, live coral covers 37.36% out of
92.73% of the coral cover. Here Porites
(62.32%) is dominating when compared to
other corals. At Chidiatapu, live coral cover
was 51.31% (Kulkarni 2001). In general,
live coral cover was poor, which is mainly
because of anthropogenic and natural
stresses. In the study area, coral reefs are
threatened from sedimentation, discharge of
domestic sewage, operational oil pollution
and oil spills, tourism, resource exploitation
and above all poaching by foreigners.
Natural threats are from cyclones, climate
change (bleaching) and predation by star
fish (Acharya and Dutta 1999). In the study
area, close interconnection and cumulative
effect of the natural and anthropogenic
stress factors have been the causes of
degradation of the reef system.

Mangroves Ecosystem:

The word Mangrove designates an
ecosystem formed by a very special
association of plants and animals that live in
the intertidal area of low lying tropical
coasts, estuaries, deltas, backwaters and
lagoons (Vannucci 1989). The remote
sensing imagery of the study area shows
that the mangrove wetland is located in
many places. The mangrove forest can be
identified by its bright red colour with
smooth texture, irregular shape, located in
the intertidal area and associated with low
energy coasts or quiet depositional areas,
whereas other vegetation such as casuarina
plantation can be identified by their dark red
to red colour with coarse to medium texture.
The degraded area within the mangrove is
also visible by its dark to light brownish red
colour with rough to moderate texture.
Density-wise classification (SAC 2003) gives
an idea about the condition of the mangrove
habitat and the mangroves are classified as
dense, sparse and degraded. Apart from
mangroves, marsh vegetation was also
classified in habitat maps.

Dense Mangrove:

Mangroves having >40% crown density are
termed as dense (closed forest). In satellite
imagery, it is identified by bright red colour
with smooth texture. Predominant
mangroves in the study area are Rhizophora
and Bruguiera. In the study area, well
developed dense mangroves are observed in
Wandur, Sipighat, Barabalu, Chidiatapu,
Manjeri, Colinpur, Tirur, Hobdaypur,
Manglutan, Guptapara, Hashmatabad,
Govindhapuram (Figure 6) and Marine
National Park. The dense mangroves spread
over an area of 3127.65 ha. (41.30%)
during 1993 and 2743.05ha. (38.56%)
during 2003 and showing a decrease of
about 384.6ha (Table 1). Human influence
is very less in these areas because some of
the dense mangrove area are away from the
settlement. In Jarawa area, which is near
Tirur and Colinpur, mangroves are dense
and undisturbed.

Sparse Mangrove:

Mangrove having 10-40% crown density are
termed as sparse (open forest). These
sparse mangroves are noticed at
Bambooflat, Chidiatapu, Wandur and
Sipighat. It covers an area of 72.13ha.
(1.01%) during 2003, but it was estimated
to be 52.42ha. (0.69%) during 1993 and
records an increase of about 19.71ha. This
increase is mainly due to the construction of
road network across the mangrove area
which allows the locals to easily get inside of
the mangrove area and degrade them for
agricultural and settlement purposes. In this
area the local people are illegally converting
the mangrove patches into agricultural land
and settlement. Figure 7 shows the
conversion of mangrove area into settlement
at Wandur. Because of the smaller areal
extent of the satellite data, the less sparse
mangrove were unable to identify at
Chidiatapu, Wandur and Sipighat.

Degraded Mangrove:

Degraded mangroves have <10% crown
density were noticed at Corbyns Cove,
Sipighat, Bamboo flat, Chidiatapu and
516
Wandur. In these places, mangrove areas
have been completely changed into
settlement with agricultural land. degraded
mangrove calculated as 50.70ha. (0.67%)
and 168.49ha. (2.37%) during 1993 and
2003 respectively whereas it increased by
about 117.79ha (Table 1). Figure 8 shows
degradation of mangroves due to sewage
and development of settlement at
Janglighat.

Sandy Beaches:

There are beautiful sandy beaches in the
study area. The presence of sand in
Andaman is noticed as a thin strip all along
the coastal region. The origin of sand in
Andaman involves both the fluviomarine and
the weathering of the parent rock from the
land. Linear and extensive beaches made
up of sand which is coralline in nature with
traces of organic parts and broken shells are
present on the entire Tarmugli Island (SAC
2000). Generally the sandy area appears
bright white to yellow with bluish tone in
satellite imagery. In the study area, entire
shore, island and backshore region are
occupied by extensive sandy beaches which
are in the form of small pocket beaches.
The total area was 459.06 ha. which is
6.40% of the total study area in 1993. A
decrease in the sandy area has been
observed over a period of 10 years. The
sandy beaches have decreased between
1993 and 2003 and it was estimated as
318.63 ha. But the area of sand which is
observed in toposheet (1979) was
1244.29ha. When compared to the 1979
data, it was reduced to about 1103.86ha.
The decrease in sand is mainly due to sand
mining.

Seagrass Ecosystem:

The study area is bestowed with varied
sheltered coastal habitats suitable for
seagrass growth. Seagrass meadows are
important habitats for many marine animals
as they play vital role in the food cycle and
act as a breeding ground for many species.
Fishes, turtles, crustaceans, dugong and
echinoderms inhabit these seagrass
meadows. These are highly productive
habitats and the net primary production of
seagrass beds of Minicoy Islands was
5.8/gC/m
2
/day (Qasim 1973). Many macro-
algae also grow as epiphytic populations or
associated with seagrasses. Of the 14
species known from the Indian coast
(Ramamurthy et al 1992, Jagtap 1992), nine
species (Enhalus acoroides, Cymodocea
rotundata, Cymodocea serrulata, Halodule
pinifolia, Halodule uninervis,, Halophilla
ovalis, Halophila ovata, Syringodium
isoetifolium and Thalassia hemprichii) were
recorded from the Andaman and Nicobar
islands (Das 1996). Seagrass of South
Andaman (part) were classified into Pristine,
(least disturbed), Disturbed (already
degraded due to regular exploitation by
human activities near the inhabited islands)
and highly disturbed (where degree of
exploitation is comparatively high causing
irreparable change in habitat) by Rao
(2000). The study area was classified by
Rao (2000) as Disturbed. These habitats are
under constant threat and hence, there is an
urgent need to protect, conserve and
manage this coastal habitat. Seagrasses
have been identified in two places in the
study area using satellite imagery.
Seagrasses are identified by their brownish
orange colour, irregular shape, smooth
texture and associated with sandy patch.
Seagrasses were observed near Chidiatapu
and Redskin Island. It covers an area of
about 17.12ha during 1993 and 12.52ha
during 2003. It was observed at a depth of
5 to 10m in sheltered zones with a
substratum consisting of sand, mud and
dead corals. The various causes for the
degradation of seagrasses which were
observed during field visit are Over
exploitation, boad anchoring, forest felling
and tourism.

Conservation Measures:

The continuous onslaught on the coastal
areas results not only in diminishing the
extent of mangroves, coral reefs and
affecting biodiversity but also impacting the
lives of many millions people who inhabit
long coastline of the country. So it is
necessary to define a plan of action which
should be based on sustainable utilization
and not exploitation to achieve the economic
and social benefits. If proper planning and
effective environmental management
517
practices were in place, the risk of losing
important coastal ecosystem could be
avoided. Recognizing sustainable limits and
adhering to some simple environmental
guidelines and standards could have avoided
the worst of the damage, to the extent that
they had been available and that the
institutional mechanisms to implement them
had been in place. There should be a regular
monitoring and control of the coral predator,
crown of thorn starfish, in all areas in order
to protect and conserve the reef. The
tourism zone should develop a green belt
through afforestation and mangrove
plantation along coatal areas. Andaman
islands have got potential for ecotourism
while implementation the ecotourism
projects in forest areas (Wood, 2002).
Tourism industry may attract more
immigrants and large scale encroachments
both in forest and revenue lands. Panchayat
bodies along with the local administration in
the island should monitor the influx of
people in the islands by issuing identity
cards to the locals (Andaman harbour works
(2002). For protecting and conserving the
coastal environment, the Ministry of
Environment and Forests had issued the
Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification
on 19th February, 1991. This notification
regulates all developmental activities in the
CRZ area. The Coastal Regulation Zone
(CRZ) is the area encompassing the inter-
tidal zone that is the land between the Low
Tide Line and the High Tide Line, and the
coastal land lying within 500 metres from
High Tide Line. The different CRZ classes
like CRZ - I, CRZ - II, CRZ - IV were
demarcated from High Tide Line upto the
500m buffer zone which is shown in the
Figure 9. The CRZ I, CRZ II, CRZ IV was
calculated to be 9660.96 ha., 2135.77 ha.
and 875.53 ha. Respectively. Strictly
implementing the CRZ rules can protect the
coastal ecosystem. CRZ rules should be
immediately implemented in the study area
to protect the coastal ecosystem.

Conclusion:

The present study reveals that remote
sensing and GIS techniques have unique
capability to detect the changes that have
occurred in the ecosystems over a period of
time between 1993 and 2003. There is a
substantial decrease in mangroves, sandy
beach, coral reef and sea grass in the study
area. Increasing population and urban
development are the major causes for the
degradation. The results, which is thus
derived, can be very useful in the coastal
ecosystem management, which is greatly
required for the sustainable use,
development, and protection of the coastal
and marine areas and resources.
Immediate conservation measures (Coastal
Regulation Zone) are recommended so that
the coastal ecosystem can be saved from
further degradation and are brought back to
its normal state. Thus remote sensing and
GIS technologies are widely used today in
coastal ecosystem management.

References:

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of India with special reference to Palk Bay
and Gulf of Mannar, In: Proceeding on
Living resources of sea around India, Special
publish, CMFRI, Cochin, Vol.11, pp.700-705.
[19] Pillai (1983a), Coral reefs and their
environs, Mariculture potential of Andaman
and Nicobar islands an indicative survey,
CMFRI Bull., 34: pp.36-43Pillai (1983b)
[20] Qasim (1973), Status of seagrass
habitats of the Andaman and Nicobar Coast,
Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural
History, Coimbatore, India. P6-6-10.
[21] Ramamurthy K., Balakrishnan N.P.,
Ravikumar K. and Ganesan R. (1992),
Seagrasses of Coramandal coast, India.
Flora of India-series 4: Botanical survey of
India, pp.1-80.
[22] Rao P.S.N. (2000), Management of
coral reef ecosystem of Andaman and
Nicobar Islands Coastal and marine plant
diversity of Andaman and Nicobar Islands
GOI/UNDP/GEF project, Zoological Survey of
India, Port Blair, pp. 23-34.
[23] SAC (2000), Coral reefs of the
Andaman and Nicobar group of islands,
Space Application Centre, Ahmedabad, p.5.
[24] SAC (2003), Eco-morphological
zonation of selected coral reefs of India
using remotely sensed data, Space
Application Centre (ISRO), Ahmedabad,
p.59-74.
[25] Salam R.V. (1975), Critical marine
habitats of the northern Indian Ocean,
including Sri Lanka, Western India and
Pakistan, Manuscript.
[26] Silas E.G. and Fermando A.B. (1985),
The dugong in India, In: Silas E.G (Ed),
Proc. Symp. Endangered marine animals
and marine parks, Marine biological
association of India, Cochin, pp. 167-176.
[27] Vannucci (1989), The mangroves
and us A synthesis of insights, Indian
Association for advancement of science,
New Delhi, 203 p.
[28] Venkataramanujam R., Santhanam
R. and Sukumaran N. (1981), Coral
resources of Tuticorin (S. India) and
methods of their conservation, In:
Proceedings 4
th
International coral reef
symposium, Manila, pp.259-262.
[29] Vineeta Hoon (1997), Coral reefs of
India: Review of their extent, research and
management status, In: Regional workshop
on the conservation and sustainable
management of coral reefs, M.S
Swaminathan Research Foundation,
Chennai, India, pp. B1-B26.
[30] Wood E. (1988), Corals, INTACH
Andaman and Nicobar Chapter, pp.33-35.

519

Figure 1: Location Map of the Study Area (South Andaman part)

520

Figure 2: Methodology for Coastal Wetland Mapping

521

Figure 3: Coastal Wetland Map (1993)
522

Figure 4: Coastal Wetland Map (2003)

523

Figures 6: Dense Mangroves near Govindhapuram

Figure 7: Conversion of Mangrove Area into Settlement at Wandur

Figure 8: Degradation of Mangroves at Janglighat

524

Figure 9: Coastal Regulation Zone Map
525
Prediction of Sediment Deposition in Reservoirs
Using Artificial Neural Network
T. BASKARAN
1
, S. NAGAN
1
and S. RAJAMOHAN
2
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Madurai 625 015
2
Envirocare India Pvt. Ltd., Madurai.
Email: tbciv@tce.edu, nagan_civil@tce.edu

Abstract: The methods available in the literature for sediment concentration estimation are
complicated and time consuming and necessitate cumbersome parameter estimation
procedures. In this paper Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) are used to forecast and
estimate sedimentation concentration values. The forecasting results obtained using
previously observed sediment values were close to the real ones. The sediment
concentration estimation, on the other hand, using only observed inflow values, past rainfall
values and the past sediment values as input provided realistic approximations in terms of
mean squared error (MSE) and total sediment amount. The ANN estimates are also
compared with corresponding values observed and found to be significantly superior.

Key words: Sediment load, Neural Networks, Forecasting, Reservoir capacity

Introduction:

The effect of sedimentation can be a major
problem associated with storage, regulation
and conveyance of water in river reservoir
systems. Continued sedimentation in the
river over time physically diminishes the
channel capability to contain flows, posing a
major threat to the economics of the
system. Reservoir sedimentation
management is of critical importance for the
sustainable development of surface water
resources. Here we determine the Rate of
Sedimentation by using the Neural
Networks. Traditional computing techniques
take advantage of the computers
architecture to solve problems well
understood but not easily solved by human
calculation. On the other hand, some tasks,
such as pattern recognition and motor
control which are not well understood, are
easily handled by the brain and nervous
system yet elude traditional computer
procedures. Artificial neural networks
attempt to model these poorly understood
problems by employing a mathematical
model of the brains structure. The brain
consists of billions of densely interconnected
neurons. The premise behind artificial neural
network models is that mimicking the
brains structure of many highly connected
processing elements will enable computers
to tackle tasks they have not as of yet
performed well. Artificial neural networks
are mathematical models derived from this
structure.

Study Area:

The details like rainfall, inflow, and sediment
deposition had been collected from Vaigai
Reservoir. These data are used to create the
model and used for forecasting for future
period as testing period. The dependencies
of the input parameters are not known.
Depending on the data, the model had been
created and the results are compared with
that of original observed values.

Neuron Model:

A model of a neuron has three basic parts:
input weights, a summer, and an output
function. The input weights scale values
used as inputs to the neuron, the summer
adds all the scaled values together, and the
output function produces the final output of
the neuron. Often, one additional input,
known as the bias is added to the system. If
a bias is used, it can be represented by a
weight with a constant input of one. This
description is laid out visually below.

526
T. BASKARAN, S. NAGAN and S. RAJAMOHAN

Figure 1: General Neuron Model

Where I1, I2, and I3 are the inputs, W1,
W2, and W3 are the weights, B is the bias, x
is an intermediate output, and a is final
output. The equation for a is given by
) (
3 3 2 2 1 1
B I W I W I W f a + + + = where f could
be any function. Most often, f is the sign of
the argument (i.e. 1 if the argument is
positive and -1 if the argument is negative),
linear (i.e. the output is simply the input
times some constant factor), or some
complex curve used in function matching
(not needed here). For this model we will
use the first case where f is the sign of the
argument for two reasons: it closely
matches the all or nothing property seen in
biological neurons and it is fairly easy it
implement. When artificial neurons are
implemented, vectors are commonly used to
represent the inputs and the weights so the
first of two brief re ) , , , (
2 1 n
x x x x L
r
= views of
linear algebra is appropriate here. The dot
product of two vectors and
) , , , (
2 1 n
y y y y L
r
= is given by
n n
y x y x y x y x + + + = L
r r
2 2 1 1
. Using this
notation the output is simplified to
) ( B I W f a + =
r r
where all the inputs are
contained in I
r
and all the weights are
contained in W.

Neuron Layer:

In a neuron layer each input is tied to every
neuron and each neuron produces its own
output. This can be represented
mathematically by the following series of
equations:
) (
1 1 1 1
B I W f a + =
r r

) (
2 2 2 2
B I W f a + =
r r

) (
3 3 3 3
B I W f a + =
r r
. .
Keeping matrix multiplication in mind, we
append the weights so that each row of a
matrix represents the weights of on neuron.
Now, representing the input vector and the
biases as one column matrices, we can
simplify the above notation to:
) ( B I W f a + =
r
which is the final form of
the mathematical representation of one
layer of artificial neurons.

Neural Network Model:

In general, a neural network model consists
of neurons or processing elements, each of
which is connected to other elements
according to some schema by connection
weights. The connection weights between
processing elements contain the knowledge
stored in the artificial neural network model.
Usually, the processing elements are
classified as input units, output units, or
hidden units. (Some neural network models
which perform tasks such as optimization do
not have specific input or output units). The
basic structure of an ANN usually consists of
three layers: (1) the input layer, where the
data are introduced to the network; (2) the
hidden layer(s), where data are processed;
and (3) the output layer, where the results
of given input are produced. This type of
network, where data flow is in one direction,
is known as a feed-forward network. The
weight between neurons is optimized by
using known inputs and outputs, and
presenting these to the ANN in some
ordered manner. This process is called
training of the network. Model input is
supplied through the input units, and model
output is shown on the output units. The
hidden elements are necessary to enable the
system to learn relationships which are not
linearly separable. Figure 1
illustrates a typical neural network model.
The model learns by adjusting its connection
weights in response to the input-output
pairs presented to it during training. Neural
networks are trained by example, they are
not usually programmed with a prior
knowledge. During training the strength of
527
Prediction of Sediment Deposition in Reservoirs Using
Artificial Neural Network
these interconnections is
adjusted using an error convergence
technique so that a desired output is
produced for a known pattern.

Figure 2: Neural Network Model Example

Though much of the motivation driving
neural computing research has been geared
towards development of specialized
hardware, the mathematical models have
been coded into software and proven to be
valuable tools in the areas of signal
processing, system modeling, pattern
recognition, and classification. In neural
network models for prediction, inputs and
their associated outputs are presented to
the networks input and output processing
elements, respectively. The connection
weights are adjusted after the input - output
pair of vectors is presented to the network
until the network is able to produce the
desired output within some pre-determined
error bounds. The algorithm for adjusting
the weights depends upon the type of
network model used. In this application, the
backward error propagation model was
used. Backward error propagation is
described in detail in nearly all neural
network text books (see NeuralWare 1991,
Hertz, Krough, and Palmer 1991, Rumelhart
and McClelland 1986, and Aleksander and
Morton 1991).

Selection of Network Type:

There are multitudes of network types
available for ANN applications and its choice
depends on the nature of problem and data.
It is very difficult to know which training
algorithm will be the fastest for a given
problem. It will depend on many factors,
including the complexity of the problem, the
number of data points in the training set,
the number of weights and biases in the
network, the error goal, and whether the
network is being used for pattern
recognition (discriminant analysis) or
function approximation (regression). The
ANNs can be categorized in terms of
topology such as single and multi-layer feed
forward networks (FFNN), feedback
networks (FBNN), recurrent networks
(RNN), self-organized networks. In addition,
they can be further categorized in terms of
application, connection type and learning
methods. The most commonly used type of
networks in the field of modeling and
prediction is the FFNN. In this topology, the
network is composed of one input layer, one
output layer and a minimum of one hidden
layer. The term feed forward describes the
way in which the output of the FFNN is
calculated from its input layer-by-layer
throughout the network. In this case, the
connections between network neurons do
not form cycles. No matter how complex the
network is, its building block is a simple
528
structure called the neuron. It performs a
weighted sum of its inputs and calculates an
output using certain predefined activation
functions. Activation functions for the hidden
units are needed to introduce the
nonlinearity into the network. The Sigmoidal
functions, such as logistic and tanh, and the
Gaussian function, are the most common
choices for the activation functions.

Method Description:

Levenberg-Marquardt back propagation
algorithm is the training technique usually
used for this purpose. This algorithm
appears to be the fastest method for
training moderate-sized feed forward neural
networks (up to several hundred weights). It
also has a very efficient MATLAB
implementation, because the solution of the
matrix equation is a built-in function, so its
attributes become even more pronounced in
a MATLAB setting. It refers to the method
for computing the gradient of the case-wise
error function with respect to the weights for
a feed forward network. The neural system
architecture is defined by the number of
neurons and the way in which the neurons
are interconnected. The network is fed with
a set of inputoutput pairs and trained to
reproduce the outputs. The training is done
by adjusting the neurons weights using an
optimization algorithm to minimize the
quadratic error between observed data and
computed outputs. Input-target training
data are usually pretreated as explained
above in order to improve the numerical
condition for the optimization problem and
for better behavior of the training process.
Thus, the data are normally divided into
three subsets; training, validation and
testing subsets. The training subset data are
used to accomplish the network learning and
fit the network weights by minimizing an
appropriate error function. The performance
of the networks is then compared by
evaluating the error function using the
validation subset data, independently. The
testing subset data are then used to
measure the generalization of the network
(i.e. how accurately the network predicts
targets for inputs that are not in the training
set) this is some times referred to as
holdout validation.
Selection of Input and Output:

The main task in developing any ANN model
is to identify the input vector (dependent
variables) to the network so as to produce
the output.

Forecasting:

The sediment deposition for the future years
is calculated using the previous inflow and
sediment values by NNtool, NNtool opens
the Network/Data Manager window, which
allows you to import, create, use, and
export neural networks and data. After
exporting the required data, we have to
simulate the output for future forecasting.
The network used here is shown in the fig.3

Figure 3: NN Tool Network

The forecasting results are compared with
the Analytical values which are estimated by
theoretical formulae. The results are
compared with the accuracy of the model
created by NNtool and the average errors
are tabulated. The trial having the minimum
average error is selected and it can be used
for the forecasting.

Table 1: Minimum Average Error in
Forecasting

Trials Average error
1 0.01805
2 0.01801
3 0.02411
4 0.01955
5 0.009765
6 0.02459
7 0.0201

The 5
th
trial gives the minimum average
error. Here the number of neurons is 10 and
the training function trainlm is used. trainlm
is a network training function that updates
529
weight and bias values according to
Levenberg-Marquardt optimization. By using
the 5
th
case which has the least average
error, the I3 is given as input and the
corresponding targets are forecasted from
2008 to 2020. The results are given below

Table 3: ANN Forecasted and Analytical Values.

Year
ANN Results
(Mcum)
Analytical
(Mcum)
2008 2.31464 2.12354
2009 4.24858 3.911355
2010 6.70017 6.153785
2011 8.333951 7.712914
2012 10.1292 9.38855
2013 11.93474 11.04849
2014 13.21036 12.22638
2015 15.14365 13.99174
2016 17.18966 15.83423
2017 19.61139 17.99225
2018 22.64827 20.50896
2019 25.07945 22.99303
2020 26.34766 24.07426

Table 2: Forecasted ANN Results

YEAR ANN Results (Mcum)
2008 2.31464
2009 4.24858
2010 6.70017
2011 8.333951
2012 10.1292
2013 11.93474
2014 13.21036
2015 15.14365
2016 17.18966
2017 19.61139
2018 22.64827
2019 25.07945
2020 26.34766

530
Comparison of ANN and Analytical Forecasted Values
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
2
0
0
7
2
0
0
8
2
0
0
9
2
0
1
0
2
0
1
1
2
0
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2
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9
2
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2
0
Period (years)
S
e
d
i
m
e
n
t

(
M
c
u
m
)
ANN Values
Analytical Values

Figure 4: Comparison of ANN and Analytical Values.

Decrease in Capacity of Vaigai by Analytical Method
90
105
120
135
150
165
180
1
9
8
1
1
9
8
4
1
9
8
7
1
9
9
0
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3
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0
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2
0
0
8
2
0
1
1
2
0
1
4
2
0
1
7
2
0
2
0
Period (Years)
C
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

o
f

V
a
i
g
a
i

(
M
c
u
m
)
Analytical Method

Figure 5: Estimation of Vaigai Reservoir Capacity by Analytical Method

Decrease in Capacity of Vaigai by ANN Method
90
105
120
135
150
165
180
1
9
8
1
1
9
8
4
1
9
8
7
1
9
9
0
1
9
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3
1
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6
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0
Period (Years)
C
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

o
f

V
a
i
g
a
i

(
M
c
u
m
)
ANN Method

Figure 6: Estimation of Vaigai Reservoir Capacity by ANN Method

531
In figure 5 and 6 the capacity of vaigai has
been estimated by both Analytical and ANN
methods. The decrease in capacity by both
methods seems to be approximately equal.
In 2020 by Analytical the value is 95.9
Mcum and by ANN the value is 94.22 Mcum.

Conclusion:

It has been shown that even in the absence
of observed sediment data it was possible to
obtain the reliable corresponding estimates
by training ANNs using the inflow and
sediment data. The volume of sediment
deposited in the Vaigai reservoir was
predicted using analytical method and the
artificial neural network models. The values
obtained by both the methods were
compared with the response variables to
decide about the nearness of the
predictions. From the results obtained the
proposed method appears to be an effective
tool for reservoir sedimentation forecasting.
The capacity of reservoir is found to be 95.9
Mcum by Analytical method and 94.22
Mcum by ANN. So ANN can be used as a
best alternative tool to determine the rate of
Sedimentation and also the capacity of
Reservoir.

References:

[1] Abernethy C L. 1987. Soil Erosion and
sediment yield, a review of sediment data
from rivers and reservoirs. Unpublished
report for FAO.
[2] ASCE Task Committee, 2000a. Artificial
neural networks in hydrology I: preliminary
concepts. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering
5 (2), 115-123.
[3] ASCE Task Committee, 2000b. Artificial
neural networks in hydrology II: hydrologic
applications. Journal of Hydrologic
Engineering 5 (2), 124-137.
[4] Atkinson E. 1996. Feasibility of flushing
sediment from reservoir. Report OD137. HR
Wallingford. Central Water Commission
(CWC). 1991. Compendium on silting of
reservoirs in India. Reservoir Sedimentation
Directorate.
[5] Dawson, C. W., Wilby, R. L., 2001.
Hydrological modelling using artificial neural
networks. Progress in Physical Geography
25 (1) , 80108.
[6] Harada M., Morimoto H. and Kokubo T.
2000. Operational results and effects of
sediment bypass system. ICOLD Q.77
R.62. pp.967-984
[7] Hsu, K.-L., Gupta, H.V., Sorooshian, S.,
1995. Artificial neural network modeling in
rainfall-runoff process. Water Resources
Research 31 (10), 2517-2530.
[8] Hu C. 1995. Controlling reservoir
sedimentation in China. Hydropower &
Dams, March 1995,pp.50-52 Ishida M.
2002.
[9] Luis G. C.(2006). Estimation of Sediment
Transport and Dominant Flow in a
Hyperconcentrated Flow, Technical
University of Cartagena, Spain.
[10] Maier, H. and Dandy, G.C., 2000.
Neural networks for the prediction and
forecasting of water resources variables: a
review of modeling issues and applications.
Environmental Modeling Software 15, pp.
101124
[11] Minasny, B., McBratney, A. B., 2002.
The neuro-m method for fitting neural
network parametric pedotransfer functions.
Soil Science Society of America Journal 66,
352-361.
[12] Moore, I.D., Gessler, P.E., Nielsen,
G.A., Peterson, G.A., 1993. Soil attributes
prediction using terrain analysis. Soil
Science Society of America Journal 57, 443-
452
[13] Nagy, H.M., Watanabe, K., Hirano,
M., 2002. Prediction of sediment load
concentration in rivers using Artificial Neural
Network Model. J. Hydraulic Eng. (ASCE)
128 (6), 588595.
[14] Sarangi, A., Bhattacharya, A.K.,
2005. Comparison of Artificial Neural
Network and regression models for sediment
loss prediction from Banha watershed in
India Agric. Water Manage. 78 ,195208.
Sharma, S. K., Mohanty, B.P., Zhu. J., 2006.
Including Topography and Vegetation
Attributes for Developing Pedotransfer
Functions. Soil Science Society of America
Journal 70, 1430-1440.
[15] Sloff, C.J. (2005), Modeling Reservoir
Sedimentation Processes for Sediment
Management Studies, Delft University, The
Netherlands.
532
Thirty Years of Disasters and its Impact in the State
of Tamil Nadu A Spatio and Temporal Analysis
G. P. GANAPATHY and D. P. KOTHARI

Centre for Disaster Mitigation and Management, VIT University, Vellore - 632 014.
Email: seismogans@yahoo.com, vc@vit.ac.in

Abstract: Disasters by definition involve widespread physical damages and /or loss of life.
Establishing the extent of damage, morbidity and mortality is fundamental for relief,
recovery and reconstruction planning. The State of Tamil Nadu was the most affected in
terms of human tragedy, property loss in the Indian Ocean Tsunami on 26
th
December
2004. Also, the state faces severe crisis every year because of seasonal floods. The creation
of historic database becomes necessary to know about trends, patterns and seasonality of
disasters affecting the state and have a holistic approach towards long term preparedness
and mitigation of Disasters. The DesInventar (herein used as IndisData) methodology is a
cost effective system used in Latin American countries to systematically record time, place,
and effects of disasters on their occurrence. The methodology uses Indisdata software, a
web based simple tool to capture the data and analyse it to create charts, tables, graphs for
decision making. A Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) was signed in April 2008 between
United Nation Development Program (UNDP) and CDMM, VIT University to validate and
analyse the database. Disaster data for the period 1975-2007 was collected from the
authentic government agencies. The collected data in the prescribed format was compiled
and properly scrutinized before data entry. There are several qualifications and limitations in
the Historical Disaster Information System and the preliminary analysis that have to be
taken into consideration. The availability of good records from 1976-2006 is considered for
the present analysis.

Keywords: Hazard, disaster, impact and database

Introduction:

Global disaster risk is highly concentrated in
poorer countries with weak governance.
Particularly in low and low-middle income
countries with rapid economic growth, the
exposure of people and assets to natural
hazards is growing at a faster rate than risk-
reducing capacities are being strengthened,
leading to increasing disaster risk (GAR,
2009). Disasters can have serious impact on
social life in general and in particular on
economy. One of the factors that plays a
very important role in preparing effective
counter measures against future natural
disasters is the information on previous
disasters, including what measures were
taken against and what scale of natural
disasters, how effective or ineffective they
were and what were the lessons learned
from the experiences. Compiling a database
of natural disasters that have occurred in
this century in Asia will be a valuable asset
in the next century (ADRC, 2006).
Information becomes useful only when
referred to for analysis. Analysis of
collected information is beginning to help
clarify the specific circumstances and need
of various people. The present paper
discuss about such disaster database
creation and its analysis for the State of
Tamil Nadu State.

Socio Economic and Hazard Profile:

The state of Tamil Nadu has an area of 1,
30,058 sq. km. (Fig. 1) and a population of
62.41 million. There are 30 districts, 385
blocks and 16317 villages as on 2001
Census of India (Census, 2001). The State
has a population density of 479 per sq. km.
(as against the national average of 312).
The decadal growth rate of the state is
11.72% (against 21.54% for the country)
and the population of the state continues to
grow at a much faster rate than the national
growth rate. The major natural hazard that
threatens Tamil Nadu are cyclones and
533
associated storm surge. The seismicity in
general is low to moderate and Bureau of
Indian Standard (2001) categorized Tamil
Nadu under Seismic Zones II and III
representing an area of 73% and 27%
respectively. Some districts also have some
areas liable to cyclonic winds, storm surge
as well as flooding.

Methodology:

The methodology is based on a set of
definitions and classifications. The following
are to be noted that a) disaggregating and
geo-referencing data to allow analysis and
b) collection and analysis of data for small
and medium disasters. It is important to
elaborate here that
- not all events are captured in the
database. The methodology captured only
those events which inflict losses. This means
that an event in an area without any
reported loss.
- In most cases, a disaster event is
registered as multiple data cards
corresponding to the smallest geographical
unit in the database. In other words,
number of data cards does not necessarily
equate to number of disaster events. This
has be taken into account while analyzing
the data.

Figure 1: Map Showing the Location Study Area

This Historical Disaster Information System
for the State of Tamil Nadu is a fairly well
documented data base with analysis of the
reported 30 disaster events in 30 years from
1976 to 2006. The data were collected from
stake holders and integrated into a Disaster

Information System. Although the system
contains about 30 events, for the purposes
of this analytical report, major disaster
events, which have been reported
frequently, are discussed in this paper. All
534
Thirty Years of Disasters and its Impact in the State of Tamil Nadu
A Spatio and Temporal Analysis
the reported major disaster events have
been used for time trend analysis and major
7 hazards are used for impact analysis and
detailed in to district/taluk level analysis for
this purpose. However the overall loss and
damage trends by all events are concisely
discussed in this paper.

Damage and Loss Trend by All Hazards:

This provides an overview of the
occurrences and impacts of disaster events
for the years 1976-2006 in the state of
Tamil Nadu (Ganapathy, 2008) cards were
in the database id 13,575. The yearwise
data card for all hazard events are
presented in Fig.2.

0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
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Year
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

d
a
t
a
c
a
r
d
s

Figure 2: Annual Frequency Distribution of Data Cards (1976-2006)
Three periods may be distinguished: 1976-
1991, 1992-2003, 2004-2006. The period
1996-1991 with number of data cards
varying from 17 to 174. The period 1992-
2003 with number of data cards varying
from 194- 920. The period 2004 2006
with number of data cards varying from
933-2998 (Fig.2). It is important to note
here that low reporting of disaster events
does not necessarily mean the absence of
disaster events during 1976-1991. The
IndisData has recorded only those events
for which data for available from
government records. The highest number of
data cards is 2998 in 2005 and the lowest
number of data card is for the year 1976 in
the database. The analysis reveals that the
events Fire (44%), Flood (23%) have major
occurrences, Rains (14%) Forest Fires (6%)
have the next level and the other events
have come less than 3% occurrences in the
State. The largest deaths from various
disasters occurred in 2004 and 2005, during
which 3021 and 1007 deaths respectively
attributed mainly to tsunami of 2004 and
floods and accidents of 2005(Fig.3). A total
of 6,668 human lives have been lost in the
database period.

0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
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year
N
u
m
b
e
r
DataCards
Deaths

Figure 3: Annual Frequency of Deaths by all Hazard Events
535

The greatest destruction to housing from
various disasters occurred in 2005, 2004
and 1997, during which 82325; 34904 and
18639 houses were destroyed respectively,
attributed mainly to the flood and rains that
occurred in 2005 and tsunami of 2004, and
the fire and floods of 1997. It is noted that
an average of 7500 houses destroyed every
year. Total destruction of houses during
1976 2006 are 2,33,952 (Fig. 4).

1
10
100
1000
10000
100000
1000000
1
9
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6
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h
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d
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a
g
e
d

a
n
d

d
e
s
t
r
o
y
e
d
Houses Destroyed
Houses Damaged

Figure 4: Annual Frequency of Damaged and Destroyed Houses

The greatest damage to housing from
various disasters occurred in 2005, 1984
and 1996, during which 3,81,863; 1,30,040
are 1,24,246 houses were damaged
respectively, attributed mainly to the flood
and rains that occurred in 2005 and cyclone
of 1984 and the floods and rains of 1996.
At an average 30,000 houses were damaged
every year in the State. The total number
of damaged houses during the year 1976
2006 are 9,24,454 houses (Fig.4). The
greatest losses from various disasters
occurred in 2005, and 1998, during which
100.74 Crore Rupees and 80.36 Crore
Rupees, attributed mainly to the Flood and
Rains that occurred in 2005 and the Floods,
Rains and Fire of 1984. The annual average
losses due to the disaster events is 11.17
Crore Rupees. The total loss for the year
1976 -2006 is 346.38 Crore Rupees. The
greatest damage to crops occurred in 2002
(13,54,029 hectares), attributed to rains,
drought and floods, 2004 (7,92,652
hectares) attributed to tsunami & rains, and
1992 (5,28,012 hectares) related to Floods
and Rains.

Analysis and Discussions:

The multi-hazard affected districts and of
the Tamil Nadu state classified based on the
impact score. The districts impact score
ranked based on all hazard impact and
specific hazard impact. The analysis is done
for the present study is given in the
following steps.
Step 1: The districts were ranked from 30 to
1. For example the highest data card district
has given as 30 and lowest data card district
is 1. Similarly largest death is 30 and
lowest death is 1 and no data/no deaths are
0.
Step 2: The score of the all hazard impact
as well as specific hazard impact were given
equal weightage and calculated the total
score.
Step 3: Based on the total score the top
score district have been considered as most
disaster prone as well as multi-hazard prone
districts.
Step 4: The top score arrived from the
analysis is, 678 and lowest score is 176.
The equal interval classification method is
used to identify the hazard classification.
The impact score is classified in to four
categories viz., Very High Level Affected
(557 678), Highly Affected (404 557),
536
Thirty Years of Disasters and its Impact in the State of Tamil Nadu
A Spatio and Temporal Analysis
Medium Level Affected (272 404) and Low
Level Affected areas (176 272). The GIS
based district wise hazard impact categories
for the state of Tamil Nadu is presented in
Fig .5. The scenario shown in the fig 5 is
only based on the data available, and this
map has limitations, this can be used only
for research purpose and for any planning
purpose.

Figure 5: Map Showing the District Level Impact of the Disaster Events in the Past 30
Years.

The preliminary analysis on historical
disaster database for the State of Tamil
Nadu and its finding are listed below:
Study on occurrences, impact and
hazard specific analysis was carried out for
the years 1976-2006 from the Indisdata.
Totally 30 hazard events have been
taken into consideration from the database.
Seven events were selected for the hazard
specific analysis based on their occurrence
and impact on human lives and damage to
property. The seven most frequently
occurring disasters in Tamil Nadu State
includes: Floods, Rains, Fire, Accident,
Flash Flood, Lightning and Cyclone.
While Fire, Floods and Rains are occurred
most frequently, the event tsunami has
claimed the largest number of lives, totaling
2,541 lives, followed by Flood, Fire,
Accident, Rains, and epidemic and lightning.
The largest houses destroyed due to the
floods (1,28,774 houses) and the largest
damaged houses are due floods (6,03,355
houses) and rains (1,48,985 houses). The
537
losses in local currency generated by floods
(Rs. 196.43 Crores) followed by Fire (Rs.
55.68 Crores) and rains (Rs. 39.10 Crores).
The largest crop damages are due to rains
(17,30,469 hectares) followed by drought
(8,07,935 hectares) and flood (4,85,265
hectares).
The impact category maps from the
analysis depicts that Kanniyakumari is the
severely affected by multi hazard district
followed by Kanchipuram, Cuddalore,
Thanjavur, Trichirapalli, Villupuram,
Thiruvallur, Theni and Vellore
The total number of people that have
been killed as a result of the occurrence of
fire, flood, rains, flash floods, accident,
lightning, cyclone between 1976-2006, is
2,989. The cumulative impact on human life
of these eleven hazard events (1976-2006)
is equally impact of low frequency but
extremely high hazard impact, tsunami. The
tsunami killed a total of 2541 people in an
hour.
The impact on the loss of livelihoods has
been valued at 305.32 Crore Rupees for
these hazards for 30years.

Recommendations:

The IndisData is a fairly well documented
database for Tamil Nadu State Disaster
Information System. The large volume of
disaster data should be fully utilized by the
stake holders and educational institutions.
Some of the key suggestions given to UNDP
to effectively use and implement the
database are as follows:
Collect additional information from the
government departments on the impacts of
specific hazards in order to enrich the
analysis from the remaining taluk level
information and produce a final
comprehensive analytical report for the
national level and district specific reports,
which should all be updated periodically.
Share the database with technical
departments to enable them to analyse
disaster impact on their various sectors and
to help provide explanations for the trends
described in the trend analysis section of the
report.
Data collection should be carried out in a
regular interval in continuation with the
database.
Design hazard specific prevention and
mitigation measures that will target the
districts most prone to specific hazards as
depicted in the spatial analysis.
A model template can be generated and
used for weekly, monthly, seasonal and
annual reports.
The IndisData software is good.
However it has some of its own limitations
like bringing out layout of spatial maps,
changing colour gradients etc, these
limitations may be nullified in future.
Making the Charts/graphs/maps
generated from the database user-friendly
as well as in printable format.

Acknowledgements:

The authors acknowledge all facilities
provided by Dr.G. Viswanathan, Chancellor,
VIT University, Vellore. Mr. Rajesh Sharma
and Mr. Muhammad Akram are gratefully
acknowledged for the database. The United
Nation Development Programme (UNDP),
India is acknowledged for the financial
support under DRM Project.

References:

[1] GAR (2009), Risk and Poverty in
Changing Climate, 2009 Global Assessment
Report on Disaster Risk Reduction, UN.
[2] ADRC (2006), Asian Disaster Reduction
Centre, Annual report, 2006, 5-2,
Wakinohamakaigan-dori, Chuoku, Kobe 651-
0073, Japan
[3] Census (2001)www.cesusofindia.com
[4] Ganapathy (2008), Analysis of Historical
Disaster Database for the State of Tamil
Nadu, unpublished report by CDMM, VIT
University.
538
On Numerical Modelling of Waves, Currents and
Sediment Movement around Gurupur-Netravathi
River Mouth
RADHESHYAM. B, SUBBA RAO and KIRAN G. SHIRLAL
Department of Applied Mechanics and Hydraulics, National institute of Technology
Karnataka, Surathkal, SRINIVASANAGAR 575 025, Karnataka, India
Email: geoshyam@yahoo.co.in, surakrec@yahoo.com

Abstract: This paper presents an overview of the investigations that were carried out to
understand the coastal process along Bengre and Ullal at the Gurupur-Netravathi River
mouth in the west coast of India. This river inlet was facing problems of migration and
siltation since several decades and therefore two rubble mound breakwaters were
constructed during the year 1994 as an intervention to maintain the inlet mouth. After the
construction of these river training jetties, the inlet was stabilized, but severe erosion has
been taking place along the Ullal spit on the south side of southern breakwater, since 1996
and heavy accretion on the North of Northern Breakwater along Bengre spit, which is now
almost stabilized. This study has been undertaken to understand the hydrodynamics along
the beaches adjoining the river mouth. For the present study, various field data was
collected for the post monsoon season of 2006. The hydrodynamic (HD), Parabolic mild
slope (PMS) and Sediment transport (ST) modules of MIKE-21 software were used to
understand the hydrodynamics of the study area. Before the model was made use, it was
first validated by using field data to understand the hydrodynamics of the area. Since the
field data is of limited duration, data collected from the NMPT wave buoy for an entire year
was used for the model simulation. From the studies it was confirmed that current direction
and sediment movement follow a similar pattern in monsoon and pre-monsoon and a
different pattern during post-monsoon. It is observed that the main cause of erosion is due
to direct action of waves on the adjoining beaches of the coast and the beaches in the study
area are generally in dynamic equilibrium with a small amount of erosion at Ullal.

Keywords: Waves, Currents, Tide, Inlet, Erosion, MIKE-21, Hydrodynamics.

Introduction:

The Indian coastline is about 7517 km, out
of which 5423 km borders the mainland and
2094 km along the Andaman and Nicobar
and Lakshadweep Islands. According to the
naval hydrographic charts, the Indian
mainland consist nearly 43% of sandy
beaches, 11% rocky coast with cliffs and
46% mud flats and marshy coast. At
present, about 23% of shoreline along the
Indian mainland is affected by erosion.
Erosion along the beaches near river mouths
has been commonly noticed along Karnataka
coast. In Karnataka State, about 60 km of
the beaches (19% of the total length of
shoreline) are affected by erosion. The
problem is relatively more severe in
Dakshina Kannada and Udupi coasts, where
about 28% of the total stretch is critical. As
it is difficult to measure ocean parameters
very frequently, the use of numerical models
provide a valuable insight into the important
physical process. Numerical models have
reached a very good level of accuracy and
detail over the past two decades such that
most of the dominant processes in the
coastal environment can be quantified. The
advantage of numerical modeling approach
is that it is economically very efficient and
very flexible in adopting towards high
temporal and spatial scale marine
environment data. For the present study
DHI tailored MIKE-21 modules has been
made use.

The study area considered was exposed to
severe erosion problems since decades for
which an attempt to understand the
hydrodynamics through numerical modeling
539
has been done. The location of severe
erosion at Ullal is shown in Fig.1. The
inhabited area with geographic location
12
0
48-12
0
53North and 74
0
48-74
0
51East
off Mangalore with a coastal stretch of 10
km. has been identified for the present
study. The river inlet which was under
migration towards south has been stabilized
by constructing river training jetties during
the year 1994. The northern part of the
inlet, viz; Bengre and the southern part, viz;
Ullal are the worst hit areas. Reddy et. al.
(1979) have reported the measurements of
flood and ebb tide currents at the
Netravathi-Gurupur river mouth. The
maximum speeds of surface and bottom
currents during monsoon season during
flood tide were about 0.98 and 1.04 m/sec.
respectively, and the same during ebb tide
were about 1.3 and 1.08 m/sec. Ebb
currents were stronger than the flood.
Karnataka Engineering Research Station,
(1989) which conducted a study regarding
beach erosion problem at Ullal concludes
that the material from the deeper zones are
removed and deposited on the fore-shore
thereby forming a berm during pre-monsoon
and post-monsoon period and then during
monsoons, the same material is eroded and
deposited in deeper zones. The beach slopes
are generally steeper during monsoon and
flatter during non-monsoon which leads to a
definite conclusion that the beach width is
oscillating during a year. The grain size
during monsoon was coarser while it was
generally finer during non-monsoon periods.
Chandramohan et al. (1994) conducted a
field study between Bhatkal to Ullal which is
dominated by southwest monsoon during
June to September. According to the ship
observed data, the swells predominantly
vary between 1.0 and 3.5m during June to
September and 0.5 and 1.0m during
October to January. The swell periods
predominantly vary between 5.0 and 8.0sec
during June to September and between 5.0
to 12.0 sec during October to May. During
June to August, the monsoon waves
approach the coast predominantly from the
sector between southwest and northwest.
The tides in this region are characterized by
a mixed type, predominantly semi-diurnal.
Based on the predicted tide for New
Mangalore Port, the average tidal range is
about 0.25 to 1.54m. Beach level study
indicates the influence of seasonal erosion
and accretion condition during South East
monsoon and fair weather period. At Ullal,
longshore current is around 0.4m/sec in
June and 0.25m/sec for the rest of the year,
indicating relatively strong longshore current
in June. Direction of longshore current was
northward from October to December and
southward during rest of the year. It was
observed that during NE monsoon period,
the long shore current direction was
predominantly North and during South East
monsoon and fair weather period it was
southward. The breaking wave height
persisted at about 0.6m in June and July
and 0.4m in rest of the year. Wave period
was observed between 8.0 to 10.0 sec.
KREC Study Team, (1994) conducted a
study on coastal erosion along Dakshina
Kannada coast and observed that the ocean
waves are high along coast in the months
from June to September. Wave periods
range from 9.0 to 10.0 seconds in monsoon.
The largest single wave recorded is about
5.4m and typical South West monsoon
waves are of height about 4.0m, while the
wave heights are less than 1.0m during
non-monsoon season and the wave periods
show wide variation with the presence of
long period waves. Predominant deepwater
wave direction in monsoon is SW, W and
NW. These waves become almost parallel to
coast due to refraction as they near the
shoreline. Tides are semidiurnal with a mean
tidal range of 1.2m and spring tidal range of
1.8m. From the beach profile studies carried
out along the D.K. coast, KREC study team
concluded that beaches along D.K coast are
in the state of dynamic equilibrium. It was
also reported that net erosion tendency are
observed at Ullal. KREC study team
concluded that littoral drift along the study
area is negligibly small and some of the
evidence given by them are, had there been
a large scale littoral drift, there would have
been maximum accretion of sea borne
sediments on the north of the northern
NMPT breakwater and matching erosion on
the south of the southern NMPT breakwater
which is not visible. Also, the analysis of the
siltation at the entrance channel of NMPT
540
On Numerical Modelling of Waves, Currents and Sediment
Movement around Gurupur-Netravathi River Mouth
and the changes in the coast line adjacent
to the breakwaters at NMPT indicates that
the littoral drift in the study area is
negligibly small. Dattatri et al. (1997)
conducted sea sled survey along the D.K.
Coast during 1995 and 1996, and concluded
that although there are changes during
monsoon, there is no net erosion or
deposition and the portion of the beach
considered for the study was in a state of
dynamic equilibrium. Subba Rao et al (2000,
2002, 2001, 2002a, 2003a, 2003b, 2004,
2006a, 2006b) based on the beach profile
and sediment trend matrix investigations
also concluded that the sediment movement
along D. K. coast is seasonal and there is no
net littoral drift along it. Further, studies
carried out by them revealed that the
direction of sediment movement gets
reversed along D.K. coast seasonally and
also observes that littoral drift does not pose
any problem in the coasts of D.K. district.
Eduardo et al, (2002) calibrated and
validated a numerical model developed
using MIKE-21 HD (Hydrodynamics) and
NSW (Nearshore spectral Wind-Wave Model)
for modeling the water surface topography
at the complex estuarine inlet system at
Teignmouth, UK. Modelling was carried out
to predict the water surface topography and
its response to different tide, waves and
river discharge condition. Hakeem et al.,
(2005) used MIKE 21 PMS (Parabolic Mild
Slope) and HD flow model for simulating
waves and currents in the vicinity of
submerged breakwaters. PMS model was
used to simulate wave transformation and
calculate wave radiation stresses, while HD
flow model (2- dimensional depth averaged)
was used to calculate the resulting wave
driven currents. It is shown that the
simulated flow pattern is qualitatively similar
to that observed in the experiments.

Near-Shore Data Collection:

As a part of Ministry of Earth Sciences
(MoES) project, under Integrated Coastal
and Marine Area Management (ICMAM,
Chennai), near-shore oceanographic data
were collected in the month of November
2006. State-of-the art equipments like
Valeport wave and tide gauge, Aanderaa
current meter, Doppler Current Profilers,
Ceeducer echo sounder, RTK GPS Systems
were used in the field data collection
programme. The deployment locations of
various instruments are shown in Fig.1.

Analysis of Field Data:

Beach Profile Study:

The main systematic variation observed in
the series of beach profiles would most likely
be in response to the changing wave
condition. By studying and comparing the
beach level changes in different time
periods, the dynamic behavior of the
beaches can be studied. In the present
study, beach profiles were measured at 4
locations in Bengre covering a distance of
1600m at chainages 0, 200, 300 and 1600m
from the Northern breakwater. The same
was measured at 28 locations covering a
distance of 4000m from the southern
breakwater. Profiles are measured at 50m
interval from 0 to 1000m and from 1000m
to 4000m at interval of 500m. Beach level
changes at Bengre is shown in the Fig. 2.
From the analysis it was found that during
monsoon season, from the northern
breakwater to 200m distance towards north
accretion was taking place and the
remaining portion of Bengre was undergoing
erosion. In the post monsoon season, from
the northern breakwater to 200m distance
towards north erosion was taking place and
the remaining portion of Bengre was
undergoing accretion. In the pre monsoon
season accretion was taking place if the
wave energy is low and erosion if wave
energy is high. The estimation of relative
changes in the volume of sediment per
meter length of beach for the year of 2004
to 2005 and 2005 to 2006 at each location
is shown in the Fig.3. By comparing the
relative volume changes it is found that in
the year 2004 to 2005 there was a net
accretion of about 0.058Mm
3
/year and in
the year 2005 to 2006 is about
0.0927Mm
3
/year. By comparing the relative
volume changes for the year 2004 to 2005
and 2005 to 2006 it can be said that net
accretion was about 0.035Mm
3
/year, in the
study area of Bengre. Fig. 4 shows the
influence of seasonal erosion and accretion
conditions prevailing during the southwest
541
monsoon and fair weather period. The
estimation of relative changes in the volume
of sediment per meter length of beach for
the year of 2004 to 2005 and 2005 to 2006
at each location is shown in the Fig. 5. By
comparing the relative volume changes it is
found that in the year 2004 to 2005 there
was a net erosion of about 0.124Mm
3
/year
and in the year 2005 to 2006, it is about
0.311Mm
3
/year. By comparing the relative
volume changes for the year 2004 to 2005
and 2005 to 2006 it can be said net erosion
was about 0.18Mm
3
/year in the study area
of Ullal.

Bathymetry:

Tidal corrections have been applied to the
data in the post processing mode by using
the simultaneously collected tide from the
tide gauge at 11m water depth. Surveyed
data was interpolated to get the continuous
bathymetry of the study area. Hence the
observed data was post processed, analyzed
and interpolated using HYPACK Max survey
software. Fig. 6 shows the bathymetry
details of the study area. The average slope
at different water depths are shown in Table
1 from which it can be inferred that Ullal
was steeper than Bengre up to a water
depth of 6m. Slope of Ullal and Bengre
becomes nearly the same after a water
depth of 6m.

Sediment Analysis:

From the grain size analysis carried out, it
was observed that the grain size along the
beach is in the range of 0.2mm to 1.6mm.
As per the IS classification, the sand in the
study area are medium grained. The near-
shore sediment samples are medium sand
with minor amount of silt and clay which can
be observed up to a water depth of about 5
to 6m. Beyond this, the sea bed is
composed of silt and clay as shown in the
Fig. 7. The absence of silt and clay in the
beach and at water depth of 5 to 6m
indicates that these are the surf zone areas
where waves break resulting in significant
turbulence which brings silt and clay into
suspension which are then moved offshore.

Analysis of Water Levels:

Tide data collected at the NMPT is analyzed
using the Tidal Analysis of Height tool of
Mike-21 (TIDHAC) to get the tidal
constituents and the major constituents so
obtained are given in Table 2. The mixed
semidiurnal nature of the tide is shown in
the typical plot presented in Fig. 8 and is
also reflected from the form number which
amounts to 0.937.

Analysis of Waves and Currents:

Marine structures are those which are
exposed to marine environment. Major
forces that these have to withstand are
those due to the wave induced fluid motion
or flows, apart from working loads. For a
structure to be designed on an optimal basis
and to be efficient in its function, a thorough
understanding of wave-structure interaction
is essential. Detailed information on wave
climate and analysis of wave record helps in
arriving at an optimum design wave height.
Typical plot showing the wave height
distribution corresponding to pre-monsoon,
monsoon and post-monsoon are shown in
the Fig. 9. Average wave direction in the
monsoon season is 260
0
(W), 240
0
(SW) in
the post monsoon and 280
0
(NW) in the pre
monsoon season. The statistics
corresponding to the current magnitude and
direction obtained from the current meters
installed at different locations are shown in
Table 3.

River Discharge:

The river discharges were computed
indirectly by measuring the cross-sectional
area of flow and the magnitude of current at
different time periods for both the rivers and
Fig. 10 shows the variation in the river
discharge for the same rivers. Discharge in
the rivers were more in the monsoon season
because of heavy rain in their catchment
areas.

Numerical Modeling:

The standard numerical modelling
procedures were applied to understand the
hydrodynamics and sediment dynamics of
the study area. Model was setup and with
one set of field data and by fine tuning the
542
calibration parameters, the sensitivity of the
model to these parameters were studied.
The model was then validated with another
set of data without changing the calibration
coefficients. Subsequently the validated
model was used to understand the
hydrodynamics and sediment dynamic of the
study area. The model simulation is carried
out for all the three seasons of the year
2006.

Wave (PMS) Model:

MIKE-21 PMS module is based on the
parabolic approximation to the mild-slope
equation and accounts for the effects of
wave shoaling, refraction, diffraction,
breaking, directional spreading, forward
scattering and bed friction on the incident
waves. The basic outputs from the model
are integral wave parameters such as
significant wave height, mean wave period
and mean wave direction. Other outputs
that can be obtained from the model are
radiation stresses and instantaneous surface
elevations.

Flow (HD) Model:

The hydrodynamic (HD) module is the basic
module in the MIKE-21 Flow Model. This
module calculates the flow field from the
solution of the depth-integrated continuity
and momentum equations. The bathymetry
data, bed resistance coefficients, wind field,
hydrodynamic boundary conditions and eddy
viscosity are fed as the basic inputs. The
model includes the capability to allow
periodic flooding and drying in inter tidal
areas. In addition to the wind and tide, the
forcing terms may include the gradients in
the radiation stress field as calculated by the
wave module. The outputs of the
simulations are water levels and fluxes
(velocities) in the computational domain
resulting from the tide.

Non Cohesive Sediment Transport (ST)
Model:

This module computes the rates of non-
cohesive sediment transport for both
situations containing pure current and
combined waves and current.

Setting up the Model:

This is a process which transforms real
world events and data into a format which
can be understood by the numerical model
MIKE-21. Thus generally speaking, all the
data collected have to be resolved on the
spatial grid selected like a 5mX5m grid
spacing for the PMS and a 25mX25m grid
for HD module.

Boundary Conditions:

Different boundary conditions are to be used
for different modules in MIKE-21. Thus for
PMS module, the incoming wave conditions
such as wave height, period and direction
are specified at the offshore boundary
(Model West). For the lateral boundaries
(Model North and Model South), symmetrical
boundary condition was adopted. Similarly
for the HD module, the Model West
boundary is fed with flux=0, tide data at
Bengre as Model North, River discharge data
at Gurupur and Netravathi rivers for these
boundaries and the tide data at Ullal as the
Model South boundary condition.

Calibration:

Calibration of the numerical model is a very
important requirement before being put into
any practical usage. However, there is no
widely accepted procedure for the model
calibration and validation in the modeling
literature (Cheng et al., 1991). Typically,
calibration or validation is accomplished by
quantitative comparison of short time series
of water level or velocity produced by the
numerical model with the field data for the
same location and for the same period of
time (Cheng et al, 1993). A number of
models are calibrated with time series data
of surface elevation, velocity, and salinity at
stations wherever they are available.
Eduardo et al, (2002) calibrated the MIKE-
21 model for the inlet system in
Teignmouth, UK with the time series data of
water level and velocity. Nicholas et al,
(2004) calibrated Delft3D Terschelling model
for the water levels, waves and currents. For
the PMS module, the bottom friction
coefficient is the basic calibration parameter
and for HD module, bottom roughness (bed
resistance), eddy viscosity and wind are the
543
basic calibration parameters. From the
sensitivity analysis, value of bed resistance
is found to be 20m
1/3
/s in terms of Chezy
number and eddy viscosity is 2.

Calibration of Wave Model:

For the PMS wave analysis module, data
collected at the river mouth at 11m water
depth (M11) was used as offshore boundary
condition and calibration of the model was
done by using Bengre 8m water depth (B8)
and Ullal 8m water depth (U8) wave data.
For the calibration of the model, results are
extracted from those locations where the
instruments are deployed for collecting the
field data. These extracted values are
compared with the observed field data. The
results are as shown in the Fig. 11 and Fig.
12 respectively. To establish the statistical
relationship between the observed and the
predicted values, parameters like Bias and
RMS errors were used in the study.

Calibration of Flow Model:

Data collected at Ullal 8m water depth (U8),
Bengre 8m water depth (B8), discharge data
at Gurupur and Netravathi Rivers are used
as a boundary condition. Calibration of the
model is done by using the data collected at
Ullal 6m water depth (U6) and River Mouth
11m water depth(M11).

Modeling by using NDBP Data:

Since the collected data is for a limited
duration, 1 year data collected by NDBP at
NMPT was used to simulate monsoon season
parameters. Before this data is to be used
for the simulation of the model, the same
has been validated by comparing the
predicted values (tide and currents)
obtained from the model simulation using
the field data with the simulation done using
NDBP data. Validation results are shown in
the Fig. 13.

Model Outputs:

The model output of wave height
distribution for the different seasons is
shown in the Fig. 14. It can be observed
that the wave activity in the study region
during the monsoon season is more than
that during non monsoon seasons. Wave
height contours show that in the monsoon
season waves with higher wave heights are
breaking near the coast. This reveals that
erosion is mainly because of direct wave
action on the coast. It can also be revealed
that the hydrodynamics of the study area is
very complex during the monsoon season
than that during non-monsoon season. The
range of current speed for the different
season is shown in the Table 4.

Sediment Transport:

Net sediment transport pattern obtained
from the model for the three seasons are
shown in the Fig. 15. During the Monsoon
and Pre-monsoon season, net sediment
transport is towards South and during Post-
monsoon it is towards North. It is also
observed that an amount of 800m3/year of
sand during monsoon is moving towards
South, 70m
3
/year towards north during
post-monsoon an amount of 100m3/year
towards south during pre monsoon season.
This shows that the sediment drift is more
during monsoon and is about 11 and 8 times
more than during post-monsoon and pre-
monsoon seasons. This is mainly because of
the high wave activity and the current in the
region. During pre-monsoon, the sediment
movement is more than that of post
monsoon to the tune of about 1.5 times.
From the grid sampling it was found that the
sediments will be sand up to a water depth
of about 5m to 6m from the shore. Contour
lines of 5m water depth are at a distance of
100m from the shore and are considered as
effective surf zone width for the calculation
of net sediments. Net sediment transport
rates in the monsoon, post-monsoon and
pre-monsoon season are 0.08Mm
3
/year,
0.007Mm
3
/year and 0.01Mm
3
/year
respectively. Net sediment drift was towards
South and is about 0.063Mm
3
/year. Thus in
general, the beaches are in dynamic
equilibrium.

Conclusions:

An attempt has been made to collect and
analyse the virgin oceanographic data with
the help of various state-of-the-art scientific
equipments available in the present day.
The data has been used to develop a model
of the study area considered and with the
various parameters available in the model,
544
the same has been fine tuned to simulate
the existing field conditions. Based on such
studies conducted, following conclusions can
be arrived at.
Beaches at Ullal and Bengre are
generally in dynamic equilibrium even
though there is net erosion of small
magnitude at Ullal.
Bathymetry survey conducted reveals
that sea bed at Ullal is steeper than that at
Bengre.
Modelling results shows that the
hydrodynamics of the study area becomes
more complex in the monsoon season than
in the non-monsoon season.
Direct wave attack on beach is the main
cause of erosion in the study area.
Current Direction and the sediment
movement are towards South in the
monsoon and pre monsoon seasons and
towards North in the post monsoon season.
There appear to be a small net sediment
movement towards South in the study area.

Acknowledgements:

The authors take this opportunity to thank
the authorities of ICMAM-PD, Ministry of
Earth Sciences, Govt. of India, for providing
financial as well as computing facilities
available at their end. The authors also wish
to thank the Director, NITK, Surathkal for
permitting to carry out the work and also for
providing all necessary infrastructure and
logistic support.

References:

[1] Chandramohan P, Sanil Kumar V, Nayak
B U and Raju N S N, (1994). Surf zone
Dynamics along the South Karnataka Coast
between Bhatkal and Ullal, West coast of
India. Indian Journal of Marine Sciences, 23,
189-194.
[2] Cheng RT, Burau J.R and Gartner N.R,
(1991). Interfacing data analysis and
numerical modelling for tidal hydrodynamics
phenomena. In Parker. B,B(ed), Tidal
Hydrodynamics. John Wily, New York, 201-
219.
[3] Cheng RT, Casulli. V. and Gartner N.R,
(1993). Tidal, residual. Intertidal mudflat
(TRIM) model and its application to San
Francisco Bay, California. Estuarine, Coastal
and self science, 36, 235-280
[4] Dattatri J, N.B.S. Rao, B. Nagendra
Kumar, Subba Rao and G. S. Dwarakish,
(1997), "Coastal erosion along Dakshina
Kannada Coast, Karnataka, INDIA Proc.
National seminar on Coastal zone
environment management : An appraisal of
the contemporary research and
development, Dept. of Marine Geology,
Mangalore University, Mangalagangothri.
[5] Eduarodo Siegle, David A. Huntley and
Mark A Davidson, (2002). Modelling Water
Surface Topography at a Complex Inlet
System, Teignmouth, UK, Journal of
Coastal Research. 36, 675-685
[6] Hakeem K., Jhonson et al. (2005),
Modelling of waves and currents around
submerged breakwaters, Journal of Coastal
Engineering 52, pp 949-969.
[7] Karnataka Engineering Research Station,
(1989), Booklet on Sea Erosion studies
conducted at Ullal Sea Erosion Site,
Mangalore Taluk, D. K. District, KERS,
Krishnarajasagara, Govt. of Karnataka.
[8] KREC Study Team (1994). Study on
Coastal Erosion (Dakshina Kannada District),
Input to Environmental Master Plan Study,
Danida-DEE-Mangalore, KREC, Surathkal.
[9] Nicholas M Grunnet, Dirk-Jan R Walstra
and B.G. Ruessink, (2004). Process-based
Modelling of a Shore face Nourishment.
Journal of Coastal Engineering, 51, 581-607.
[10] Reddy, M. P. M., Hariharan, V. and
Kurian, N. P., (1979), Seasonal variations
of hydrographic conditions of estuarine and
oceanic waters adjoining the old Mangalore
port, Jl. of Pure and Applied Geophysics,
Birkhuser Basel Pub., Vol.117(5), 935-942.
[11] Subba Rao and N.B.S. Rao, (2000),
"Study on grain size statistics of beach sand
along Dakshina Kannada Coast of Karnataka
State," Proc. National Workshop on Coastal
Hydrology, CBIP, New Delhi.
[12] Subba Rao and Pramod, Ch.,
(2003a), Beach profile studies along KREC
beach of Karnataka Coast, NITK Research
Bulletin, National Institute of Technology
Karnataka, Surathkal, Dec, Vol. 12, No. 2,
24 31.
[13] Subba Rao, (2002a), Study of
Coastal Erosion along Karnataka Coast, ISH
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, The Indian
Society for Hydraulics, CWPRS, Pune, Vol.
8(2), 23- 33.
545
[14] Subba Rao, Kiran G. Shirlal and
Habeeb Khan P., (2002), Sediment trend
matrix analysis of beach sand along
Dakshina Kannada coast, KREC Research
Bulletin, Karnataka Regional Engineering
College, Surathkal, Vol.11(1), 17 - 23.
[15] Subba Rao, Kiran G. Shirlal and N. B.
S. Rao, (2003b), Sediment Trend Matrix
Analysis Normal to Shore near Surathkal
Beach, Karnataka, Journal of Geological
Society of India , Bangalore, Vol. 61, 215
219.
[16] Subba Rao, Kiran G. Shirlal,
Radheshyam B. and Mahaganesha K.,
(2004), Study of Littoral Transport along
D.K. Coast, Karnataka, Third Indian
National Conference on Harbour and Ocean
Engineering (INCHOE-04), National Institute
of Oceanography (NIO), GOA, held during
December 2004, Vol. 1, 89 - 95.
[17] Subba Rao, Kiran Shirlal, Kankara,
R.S., Radheshyam B, Govindaraja K. R. and
Madhubabu, (2006a), On modelling the
tides and currents using MIKE-21 HD for
Gurupur-Netravathi river mouth, Proc.
National Conference on Hydraulics and
Water Resources (HYDRO-06), ISH &
Bharati Vidyapeeth University, Pune, 475 -
486.
[18] Subba Rao, Kiran Shirlal,
Subramanian, B. R., Radheshyam B,
Govindaraja K. R. and Praveen Suvarna,
(2006b), On modelling the sediment
dynamics using MIKE-21 ST off Gurupur-
Netravathi river mouth, Proc. National
Conference on Hydraulics and Water
Resources (HYDRO-06), ISH & Bharati
Vidyapeeth University, Pune, 467 - 474.
[19] Subba Rao, Kiran. G. Shirlal and
Habeeb Khan P, (2001), An interpretation
of sediment trends along D.K.Coast, ISH
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, The Indian
Society for Hydraulics, CWPRS,Pune., Vol.
7(1), pp 33 - 39.

Figure 1: Location of Erosion and Instrument Deployment Locations

546

Figure 2: Monthly and Yearly Beach Level Changes at Bengre

Figure 3: Yearly Relative Beach Sediment Volume per Meter Length at Bengre

547

Figure 4: Monthly and Yearly Beach Level Changes in at Ullal

Figure 5: Yearly Relative Beach Sediment Volume per Meter Length at Ullal

Table 1: Average Bed Slope off Ullal and Bengre Coast

Water depth (m) Ullal Bengre
0 to 6 1:20 to 1:30 1:50 to 1:60
6 to 12 1:400 to 1:500 1:420 to 1:520
12 to 20 1:780 to 1:900 1:800 to 1:910

548

Figure 6: Bathymetry of the Study Area

549

Figure 7: Grain Size Distribution off Bengre and Ullal

Figure 8: Typical Plot of Water Levels at B8 Location

Table 2: Tidal Constituents obtained from NDBP Data

Constituents Amplitude Phase
O1 0.14 57.56
K1 0.318 60.94
M2 0.405 332.14
S2 0.085 19.89

550

Figure 9: Typical Wave Height Distribution Plot from NDBP Data

Table 3: Current Statistics at Various Locations

Location
Average current
speed (m/Sec)
Predominate
current direction
B8 0.116 N & S
M11 0.161 -
U6 0.077 NNW & SE
U8 0.12 NNW & SSE

Figure 10: Monthly Variation of River Discharge at Netravathi and Gurupur Rivers

Figure 11: Observed and Model Simulated Wave Height at U8 Location

551

Figure 12: Typical Plot of Observed and Model Predicted Tide and Current Speed at U6
Location

Figure 13: Typical Plot of Observed and Model Predicted Tide and Current Speed at U6
Location from NDBP Data

Figure 14: Plot of Predicted Seasonal Wave Height from NDBP Data

552
Table 4: Range of Seasonal Current Speed

Season
Current Speed
(m/sec)
Direction
Monsoon 0.2 to 0.55 South
Post-monsoon 0.07 to 0.25 North
Pre-monsoon 0.09 to 0.35 South

Figure 15: Typical Seasonal Plot of Sediment Movement Patterns

553
Effect of Climate Change on Netravathi Riverflow
SHETKAR RAJEEV. V and A. MAHESHA
Department of Applied Mechanics and Hydraulics National Institute of Technology,
Karnataka, Surathkal, Srinivasnagar - 575025, Mangalore, Karnataka, India.
Email: shetkar@nitk.ac.in, maheshamai@yahoo.com

Abstract: The adequacy of freshwater resources for future is difficult to assess due to
complex and rapidly changing environmental and social parameters. There is uncertainty
with respect to the prediction of climate change and its effect on planning and management
of water resources. Higher temperature and reduced precipitation would lead to larger
deficiencies in the supply and demand for water. This might cause deterioration in the
quality of freshwater adding strain on the already fragile balance between supply and
demand. Although the effect of climate change on water resources is uncertain and site
specific, the perception is that it will result into increased extreme events and hence
increased risk of flooding and droughts. This paper aims at assessing the trends of
temperature, precipitation and river flow for the Netravathi river, a tropical river of south
India. The river water utilization at present is less than 1% of the average annual flow. The
river flow is neither controlled nor altered due to manmade structures hence may be
considered as natural flow. From the analysis, it is important to note that the temperature is
rising and there is declining trend in precipitation and stream flow during the study period of
30 years (1971 to 2001). Also, the low flow frequency analysis shows an upward trend.
Similar analyses carried out for the number of days of flow peaks above a threshold value
indicate that the high flow frequency trend is declining and the magnitude of these high flow
events is also decreasing. The outcome of the present study indicates a definitive,
decreasing trend in the river flow due to climate change and a forecasting mechanism may
be essential in the future for the sustainable development of the available water resources.

Introduction:

India is facing the challenge of sustaining its
rapid economic growth, while dealing with
the global threat of climate change. The
country needs a national strategy to adapt
to climate change and to enhance the
ecological sustainability. Water is a
renewable resource. However, its availability
is limited. Consequently, there is a
tremendous pressure on the available water
resources due to increasing population and
growing water consumption. The precise
impact of climate change on natural and
man-made systems remains uncertain.
Municipal water supplies, particularly those
that rely on surface sources, may
experience significant changes in their flow
regimes in future. The global average
surface temperatures are expected to rise
by about 1.45.8
0
C by the end of the
century which is likely to affect the eco-
systems and the hydrologic cycle of the
earth and its atmosphere (Mooij et. al.,
2007). With the exception of the year 2000,
all the years of this century rank among the
10 warmest years of the whole
observational period since 1850 (WMO,
2007). In view of this, the assessment of
climate change impact on the water
resources is the most important assessment
to be carried out, before planning any long-
term water resources development project.
The climate change has a significant impact
on every process of the hydrological cycle,
which as a result, affects the surface water
availability, soil moisture and groundwater
recharge (UNEP, 2006). All these factors are
important in planning a river basin
development program. The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC, 2007) has identified five key areas
that are likely to be subjected to impacts
from increasing global average temperature:
water, ecosystems, food, coasts, and health.
The IPCC report shows that many of the
most serious impacts on the non-water
areas are, in fact, mediated via water. The
report reveals that the frequency of heavy
554 SHETKAR RAJEEV. V and A. MAHESHA
precipitation events has increased over most
land areas, consistent with warming and
observed increase of atmospheric water
vapor. Studies have been carried out in the
past to find out the river flow trends in
various countries in view of the global
climate change concerns and the likely
stress on water resources system. At the
global level, in many of the river flow series,
a decreasing trend is observed (Kundzewicz
et. al., 2005). With an economy closely tied
to its natural resources and climate-
sensitive sectors such as agriculture and
water, India may face a major threat
because of the projected changes in climate.
The global warming may affect the
hydrological cycle which could result in
further intensification of temporal and
spatial variations in precipitation and water
availability (IPCC, 2001). Freshwater
availability in the large river basins of
central, south, east and south-east Asia is
projected to decrease due to the climate
change. The Ganges river flow analysis
indicates that its runoff is more sensitive to
climate change (Mirza 1997). In a few
places, a change in precipitation due to
climate variability has resulted in variation
of river runoff by 6 to 15 % (Bouwer 2006).
Trend analysis of seasonal flows and
extreme events of the Bagmati river, Nepal
shows that the magnitude of flood is
decreasing but its frequency and duration
are increasing (Sharma 2006). The
hydrologic impact of climate change is
observed in the Cedar and South Fork Tolt
river basins in the Puget Sound Region of
the Pacific Northwest (Wiley and Palmer,
2008). In this study, General Circulation
Models (GCMs) are used to simulate global
climate, basin scale hydrology models, and
water resource system simulation models.
The mid-west region is the largest
agricultural area of the United States.
Historically, the climate there has been
suitable for un-irrigated farming. However,
the specter of climate change has created
concerns about the future of mid-western
agriculture and the regional fresh water
resources. Implications of climate change for
the agricultural mid-west reveal that there
could be a future climate with more frequent
droughts as envisioned based on the
Canadian Climate Centre model (Xie et al.
2008). The annual discharge from the river,
Yangtze, China shows a decreasing (8.2%)
trend (Yang et. al., 2005) along with other
rivers of China which also showed a
significant (20 to 45%) downward trend
(Mu, 2007). In last two decades, the
frequency of drought in the UK has
increased with the overall yield reduction by
18% (Fowler et al. 2007). The model studies
carried out in the US indicated reduction in
the runoff, with increase in temperature
(Gleick, 2000). Similar results are obtained
in Tejo and Guadiana river basins in Spain
and Portugal which will have a major effect
on the water resources system of these
countries (Killsby, 2007). Analysis of records
of more than 60 years of precipitation
indicates that the amount and days of
annual precipitation tend to decrease in
Taiwan (Yu, 2002). Such a change in the
precipitation pattern indicates that climate
change may induce instability of surface
water resources in the future, thus
increasing reliance on groundwater
resources (Hsu et al., 2007). It was found
that temperature in the Yellow river basin
has been increasing since 1961 and would
continue to be so in the future. The
simulated runoff corresponding to climate
change scenarios indicates that the runoff
would decrease approximately 5% per year
beyond 2020 (Li et al. 2008). Their analysis
revealed that large variablility in annual
runoff in the future may lead to a high
probability and severity of flooding as well
as droughts. In the Bosten lake basin,
China, model results showed that, if the
current climate trend continues, the melting
of ice may lead to increase in annual stream
flow by about 38% highlighting the
challenges for the basins water resources
management and flood protection (Xi et al.
2008).

Study Area:

The Dakshina Kannada district is one of the
rapidly growing districts of Karnataka. Water
status in the district is not very good; with
about 48 % habitant getting less than 55
litre per capita per day water, which is the
norm prescribed by State Government of
Karnataka (2002). Due to increasing
555 Effect of Climate Change on Netravathi Riverflow
demand, water is being over-exploited in
many places in the district. Out of 26
stations, 23 stations have shown the
declining trend of ground water table
(Government of Karnataka, 2004) during
May 2002 to May 2003. The district receives
an average annual rainfall of more than
3,930 mm and still experiences acute
shortage of fresh water in the non-monsoon
periods. This is due to the steep slopes and
the hydro-geological characteristics of the
basin. Laterite occupies a larger portion of
the basin. The district is part of the western
coast, which is almost continuously covered
by a sheet of laterite rock. This rock has
very high permeability and hence the
rainwater either flows as surface flow due to
steep slope, or as a subsurface flow due to
high permeability (Newbold, 2001). In view
of the above, there is a need for the
assessment of climate induced effects on the
river water resources of the region. Hence,
the present study considers the hydrological
analysis of one of the major rivers of
Dakshina Kannada district, the Netravathi
river flow based on 31 years (1971-2001) of
daily flow, temperature and precipitation
data. The river Netravathi originates from
south of Samse village a little east of
latitude 13
0
10 N and longitude 75
0
20 E at
an altitude of 900 m above the mean sea
level (amsl) in the western ghats of the
Dakshina Kannada district, India (fig.1). The
Western Ghats are the mountain ranges
running parallel to the west coast of India at
a distance of about 100 km from the coast.
Within a run of 8 km, it looses its elevation
by 750 m (1 in 93 m) after which it becomes
gentle i.e. 2.5 m in 1.5 km (1 in 600 m)
(Murthy, 2001). At this stage, it is joined by
the tributaries, Mundaja, Neriya, Shishla,
Uppar and Beltangady nallas from either
side. Further downstream, it is joined by the
Kumardhara river at Uppinangadi and flows
westward in the coastal plains to join the
Arabian sea at Mangalore. The total length
of the river is about 103 km spreading over
3657 sq km.

Methodology:

Hydrological Analysis:

The river flow trend analysis carried out
using the observed long series discharge
values can reduce the errors that may exist
in the numerical simulations. The quality
and quantity of data are also important in
any frequency or trend analysis. The most
common methods of trend analysis are the
annual maximum flood series and the peak
over a threshold series. In the annual
maximum flood series, the peak flow value
for each year is considered to form the time
series. This has a limitation that for a dry
year, very small peak flow value gets
qualified for the time series. The peak over
a threshold time series considers all the
peak flow values which are above a specific
limit. The peaks so considered can be more
than one in a year. The value over which the
peak values are considered is selected such
that at least one peak flow value qualifies
for the time series from each year. For
confirming the independence of the series
from the peaks which are in succession and
are above the specified peak, the lower peak
is dropped from the series. This method also
gives the frequency distribution of the
events of peak over a threshold value. The
linear regression method is used to estimate
the trend in the river flow series. The slope
of the trend line describes the nature of
variation. It was reported (Svenson et.al.,
2005) that there may be large number of
negative and positive significant trends in
the annual maximum flood series, than in
the peak over threshold series.


Figure 1: The Netravathi River Basin


The Netravathi river carries about 85% of its
annual flow during the monsoon period (
June-September). The north-east monsoon
rainfall in the region is not as predominant
as the south-west monsoon and the river
starts depleting. The river is usually dry or
has insignificant flow beyond February. The
maximum discharge recorded during the
study period was 9,832 m
3
/sec on 26
th
July
1974. The highest monthly flow of 6329.21
Mm
3
was observed in July 1980. The
average annual river flow is about 11,502
Mm
3
over a period of 31 years. The
maximum annual flow observed was 16,667
Mm
3
in 1980 (fig.2) and the minimum
annual flow observed was 6671 Mm
3
in
1987. The monthly flow shows a very high
variation due to the uneven distribution of
rainfall in a year even though the average
monthly flow works out to be 958.49 Mm
3
.
It is also observed that 98% of the annual
flow is restricted to seven months (June-
December) of the year. The maximum flow
rate (9832 m
3
/sec) observed in 1974 was
the highest of all observed peak flow values.
Other than river flow, the temperature and
rainfall trend over the region are also
analyzed for the study period. The
maximum temperature recorded at
Uppinangady station indicates an upward
trend (fig. 3) and the annual precipitation
recorded indicates a clear down trend (fig.
4).


Figure 2: The Daily Discharge Trend for the Netravathi River

y = -7.5361x + 18762
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
1970 1980 1990 2000
Year
A
n
n
u
a
l

P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
m
)
Annual
Trend Line

Figure 3: Annual Precipitation

36
37
38
39
40
41
42
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Years
A
n
n
u
a
l

M
a
x
.
T
e
m
p
r
a
t
u
r
e

D
e
g
r
e
e

C
e
l
c
i
u
s
Temprature
10 Yrs Moving
average

Figure 4: Annual Maximum Temperature

Frequency of Low and High Flows:

The graphs plotted for the analysis of low
flow frequency (Fig. 5A) indicates an upward
trend with an increase in low flow days over
the years. This will result into longer dry
period requiring additional storage to meet
the demand. A graph of high flow frequency
distribution for the peak values over a
threshold value is plotted (Fig.5B). The
threshold value (220 m
3
/sec) is selected
such that at least one value from each year
gets qualified for the series. The graph
indicates a declining trend which is an
indicator of reduced high flow days over the
study period. The annual flow series
indicates a declining trend (Fig. 5C) with
highest annual flow in 1980 and the lowest
in 1987. The magnitudes of high flow above
the threshold value (220 m
3
/sec) are plotted
to detect the trend (Fig. 5D). This plot gives
a clear indication that the magnitude of flow
above the threshold value is also
decreasing. Since the annual flow series
may not indicate the variations within a
year, monthly flow analysis is attempted to
track the flow trend. The monthly flow
analysis shows the declining trend for both
wet and dry periods of the year, with an
exception of the month November where the
trend is upward.


Figure 5A: Low Flow Frequency

Figure 5B: High Flow Frequency (Peak
above 220 m
3
/sec)

Figure 5C: Annual Flow Variation

Figure 5D: High Flow Values above 220
m
3
/sec

Conclusion:

From the observations and analysis of
available data, it may be concluded that the
Netravathi river flow has an overall declining
trend observed over a period of 31 years.
The annual flow time series of Netravathi
river reflects a declining trend which is also
confirmed from the time series of monthly
flow. The maximum temperature recorded
over the study period shows an upward
trend and the precipitation for the same
period indicates declining trend. The
analysis carried out for the low flow
frequency shows an upward trend in the
number of low flow days indicating the
increased duration of low flow period. This
may have a negative impact on the
decisions related to the planning of water
resources projects for the future
requirements. Similar analysis when carried
out for the number of days of flow peaks
above a threshold value, the high flows
show declining trend and the magnitude of
these high flows is also decreasing, which
may provide a little relief from the probable
floods. In all, it is significant to note from
the studies that the river flow is indicating a
decreasing trend with time which may play a
vital role in the decisions related to the
planning of water resources of the region.

Acknowledgement:

The authors wish to gratefully acknowledge
the Central Water Commission, Bangalore
Division for providing the necessary flow
data for the investigation.
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561 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
Development and Analysis of a Prototype
Dismountable Tensegrity Structure for Shelter
Purposes
RAMAKANTA PANIGRAHI
1
, SURESH BHALLA
2
and ASHOK GUPTA
2
1
Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering and Technology, Bhubaneswar, India
2
Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, New Delhi-110016, India
Email: ramakanta.p@rediffmail.com, sbhalla@civil.iitd.ac.in, ashokg@civil.iitd.ac.in

Abstract: This paper presents a new technique for development of tensegrity structures
and their deployment in field, in two different modes - strut based and cable based. A
prototype module based on a half-cuboctahedron configuration is fabricated using
commercially available materials. A new method of deployment is introduced for easy
assembling and dismantling in field. The proposed structure and the associated technique is
specially suitable for erecting temporary shelter structures. An experimental investigation is
carried out on the prototype structures to obtain the prestress level, deflection pattern,
forces in various members and the overall load carrying capacity of the module. The
structures are analyzed using finite element method (FEM), considering the prestress level
in the top cable obtained from experiments in the strut mode and the prestress in struts in
cable mode as reference values. The results of experimental and numerical investigations
are compared and reasonable agreement is found.

Keywords: Tensegrity, Dismountable, Finite element method (FEM), Half cuboctahedron

Introduction:

Between 1994 and 2003, more than 2.5
billion people across the globe were affected
by floods, earthquakes, hurricanes and other
natural disasters. This represents a 60%
increase over the previous two 10 year
periods, as reported by UN officials at a
conference on disaster prevention in January
2005. These numbers do not include millions
others affected by last Decembers Tsunami,
which killed an estimated 180,000 people
and the recent earthquakes in Pakistan and
India. The general trend is that greater
number of people are being affected due to
increase in population in costal and
earthquake prone areas. Thousands of
people become homeless and displaced
during natural calamities that are occurring
in different parts of the globe frequently.
Hence, a low-cost temporary shelter can be
a boon the homeless during these
situations, as permanent shelters are not
only expensive but take months altogether
to built. Among various structures available
for temporary shelter purpose, tensegrity
structures provide the most attractive
solution due to their lightweight, easy
deployment, and low cost. Tensegrity is a
relatively new concept in structural
engineering. Structures constructed based
on this concept are called as tensegrity
structures. A tensegrity structure consists of
a set of discontinuous compression
members tied together by continuous tensile
members, generally cables. Figure 1 shows
a simplex type tensegrity structure
consisting of three compression and nine
tension elements.

Figure 1: A Simplex Type Tensegrity
Structure

562 RAMAKANTA PANIGRAHI, SURESH BHALLA and ASHOK GUPTA
The term Tensegrity was formally
introduced by Fuller (1962) as a contraction
of the two words tension and integrity,
which has been patented in U.S.A. In
contrast to cable structures, tensile forces in
the tensegrity structures are controlled by
inner self-stress states. These structures are
self-supporting and do not warrant costly
anchorages. Since they can be assembled
and dismantled quickly, they are an
attractive solution for temporary structures
such as those used in fairs and expositions
or in areas affected by natural disasters. The
most recent definition of tensegrity structure
is given as, a system in a stable self-
equilibrated state comprising a
discontinuous set of compressed
components inside a continuum of tensioned
components (Motro 2003). The simplest
tensegrity module is the one having four
struts. When the topside is inscribed in the
bottom sides, it is called a half
cuboctahedron since the nodes are the
apices of the half of a cuboctahedron. As the
geometry is predefined in case of half-
cuboctahedron, the form finding is not a
constraint. Tensegrity structures are
classified into two classes, I and II (Hanaor
1988). The analytical expressions for initial
geometry and associated pre-stress modes
for cyclic frustum tensegrity modules with
an arbitrary number of stages with m ( 3)
bars at each stage were derived (Murkami
and Nishimura 2001). The equilibrium
position of a tensegrity structure subjected
to external forces and external moments
was determined by static analysis (Cesar
2001). The tensegrity structures was
analysed considering three of the side ties to
be composed of a compliant and a
noncompliant segment in series (Tran
2002). Tensegrity systems capable of
supporting loads up to 18kg/m
2
using half-
cuboctahedron modules were designed as
per Euro codes (Quirant et al. 2003). A
method was proposed for analyzing
tensegrity systems considering geometrical
non-linearities with the total Lagrangian
formulation and applied it to study the
behaviour of a four strut tensegrity beam
system under external actions for different
prestress levels (Kebiche et al 1999). The
deployment of tensegrity structures was
examined only at the conceptual level
(Furuya 1992). The deployment of
tensegrity structures using tendon control
was analysed with a new deployment
procedure (Sultan and Skelton 1998). The
static analysis on n-strut tensegrity systems
was conducted, the patterns throughout all
the systems were identified and generic
design equations for self-deployable systems
were developed Stern (1999). A new
deployment technique for a tensegrity
structures was developed based on
telescopic struts (Tibert and Pellegrino
2002). In this paper, a thorough
experimental investigation on a tensegrity
structure - a half cub octahedron is reported
and the results are compared with that
obtained by FEM analysis. The experimental
investigations consisted of material
characterization, fabrication of a prototype
module and its destructive testing. The
following sections cover each of these
aspects in detail.

Material characterization:

Tensegrity structures generally consist of
soft members (cables) and hard members
(struts). It is essential to determine the
material properties i.e. the Youngs modulus
(E), yield strength and the ultimate strength
of both the tension and the compression
members before they can be employed for
fabrication. In this study, galvanized iron
(GI) pipes of medium type commercially
available in India conforming to Indian
Standards IS 1239-I (1990), were used as
compression members. Table 1 presents key
specifications of the pipes as per IS 1239-I
(1990). 4 mm nominal diameter mild steel
stranded wires of 6 x 19, commercially
available in the market confirming to IS
3459 (1977), were used as tensile
members. Table 2 presents key
specifications of the wires.

563
Table 1: Properties of GI Pipe as per IS
1239

PARAMETER VALUE
Nominal bore diameter 15 mm
Thickness 2.6mm
Mass 1.21 kg/m
Maximum outside
diameter
21.8 mm
Minimum outside
diameter
21
Tolerance in thickness
-10% to +
unlimited
Minimum tensile strength 320N/mm
2

Table 2: Properties of Stranded Wire as per
IS 3459

PARAMETER VALUE
Nominal diameter 4 mm
Construction 619 (12/6/1)
Type Round
Approximate
mass
6.09 kg/100 m
Minimum
breaking load
9.4 kN for 1770 grade
steel
10.4 kN for 1960 grade
steel
Tolerance in
thickness
+6% to 1%

The GI pipes were tested in the universal
testing machine (UTM) of 100t capacity as
shown in Figure 2. Four strain gauges of
5mm gauge length, manufactured by Tokyo
Sokki Kenkyujo Company Limited (TML,
2005), were surface bonded in the middle
portion along the circumference of the GI
pipe using Cyanoacrylate (CN) adhesive.
The strain gauges were connected to the
data logger card fixed on a personal
computer for automatically recording the
strains using strain smart data system,
version 3.1. The average strain was
considered for determining Youngs modulus
of the pipe. The internal and external
diameters of four pipes were measured and
the average inner and outer diameter was
found as 15.9 and 21.375 mm respectively
and the cross sectional area was calculated
as 160.284mm
2
. Three pipes were tested
and the stress strain curve is shown in
Figure 3. The average value of Youngs
modulus was computed as 2.05 10
5

N/mm
2
. The average breaking load was
65727 N and the corresponding ultimate
stress was 410 N/mm
2
. Hence, the GI pipes
confirms to 240 grade as per IS 1161
(1998) and the yield stress is 240 N/mm
2
.
Typical failure pattern of the pipes is shown
in Figure 4.

Figure 2: Tension of GI Pipe

Figure 3: Stress Strain Curve of GI Pipes

565

Figure 4: Failure Pettem of Galvanized

The stranded wires used for reticulated
cable network were made of 0.25 mm
galvanized high carbon steel wires
confirming to Indian Standard IS 1835
(1976). 6 19 stranded wires consisted six
strands with nineteen wires in each strand
with a steel core inside. The net sectional
area was found as 6.53 mm
2
. The wires
were tested in a UTM of 250 KN capacity as
shown in Figure 5. Three samples of
stranded wires were tested and the Youngs
modulus of the stranded wire was found to
be 0.954 10
5
N/mm
2
. The average failure
load was found to be 9660 N. The average
yield stress and 0.2% proof stress were
found to be 1421.335 N/mm
2
and 1119.575
N/mm
2
respectively. The failure pattern of
the wires is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 5: Tension Test on Galvanized Stranded Wire


Figure 6: Failure Pattern of Galvanized Stranded Wires

Fabrication and Testing of Tensegrity
Module:

Figure 7 shows the perspective view and top
view of the tensegrity structure - half-
cuboctahedron module, fabricated as part of
the present investigation. Deployable
tensegrity structure modules, based on both
strut mode and cable mode of deployment,
were fabricated in the workshop of the Civil
Engineering Department, Indian Institute of
Technology Delhi (IITD), using GI pipes and
6 19 stranded wires described in the
previous section. The length of the bottom
cables was 1 m and that of top and side
cables was 0.707m. The struts were 1.224m
in length. All the lengths were measured
from centre to centre of joints. At each joint,
12 mm eyebolts were used for connecting
the cables and the strut member. The cables
were tightened using ferrule A 4.5 (IS
10942) by means of hydraulic press in such
a manner that there was no slip in the
cables. The ends of the pipes were plugged
up to 50mm length and then 12 mm hole
was drilled so as to make easy for pipes to
be put in tight position at the joints. Two
structures were fabricated; in strut mode
and cable mode, as described below.

Figure 7: Schematic View of Tensegrity Structure Module Developed at IITD,
(a) Perspective View, (b) Top View (Spatial Coordinates are shown in Brackets)
567

Strut mode of Deployment:

For strut mode of deployment, a special
arrangement was made in one pipe for
folding and unfolding of the structure. This
pipe was made in three parts. Two parts
were of 15.9 inner diameter mm G.I pipes
having lengths of 47 cm and 27.5 cm
respectively and the third part was of 25
mm inner diameter GI pipe having 30 cm
length. A solid rod of 20 cm length was
welded to the pipe of 27.5 cm length with
15 cm projecting outside of the pipe and
then the projected portion of the solid rod
was threaded. At one end of the 25 mm
pipe, 25 mm socket was fitted and a bush of
1-1/2 was attached so that the threaded
portion of the rod could move inside and
outside for length adjustment. The other
end of the 25 mm pipe was welded with a
solid iron rod of 35 mm diameter of 50 mm
length and 16 mm hole was made so that
15.9 mm diameter pipe can be easily fitted
to it. The different stages of constructed
half-cuboctahedron prototype are shown in
Figure 8. Figure 9 shows the half-
cuboctahedron in self stressed position. It
also shows special arrangement for
dismounting.

Figure 8: Different Stages of Erection of Tensegrity Structure in Strut Mode,
(a) Stage 1, (b) Stage 2, (c) Stage 3, (d) Stage 4


Figure 9: Tensegrity Module in Prestressed Equilibrium Configuration in Strut Mode of
Deployment

Cable Mode of Deployment:

For cable mode of deployment, all the struts
were chosen 1.224 m in length. The
reticulated wire network was fabricated
keeping one top cable for deployment. This
top cable had three parts i.e. two cables and
a turnbuckle. From one end, cable length of
17 cm and other end of 23 cm were
connected to the turnbuckle by ferrules and
pressed hydraulic press. This turnbuckle
arrangement, shown in Figure 10(b), was
made on one of the top cable so that they
can be connected easily after placing struts
in required position. After keeping pipes in
required position, the length of that top
cable was 10 cm longer than the required
length. The length was adjusted by
tightening the turnbuckle, which reduced the
length of the cable. Once the length of
adjustable top cable became equal to 0.707
m, the structure attained self stressed
equilibrium. The figure of cable mode is
shown in Figure 10.
569
Instrumentation and Testing:

In order to do analysis using FEM, it is
essential to obtain the prestress level in
each cable and strut in the equilibrium
configuration. To find the forces in GI pipes
and cables, either strain gauges can be
bonded or extensometers can be attached to
each member. Since extensometers are
expensive, in the present case, 5mm strain
gauges manufactured by TML and
confirming to product FLA-5-11 (TML, 2005)
were surface bonded by CN adhesive. For
accurate results, minimum four strain
gauges were bonded on the circumference
of each GI pipe, as recommended by Batten
et al (1999). To measure strain in cables
was a difficult task as the cables were
stranded and the diameter was very small.
After several trials, authors found 2mm
strain gauges (UFLK-2-11) manufactured by
TML (2005) to be appropriate for this type of
stranded wire. Two each of these 2mm
strain gauges were bonded on the top and
the bottom cables and one in the leg cable
of the strut mode tensegrity module. In
cable mode of deployment, four 5mm strain
gauges were bonded in GI pipes in similar
manner. The total numbers of strain gauges
used were 21and 40 in strut and cable mode
of deployment respectively. In both the
cases, two linear vertical displacement
transducers (LVDT) were fitted below two
nodes to obtain the deflection in vertical
direction. All the sensors were connected to
the data logger connected to the computer
having strain smart data system, version
3.1 for monitoring the strains at different
loading. In both the cases, the
measurements were recorded at prestress
levels i.e. self stressed equilibrium position.
The average prestress forces in the top
cable, bottom cable, and the strut were
found to be 1324.44N, 807.22 and 2489N
respectively in strut mode of deployment.
The average prestress force in the strut was
found to be 2577.23N in cable mode of
deployment. The load was gradually applied
till failure. A typical loading condition is
shown in Figure 11. In strut mode of
deployment, failure of the structure occurred
at a load of 1860 N. The failure mode is
shown in Figure 12. In cable mode of
deployment, the failure occurred at a load of
3250 N and the failure pattern is shown in
Figure 13.

Fem Analysis of Tensegrity Prototypes:

The behaviour of tensegrity prototypes
tested (as described in the previous
sections) was modelled using finite element
method (FEM). A characteristic feature of
the tensegrity structures is the presence of
geometric nonlinearities due to the changing
geometry as it deflects under loads. That is,
the stiffness matrix [K] is a function of the
displacement { } u . The stiffness matrix
changes because the shape changes and/ or
the members rotate. In general, there are
four types of geometric nonlinearities: -large
strains, large rotations, stress stiffening and
spin softening Cook et al (2003). In
tensegrity structures, stress stiffening is
more prominent. In this type of nonlinearity,
both strains and rotations are small. A first
order approximation to the rotations is used
to capture some nonlinear rotation effects.
Stress stiffening, also called geometric
stiffening; incremental stiffening, initial
stress stiffening or differential stiffening by
some authors, is the stiffening or weakening
of a structure due to its stress state. This
stiffening effect normally needs to be
considered for thin structures such as
cables, thin beams and shells that have
bending stiffness vary small compared to
axial stiffness. In such structures, the in-
plane and transverse displacements are
coupled.

Figure 10: Different Stages of Deployment of Tensegrity Structure in Cable Mode,
(a) Stage 1, (b) Stage 2, (c) Stage 3

571

Figure 11: Loads on the Test Structure during Test

Figure 12: Failure of Test Structure in Strut Mode

Figure 13: Failure of Test Structure in Cable Mode

This effect also augments the regular
nonlinear stiffness matrix produced by large
strain or large deflection effects. Generating
and then using additional stiffness matrix
called stress stiffness matrix account for the
effect of stress stiffening. It may be used for
static and transient analysis. The stress
stiffness matrix is computed based on the
stress state of the previous equilibrium
iteration. Thus, to generate valid stress
stiffened problem, at least two iterations are
normally required, where the first iteration
is used to determine the stress stiffness
matrix of the second iteration. If this
additional stiffness affects the stresses,
more iterations need to be made to obtain a
converged solution. For a spar element the
stress stiffness matrix can be derived as
explained by Cook et al (2003) and is given
by
| |
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
L
F
S
l
(1)
The element matrices and load vectors are
derived using an updated Lagrangian
formulation. This produces equation of the
form
{ } { }
app nr
i i i
K U F F
(
=
(

(2)
where
{ }
app
F = Vector of externally applied
nodal point loads at time t+t
{ }
nr
i
F = Vectors of nodal point force
equivalent to the element stresses at time t
where the tangent matrix
(

i
K
has the form
| | | |
i i i
S K K + =
(

(3)
where | |
i
K is the usual stiffness matrix
| | | | | || | ) (vol d B D B K
i i
T
i i

= (4)
| |
i
B is the strain displacement matrix in
terms of the current geometry { }
n
x and
| |
i
D is the current stress strain matrix. | |
i
S
is the stress stiffness or geometric stiffness
contribution, written symbolically as
| | | | | || | ) (vol d G G S
i i
T
i i

= (5)
573
where | |
i
G is a matrix of shape function
derivatives and | |
i
is a matrix of the
current Cauchy (true) stresses { }
i
in the
global Cartesian system. In the present
case, the finite element analysis of the
tensegrity structure was performed using
ANSYS 9(ANSYS, 2004). All the cable and
strut elements were considered as 3D spar
elements, having three degrees of freedom
in translation at each node. The nodes were
considered at the end of the elements. The
material was assumed as linear, elastic and
isotropic. Figure 14 show the model
generated using the pre-processor of ANSYS
9. All the top nodes i.e. 2, 4, 5 &7 were
assumed as free where as all three degrees
of freedom were locked for bottom nodes
i.e. 1, 3, 6 & 8. The Youngs modulus values
of 2.0510
5
N/mm
2
and 0.952 10
5
N/mm
2

was used for struts and cable element
respectively as obtained experimentally. The
prestress force in the self stressed
equilibrium configuration obtained
experimentally was used to determine the
initial strain in the elements. As
experimental data for all the elements were
not available, the equations developed from
static analysis of n-strut tensegrity system
by Stern (1999) were used to obtain the
prestress force in other elements. The
relationship between the internal forces are
stated as
s
s
t
t
L
F
L
F
= (6)
b a
bF aF = (7)
where
a
F is the force in top cable,
b
F is the
force in bottom cable,
t
F is the force in leg
ties,
s
F is the force in strut, a is the length
of top cable, b is the length of bottom cable,
t
L is the length of leg tie and
s
L is the
length of strut.
|
\
|
=
n
F
b
L
F
a
s
s

sin
2
(8)
|
\
|
=
n
F
b
L
F
a
t
t

sin
2
(9)
Using above equations, the relationship for
half cuboctahedron is found considering
a=0.707m, b=1.0 m,
t
L =0. 707m and
s
L =1.224m
t a
F F = (10)
a b
F F 707 . = (11)
a s
F F 731 . 1 = (12)
As per above relationships (Equations 10, 11
& 12), the equilibrium prestress forces in
bottom cable and strut were calculated as
936.38N and 2292.6N respectively,
considering top cable force i.e. 1324.438N
as reference. Since there is a difference of
nearly 10% between the experimental and
analytical values, for strut mode of
deployment, the average top cable prestress
force was considered as the reference. The
average strut force i.e. 2577.23N was
considered as the reference for cable mode
of deployment, since no cable data was
available from the experiment. The model
was simulated with external loads as applied
on the structure during the experiment. The
load was distributed equally among all top
nodes as concentrated loads. The large
deformation effect for static analysis was
considered.


Figure 14: Model of Tensegerity Structure in ANSYS


Figure 15 shows the deflection at nodes 4
and 7 obtained from experiment, in strut
mode of deployment. The deflection curve
indicates nonlinear variation and the
stiffness increases with increase in loading.
The variation of deflection between two
nodes lies within 4 percentage. The
experimental (average) and numerical
deflections are compared in Figure 15. The
trend remains same in both the cases but
the numerical values are somewhat higher
than the experimental values. The
experimental average values are 65.68%
and 13.4% less than numerical value at
62.6N and 1541.5N respectively, which
indicates that with increase in load, FEM
predicts deflection more realistically.

Figure 15: Comparison of Deflection in
Strut Mode of Deployment

575

Figure 16: Variation of Forces in Struts in
In strut mode of deployment; the forces
obtained in the struts by measuring strains
using strain gauges are compared in Figure
16. The pattern of variation of strut force
with increase in load remains same. The
individual force varies between 50 to 70%
with each other. Figure 17 compares the
average strut force with that of the
numerical value. At prestress level, the
experimental value is 8.6% more than
numerical value as the force in top cable is
considered as reference for calculating other
element forces. With increase in external
load, the numerical value becomes more
and at higher loads, the maximum
difference is 40%. The force in the bottom
cable in strut mode of deployment is
compared in Figure 18. The figure indicates
that the force in bottom cable remains
constant irrespective of the loading in
numerical calculation. This is due to the
support conditions assumed i.e. all degrees
of freedom are zero in all bottom nodes. But
the average experimental values increase
with increase in external loading, which
shows that the actual support conditions are
partial fixity.

Figure 17: Comparison of Strut Force in

Figure 18: Bottom Cable Force Comparison
in Strut Mode

In cable mode of deployment, the
experimental observation at nodes 4 and 7
and their average value is plotted in
Figure19. The variation in the individual
value is 20% at initial loading but it
becomes very small i.e. less than 1% with
increase in load. The comparison of the
average experimental value and the
numerical value is also shown in Figure 19.
The trend of deflection pattern remains
same. At initial loading, the experimental
deflection is nearly 23% less than the
numerical value but with increase in load,
the difference becomes less and the
experimental value becomes slightly higher
than the numerical value when the load
crosses approximately 1300N. Figure 20
shows the force variation in the struts
measured experimentally in the cable mode
of deployment. The force variation between
individual struts varies in the range of 1% to
70%. The variation in strut 3 and strut 1
lies 60% to 70% where as 0.03% to 39%
between strut 3 and 4. However, the trend
remains more or less the same. Comparison
of average experimental strut force and the
corresponding numerical value is shown in
Figure 21. The variation between numerical
and experimental lies in the range of +8%
to 8%. At initial loads, up to 300N, the
experimental value is higher than the
numerical value. Then, the numerical value
becomes higher up to approximately 1600N
and finally, the experimental value becomes
higher again. The structure started to fail at
a load of 2446 N and at this load the force in
the strut was found to be 12770.4 N. The
structure finally collapsed at a load of 3250
N. Considering the actual slenderness ratio
of the struts; the compression capacity
comes out to be 5145 N. It indicates that
the effective length have been reduced and
partial fixity at the ends develop with
increase in load and it becomes close to
fixed during failure, which causes the
compression members to carry more load
than expected.

Figure 19: Comparison of Deflection in
Cable Mode

Figure 20: Strut Force Variation in Cable
Mode

Figure 21: Comparison of Strut Force in
Cable Mode

Conclusions:

This paper has presented new method of
constructing foldable tensegrity structure
module i.e. a halfcuboctahedron, which can
be used for temporary shelter purpose in
strut as well as cable mode of deployment.
The behaviour of the tensegrity module was
modelled using FEM. The average prestress
levels obtained experimentally were used as
initial strains in the FEM analysis. Since the
data for all the elements was not available
experimentally, considering average
577
prestress level in top cable in strut mode
and average prestress level in cable mode
as reference, the prestress level in other
element was found using static equilibrium
in stable prestressed configuration. This
produced satisfactory results in the present
case. On comparison, it has been found that
the cable mode of deployment is better than
strut mode of deployment due to ease of
construction and easy folding and unfolding.
Further, the load carrying capacity at
collapse in strut mode i.e. 3720N/m
2
was
found much less than that of cable mode i.e.
6500 N/m
2
. However, the deflection trend
was more or less similar in both the cases
though there was a small difference in
magnitude. The tensegrity module can
safely take a load of 2500 N/m
2
considering
a factor of safety of 2 to the failure load of
5000 N/m
2
. As the imposed load for
lightweight structure is considered as 750
N/m
2
as per Indian Standard code of
practice (IS: 875), cable mode of tensegrity
structure modules can be assembled easily
to form a tensegrity grid for temporary
shelter purpose. It is recommended that
prestress level in all the elements should be
obtained from the experiment to check the
equilibrium at joints and the relations
developed between the element forces as it
was found a large variation in the values of
individual members during experiment. A
model updating can also be done in the FEM
model using the experimental results for
further parametric study. For model
updating, the truss elements maybe
replaced by beam elements or springs may
be attached to the nodes.

References:

[1] ANSYS version 9 2004 www.ansys.com
[2] Batten, M., Boorman, R. and Leiper, Q.
(1999), Use of vibrating wire strain gauges
to measure loads in tubular steel props
supporting deep retaining walls, Proceedings
Institution of Civil Engineers Geotechnical
Engineering, 137, 3-12
[3] Cesar, C. J, (2001), Static analysis of
tensegrity structures, M. S. Thesis,
University of Florida
[4] Cook, R. D., Malkus, D. S., Plesha, M. E.
and Witt, R. J. (2003), Concepts and
applications of finite element analysis, John
Wiley & Sons (ASIA) Pte Ltd, Singapore
[5] Fuller, R. B. (1962), Tensile integrity
structures, United States, Patent 3 063 521
[6] Furuya, H. (1992), Concept of
deployable tensegrity structures in space
application, Int. J. of Space Structures, 7,
143-51
[7] Hanaor, A. (1988), Prestressed pin-
jointed structures- flexibility analysis and
prestress design, Computers of Structures,
28, 757-69
[8] IS: 1239 (1990), Mild Steel Tubes,
Tubulars and Other Wrought Steel Fittings -
Specification - Part 1: Mild Steel Tubes,
Bureau of Indian Standards
[9] IS:1161 (1988), Steel Tubes for
Structural Purposes Specification, Bureau
of Indian Standards
[10] IS: 1835 (1976), Specification for
Round Steel Wire for Ropes, Bureau of
Indian Standards
[11] IS:875 (1987), Code of practice
for design loads (other than earthquake) for
buildings and structures: Part 2 Imposed
loads, Bureau of Indian Standards
[12] IS: 3459 (1977), Specifications for
Small Wire Ropes, Bureau of Indian
Standards
[13] Kebiche, K., kazi-Aoual, M. N. and
Motro, R. (1999), Geometric non-linear
analysis of tensegrity systems, Engineering
Structures, 21, 864-76
[14] Miura, K. and Pellegrino, S. (1999),
Structural concepts, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, U.K., Draft
[15] Motro, R. (2003), Tensegrity
structural systems for the future, Kogan
Page Science, U.K., London
[16] Murakami, H. and Nishimura, Y.
(2001), Initial shape finding and modal
analyses of cyclic right-cylindrical tensegrity
modules, Computers and Structures, 79,
891-917
[17] Pelligrino S and Calladine C R 1986
Matrix analysis of statically and
kinematically indetermined frame works Int.
J. of Solids and Structures
[18] Quirant, J., Kazi-Aoual, M. N. and
Motro, R. (2003), Designing tensegrity
systems: the case of a double layer grid
Engineering Structures, 25 ,1121-30
[19] Sultan, C. and Skeleton, R. E.
(1998), Tendon control deployment of
tensegrity structures, In: Proc. of SPIE 5
th

Symp. on Smart Structures and Materials,
3323, 455-66
[20] Stern, I. P. (1999 ), Development
of design equations for self deployable N-
strut tensegrity systems, M.S. Thesis,
University of Florida
[21] Tibert, A. G. and Pellegrino, S.
(2002), Deployable tensegrity reflectors for
small satellites J. of Spacecraft Rockets 39
701-09
[22] Tokyo sokki Kenkyuio Company
Limited (TML) 2005 www.tokyosokki.co.jp
[23] Tran, T. M. (2002), Reverse
displacement analysis for tensegrity
structures, M.S. Thesis, University of Florida
[24] Vishay Micro-Measurements 2005 P
O box 27777 Raleigh North Carolina 27611
USA www.vishaymg.com
579
Utilization of Copper Slag as a Partial Replacement
of Fine Aggregate in Concrete
D. BRINDHA and S. NAGAN

Dept of Civil Engg, Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Madurai-625015, Tamil Nadu, India
Email: dbrindha@yahoo.co.in, nagan_civil@tce.edu

Abstract: Sustainability and resource efficiency are becoming increasing important issues
within todays construction industry. This study reports the potential use of granulated
copper slag from Sterlite Industries as a replacement for sand in concrete mixes. The effect
of replacing fine aggregate by copper slag on the compressive strength and split tensile
strength are attempted in this work. Leaching studies demonstrate that granulated copper
slag does not pave way for leaching of harmful elements like copper and iron present in
slag. The percentage replacement of sand by granulated copper slag were
0%,5%,10%,15%,20%,30%,40% and 50%. The compressive strength was observed to
increase by about 35-40% and split tensile strength by 30-35%. The experimental
investigation showed that percentage replacement of sand by copper slag shall be upto
40%.

Keywords: Copper slag, Physical & chemical properties, Compressive strength, Split tensile
strength, leaching test, density etc.

Introduction:

Granulated copper slag (or) copper slag
which is a by product of metallurgical
operations in Sterlite industries (India)
Ltd.,Tuticorin was used for the experimental
investigation. For every tone of metal
production, about 2.2 ton of waste slag is
generated. Dumping or disposal of such
huge quantities of slag cause environmental
and space problems. During the past two
decades, attempts have been made by
several investigators and copper producing
units all over the world to explore the
possible utilization of copper slag. The
physical and mechanical properties of
granulated copper slag shows that it can be
used to make products like coarse and fine
aggregates, cement, fill, ballast, roofing
granules, glass, tiles etc.

Physical and Chemical Properties:

The slag is a black glassy and granular in
nature and has a similar particle size range
like sand which indicates that it could be
tried as replacement for the sand in
cementitious mixture. The specific gravity of
the slag is 3.68. The bulk density of
granulated copper slag is varying between
1.70 to 1.90 g/cc

which is almost similar to
the bulk density of conventional fine
aggregate. The hardness of the slag lies
between 6 and 7 in MoH scale. This is
almost equal to the hardness of gypsum.
The pH of aqueous solution of aqueous
extract as per IS 11127 varies from 6.6 to
7.2. The limiting water soluble chloride
content as per IS 11127 is 11ppm. The slag
is conforming to the above standards. The
free moisture content present in slag was
found to be less than 1%. The sieve analysis
for copper slag infers that the gradation
properties of fine aggregates at all the
replacement levels are similar to the
specification for sand zone II as per IS: 383.
The chemical composition of slag is
presented in Table .1 and sieve analysis
report is shown in Table. 2. The presence of
silica in slag is about 26% which is desirable
since it is one of the constituents of the
natural fine aggregate used to normal
concreting operations. The presence of
copper, alumina, sulphate in the slag were
only traces and hence not harmful.

580 D. BRINDHA and S. NAGAN
Table 1: Chemical Composition of Copper Slag

Sl. No Chemical Compounds % of Compounds
1 Fe
2
O
3
68.29
2 SiO2 25.84
3 Al
2
O
3
0.22
4 CaO 0.15
5 MgO 0.2
6 Na
2
O 0.58
7 K
2
O 0.23
8 Mn
2
O
3
0.22
9 TiO
2
0.41
10 CuO 1.2
11 LOI 6.59
12 Insoluble residue 14.88

Properties of fine aggregates at all the
replacement levels are similar to the
specification for sand zone II as per IS: 383.
The chemical composition of slag is
presented in Table .1 and sieve analysis
report is shown in Table. 2.

Table 2: Sieve Analysis Report

S.No
Sieve
Size
mm
Weight
Retained
gm
Total
Weight
Retained
gm
Total
Weight
Passing
gm
%
Passing
%
Retained
1 4.75 0 0 500 100 0
2 2.36 29 29 471 94.2 5.8
3 1.18 106 135 365 73 27
4 0.6 154 289 211 42.2 57.8
5 0.3 5 294 206 41.2 58.8
6 0.15 197 491 9 1.8 98.2
7 0.075 9 500 0 0 100

Experimental Program:

Compressive Strength:

A total of 48 cubical specimens of standard
dimensions 150 x 150 x 150 mm were
tested in the present study. The samples
were cast in 16 batches. M30 grade of
concrete was used for all. The percentage
replacement of fine aggregate by slag was
0, 5, 10, 15,20,30,40 and 50. A constant
water cement ratio of 0.43 was adopted for
making concrete mixtures. The mix
proportion used was 0.43:1:1.203:2.619.
The aggregate used for this study was
crushed stone from quarry with the nominal
size of 20mm. The cube specimens were
tested at 7 days and 28 days. Table 3 gives
concrete mix designs details. Table 4 gives
the 7 days cube compressive strength and
Table 5 gives 28 days cube compressive
strength.

581 Utilization of Copper Slag as a Partial Replacement of Fine
Aggregate in Concrete
Table 3: Concrete Mix Design Details

S.No
Cement
kg/m
3

% of Slag
Added
F.A
Kg/m
3

Slag
kg/m
3

C.A
kg/m
3

Water
l/m
3

1 445.33 0 536.23 0 1166.8 191.58
2 445.33 5 509.42 26.812 1166.8 191.58
3 445.33 10 482.61 53.623 1166.8 191.58
4 445.33 15 455.8 80.435 1166.8 191.58
5 445.33 20 428.99 107.246 1166.8 191.58
6 445.33 30 375.36 160.87 1166.8 191.58
7 445.33 40 321.74 214.493 1166.8 191.58
8 445.33 50 268.12 268.116 1166.8 191.58

Table 4: 7 Days Cube Compressive Strength

S.No
Replacement of
Fine Aggregate %
Compressive
Strength
at 28 Days
% Increase in
Compressive
Strength
Slag
kg/m
3

C.A
Water
l/m
3

1 0 32.25 - 0 1166.8 191.58
2 5 34.86 8.09 26.812 1166.8 191.58
3 10 39.56 22.67 53.623 1166.8 191.58
4 15 41.32 28.12 80.435 1166.8 191.58
5 20 42.1 30.54 107.246 1166.8 191.58
6 30 42.93 33.12 160.87 1166.8 191.58
7 40 43.5 34.88 214.493 1166.8 191.58
8 50 42.5 31.78 268.116 1166.8 191.58

Table 5: 28 Days Cube Compressive Strength

S.NO
Replacement of
Fine Aggregate
%
Compressive
Strength at 7
Days
% Increase in
Compressive
Strength
1 0 20.33 -
2 5 21.42 5.36
3 10 23.67 16.43
4 15 25.87 27.25
5 20 26.52 30.44
6 30 27.86 37.04
7 40 28.42 39.79
8 50 27.52 35.37


Figure 1: Compressive Response of Concrete with Copper Slag at 7
th
Day

Figure 2: Compressive Response of Concrete with Copper Slag at 28
th
Day

Split Tensile Strength:

To find the split tensile strength of concrete,
cylindrical specimens (150mm dia x 300mm
depth) were cast with 10%, 20%, 30%,
40% and 50% replacement of fine
aggregate by granulated copper slag under
standard conditions. Load is applied
gradually at a uniform rate to the cylinder
without causing any sudden failure until the
dial gauge reading recedes in the reverse
direction. Table 6 gives the results of split
tensile test. The split tensile strength of
concrete is calculated by using the formula
f
st =
2P/ld
Where
P- Maximum load at failure
l- Length of cylindrical specimen in mm
d- Diameter of cylindrical specimen in mm.

Table 6: Split Tensile Strength

S.No
Replacement of
Slag %
Average
Load kN
Split Tensile
Strength
N/mm
2

% Increase
in Split
Tensile
Strength
1 0 216.67 3.064 ---
2 10 333.33 4.714 53.85
3 20 360 5.091 66.16
4 30 380 5.373 75.36
5 40 416.67 5.892 92.3
6 50 316.67 4.478 46.15

Figure 3: Split Tensile Response of Concrete with Copper Slag at 28
th
Day

Details of Leaching Experiment:

Leachant Studies:

Leaching experiments were carried out to
determine the leaching of some of the
harmful elements like copper, copper,
sulphur in the form of sulphite etc., The
specimen cast for compressive strength and
split tensile strength test were used for
leaching studies. A sample from cast
specimen having a particle size ranging from
5 mm to 50mm was taken for these studies.
The presence of calcium ions (Ca
2+)
and
sulphur (So
4
2+
) ions can be estimated by
volumetric analysis. Calcium leaching should
not exceed 10% to the weight of cement
and in case of sulphate ions the maximum
permissible limit is 1.4g/l. The presence of
copper and ferrous can be ascertained by
conducting the test in atomic
spectrophotometer. Table 7 gives the results
of leaching studies.
Table 7: Results of Leaching Studies as per
ASTM D-5233

S.No
Repla
cement
Level
%
Concentration of
Leachants mg/L
Ca
2+
So
4
2-
Cu Fe
1 20 200 7.5 BDL BDL
2 30 368 9 BDL BDL
3 40 400 13 BDL BDL
4 50 480 15 BDL BDL

*BDL- Below Detectable Level
(<0.001 mg/l)


Due to usage of copper slag, the density of
concrete has increased by 6-7% for different
sand or slag ratios. This is probably due to
the higher specific gravity of copper slag
(3.68). There is significant increase in the
compressive strength of concrete due to the
addition of slag in suitable proportions upto
a optimum percentage by weight of sand.
The compressive strength has increased to a
maximum of 35% with 40% replacement of
sand by slag. The compressive strength
decreases slightly for 50% addition of slag,
however the compressive strength value is
still greater than the case of using ordinary
sand as fine aggregate. (Fig.1) A similar
trend was observed in the split tensile
strength of concrete. Up to 40% slag
addition the tensile strength has increased
at an amount of 90% and thereafter it
receded slightly at 50% slag addition, which
can be clearly seen from the graph. (Fig.2)
Leaching experiments were carried out to
determine the level of copper and copper
released from the slag in various solutions.
The results obtained from leaching
experiments revealed that no substance
seemed as toxic has leached or soluble
above the limits set by the standards.
Therefore the use of copper slag as a
construction raw material neither imposes
risks to the humankind nor to the
environment. Therefore it can be used as a
construction raw material.

Conclusions:

Addition of slag in concrete increases the
density thereby the self weight of the
concrete.
The results of compression & split-tensile
test indicated that the strength of concrete
increases with respect to the percentage of
slag added by weight of fine aggregate upto
40% of additions.
The recommended percentage
replacement of sand by copper slag is 40%.
The leachant studies revealed that the
addition of slag does not paves way for
leaching of harmful elements like Copper
(Cu) and Iron (Fe) present in slag in
concrete. Thus, It does not pose any
environmental problem.

Acknowledgement:

The authors wish to acknowledge
Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Madurai
and Sterlite Industries (India) Ltd.,Tuticorin,
India for providing all the facilities for
carrying out this work.

References:

[1] Alp.I,Devaki.H, Sungan.H, (2008)
Utilization of floatation wastes of copper slag
as a raw material in Cement production,
journal of Hazardous materials, volume
159,issues 2-3.
[2] Washington Almeida Moura, Jardel
Pereira Gonalves, Mnica
Batista Leite Lima, April, (2007) Copper
slag waste as a supplementary cementing
material to concrete, Journal of Material
Science, Volume 42, Number 7.
[3] Himaru Keisuke, Mizuguchi Hiroyuki,
Hashimoto Chikanori, Ueda Takao, Fujita
Kazuhiro, Oumi Masaak, (2005) Properties
of Concrete Using Copper Slag and Second
Class Fly Ash as a Part of Fine Aggregate,
Journal of the Society of Materials Science,
Vol.54; No.8;page.828-833.
[4] Demirboga R, Orung I, Gu l R., Effects of
expanded perlite aggregate and mineral
admixtures on the compressive strength of
low density concretes. Cement and Concrete
Research 2001; 31(11):162732.
[5] Kuramoto Osamu, Sakata Kenji,
(2000) Concrete with Copper Slag Fine
Aggregate, Journal of the Society of
Materials Science, Japan Vol.49, No.10;
Page.1097-1102.
[6] Kayali O, Haque MN, Zhu B, (1999)
Drying shrinkage of fiber reinforced
lightweight aggregate concrete containing
fly ash, Cement and Concrete
Research;29:183540.
[7] Ghafoori N, Bulholc J, (1996)
Investigation of lignite-based bottom ash for
structural concrete. Journal of Materials in
Civil Engineering; 8(3):12837.
[8] Haque MN, Kayyali OA, Joynes BM,
(1995) Blast furnace slag aggregate in the
production of high performance concrete.
American Concrete Institute;SP 153:911
30.
[9] Boncukcuoglu R, Kocakerim MM,
Tosunoglu V. (1999) Utilization of industrial
boron wastes cement production for the
stabilization. Energy Education Science and
Technology 3(1):4854.
[10] Demirboga R, S-ahin R, Bingo l F, Gul
(1999) R. The Usability of blast furnace slag
in the production of high strength concrete.
Fifth international symposium on utilization
of high strength/high performance concrete.
Norway: Sandefjord; Page. 108391.
[11] Bipra gorai , R.K. Jana , Premchand
(2002) Characteristics and utilisation of
copper slag - a review. Resources,
Conservation and Recycling 39 (2003)
299/313.
[12] Boncukcuoglu R, Kocakerim MM,
Tosunoglu V. (1999)Utilization of industrial
boron wastes cement production for the
stabilization Energy Education Science and
Technology Vol3 No1, pp4854.
[13] Braja M, Tarquin AJ, Jones AD (1983)
Transportation Research Record, No. 941.
National Academy of Sciences.
[14] Caijun Shi, Jueshi Qian (1999) High
performance cementing materials from
industrial slags a review Resources,
Conservation and Recycling 29 (2000) 195
207.
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Behnood (2008) Utilization of copper slag in
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11151120.
586 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
Strength Efficiency of Commonly used Block Work
Masonry
MANGALA KESHAVA
1
, K. V. VIJAYENDRA
2
and S. RAGHUNATH
1
1
Department of Civil Engineering, BMS College of Engineering,
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Bangalore Institute of Technology
Email: mangala_k@hotmail.com, vijayendra.k@gmail.com, raghu.civil@bmsce.ac.in

Abstract: A variety of concrete block masonry is gradually replacing table moulded brick
masonry, mainly due to its lower cost and ease of availability that are produced in a number
of small scale units spread in and around habitat areas. Locally available ingredients such as
quarry dust/powder, fly-ash, marble/granite powder from polishing units, are used for
production, along with cement. In urban areas the huge demand for blocks used in non-load
bearing masonry, has lead to the production of rather low strength blocks, although a few
reputed large-scale manufacturers do produce relatively high strength blocks. These wide
varieties of blocks are also used in load bearing masonry structures which is not uncommon
for buildings upto three storeys in height. Obviously the variety, in terms of strength and
elastic properties, do have an influence on the design of load-bearing blockwork masonry.
This paper reports the strength, elasticity and masonry efficiency of a variety of masonry
blocks and discusses the implication of the strength results vis--vis the stress reduction
factors tabulated in the Code of Practice for Structural Use of Unreinforced masonry (IS
1905-1987).

Keywords: masonry, masonry efficiency, prism strength, modulus of elasticity, concrete
blocks

Introduction:

Brief history of Masonry and Evolution
of Concrete Block Masonry:

Masonry structures predate written history.
With a modest beginning of settlements
made of stones piled upon one another,
masonry structures have passed through
several changes over the centuries. History
reveals that the most common building
material for house construction was mud
bricks and baked bricks at the sites of
Harappa and Mohenjodara. Also, the famous
University of Nalanda was a six storeyed
building of superior quality well baked bricks
with mud mortar and lime concrete. Stone
has been used in the construction of most of
the important structures since prehistoric
age. The famous Taj Mahal of Agra and
Victoria Memorial in Calcutta were
constructed using Makrana marbles of
Rajasthan (P K Mukerjee, 1997). Use of
stone in building construction is traditional
in places where it is available. Granite is the
common stone used in walls and laterite for
rough stone masonry work. The famous
Gateway of India at Bombay (Mumbai) is an
example for the usage of the Deccan trap
rocks (P K Mukerjee, 1997). Usage of stone
masonry in buildings was very common in
South India due to its availability in
abundance in the Deccan Plateau. One such
half-a-century old load bearing stone
masonry school building comprising of three
storeys located in Bangalore is shown in
Plate 1. Brick masonry though being one of
the oldest forms of building construction
continues to be popular in the present day
construction also. Plate 2 shows the modern
residential buildings commonly constructed
using burnt clay brick with cement mortar.

587
MANGALA KESHAVA, K. V. VIJAYENDRA and S. RAGHUNATH

Plate 1: Stone Masonry School Building

Plate 2: Residential Building with Brick
Masonry

Blocks made from cement and various
aggregates appeared after the development
of Portland cement in the late 18
th
and 19
th

centuries. It has been reported that a
concrete masonry building was constructed
on Mount road at Madras (Chennai) in1903
(M S Shetty, 2000). In addition to bricks,
concrete blocks and stabilized mud blocks
are common in the present day
construction. Plate 3 shows the construction
of residential buildings wherein stabilized
mud block have been used which was
developed at Centre for Sustainable
Technologies (formerly ASTRA), Indian
Institute of Science, Bangalore.

Plate 3: Residential Building with Stabilized
Mud Blocks

During the latter half of the 1990s, there
was a sudden increase in cost of fuel
(mainly firewood and coal) used for
manufacture of burnt bricks. The labour cost
of production of burnt bricks also went up,
thus making concrete blocks an economic
alternative. Also during this period there has
been a constant supply of low-cost by-
products such as quarry dust/powder, fly-
ash etc., which can readily be used for
production of concrete blocks. As a
consequence of these factors, concrete
blocks are replacing burnt bricks in a wide
variety of masonry, including as an infill
material. With the advent of high-rise
buildings, concrete blocks are extensively
used as infill materials. Group housing and
cluster residential buildings are gradually
adopting concrete blocks for their two/three
storeys constructions.

Advantages of Load-Bearing Masonry:

Low rise structures are constructed using
masonry due to certain inherent advantages
as compared to framed structures. The
commonly used building materials such as
the bricks, concrete blocks and the stabilized
mud blocks can be used conveniently upto
three storeys due to their adequate
compressive strength. In addition to their
strength property, they also posses a few
more advantages as indicated below
(Hendry, 1978);
- Masonry walls simultaneously provide
structure, subdivision of space, thermal and
acoustic insulation as well as fire and
weather protection.
588 Strength Efficiency of Commonly used Block Work Masonry
- Masonry blocks are relatively cost
effective but durable and produce external
wall finishes of acceptable appearance.
- They also provide flexibility in terms of
building layout.
- Block masonry construction brings about
savings in mortar consumption due to its
uniform size and shape.
- It involves speedy construction along
with a high labour output.
- Mechanized production of concrete
blocks has led to the production of superior
quality blocks.

Emphasis on Certain Properties of
Concrete Block Masonry:

The present day construction industry uses
the solid and hollow concrete blocks which
are becoming popular, particularly in the
urban and semi-urban areas. Structural
design of masonry requires a clear
understanding of the behaviour of the block-
mortar material under various stress
conditions. The stress-strain relationship of
block masonry does not usually enter
directly into design calculations for load-
bearing walls, but however it may be
necessary to consider the deformation of
structures where in the knowledge of Elastic
moduli will be required. IS: 1905-1987 in its
design procedure, has based the masonry
strength from results obtained on masonry
prism tests which is a fraction of the
masonry unit strength. Further the stress
reduction factors for masonry walls are
based upon the masonry efficiency values
which are obtained from prism test results.
Therefore in this context, the present
investigation aims to throw some light on
the various engineering properties such as
the masonry efficiency and elastic modulus
of block materials which can be utilized in
the design stage. Also an attempt has been
made to consider the prevailing codal
provisions and compare it with the test
observations obtained.The investigation was
carried out in the methodology outlined as
under:
(i) Strength and elastic properties of table
moulded and wire cut bricks.
(ii) Strength and elastic properties of
cement concrete blocks (solid and cellular),
aerated concrete blocks and stabilized mud
blocks.
(iii) Determination of strength and properties
of masonry prisms (bricks and blocks).
(iv) Strength and elastic properties of
cement mortar prisms
(Mix 1: 6).
(v) Determination of the masonry efficiency
values for brick and block masonry.
(vi) A case study to highlight the significance
of the strength efficiency of block masonry.
This study is limited to the bricks and blocks
used commonly in and around Bangalore
city. Majority of the consumers are builders
and developers who use solid and hollow
concrete blocks mainly as infill walls or as
partition walls for framed structures such as
apartments, commercial complex, hospitals
and high rise buildings. There are significant
consumers who use concrete blocks for load
bearing walls, many of them are the
beneficiaries of group housing schemes
facilitated by local/governmental housing
bodies. The number of single and two-
storeyed buildings, using concrete blocks,
constructed under the aegis of Rajiv Gandhi
Rural Housing Corporation Limited and
Karnataka Housing Board, exceeds 5000 in
number in and around Bangalore district.
Plate 4 shows one such building construction
using concrete block masonry units. The
engineering properties and advantages of
concrete blocks are not made use of to its
full extent. Hence it was felt to take up
some studies so that the engineering
properties of block masonry could be
highlighted. Table 1 gives the types of bricks
and blocks investigated in the present study.

589

Plate 4: Group Housing Project using Concrete Blocks

Table 1: Notations used in the Present Study

SL. No. Notation Description
1.
TMB
TMBP
Table moulded brick,
Table moulded brick prism
2.
WCB
WCBP
Wire cut brick
Wire cut brick prism
3.
SMB
SMBP
Stabilized mud block
Stabilized mud block prism
4.
ACB
ACBP
Aerated concrete block
Aerataed concrete block prism

5.

K08
K08P
Brand K
Solid concrete block (8 thick)
Solid concrete block prism (8 thick)

6.

K04
K04P
Brand K
Solid concrete block prism(4 thick)

7.

K48
K48P
Brand K
Cellular concrete block(8thick-4cells)
Cellular concrete block prism
(8 thick-4cells)

8.

A06
A06P
Brand A

9.

S06
S06P
Brand S

10.

B26
B26P
Brand-B
Cellular concrete block (6thick-2cells)
Cellular concrete block prism (6 thick-
2cells)

11.

B46
B46P
Brand B
Cellular concrete block (6thick-4cells)
Cellular concrete block prism (6 thick-
4cells)

Note: The Brand Names have not been Disclosed due to Commercial Reasons.

Tests on Bricks and Brick Prisms:

The various properties of conventional bricks
such as the wet compressive strength, water
absorption and elastic modulus were
investigated through this test programme.
Also compressive strengths, elastic modulus
and hence the masonry efficiency of brick
prisms were also studied. Table 2 gives the
details of the above mentioned properties of
burnt bricks from Bangalore carried out by
the earlier researchers (Sarangapani, 1998;
Raghunath, 2003 and Gumaste, 2004).

Table 2: Summary of Results from Earlier Investigations

Studies by
Wet compressive
strength (MPa)
Water absorption
(%)
Gumaste
(2004)
TMB

3.5 8.3

10.1 12.2
Raghunath
(2003)
TMB
( 3 types )
WCB

6.25, 6.06 and
4.40

13.82

12.02, 11.46 and
13.68

---
Sarangapani
(1998) TMB
10.67, 4.29,
3.17 and 8.17
14.67, 14.77,
18.36 and 13.56
Matthana
(1996) TMB
6.30 12.34

Water Absorption:

The bricks were tested in accordance with
the procedure laid down in IS: 3495 (Part
II)-1992. The average water absorption
after 24hours immersion in cold water was
found to be 12.89 % for table moulded
bricks and 19.42% for the wire cut bricks.
IS: 1077-1992 recommends that the water
absorption shall not be more than 20% by
weight upto class 12.5.

Compressive Strength:

The compressive strength of the burnt clay
bricks was determined in accordance with
the procedure laid down in IS: 3495(Part I)-
:1992. Three samples of table moulded
bricks and three of wire cut bricks were
tested in compression after filling up the
frog and surface cracks, and holes, if any,
with 1:1 cement sand mortar. Plywood
sheets were used to ensure uniform
application of the load over the surface of
the bricks. The actual cross-sectional area
was used in calculation of stresses. The
average compressive strength of table
moulded bricks was found to be 5.83 MPa
and that of the wire cut bricks was 10.59
MPa.

Elastic Modulus:

Within the masonry, the modulus of the
brick/block and mortar decides the state of
stress in these materials. It also has an
influence on the failure pattern. Hence, the
elastic modulus of brick is another property,
which needs to be looked into greater detail.
Matthanas (1996) test results indicate a
secant modulus (at 25% of ultimate stress)
value of 400 MPa for one make of TMB from
Bangalore (Gumaste, 2004). Sarangapani
(1998) reports the secant modulus of TMB
collected from three different sources of
Bangalore in the range of 467-509 MPa. The
secant modulus of TMB from Bangalore and
tested by Raghunath (2003) fall in the range
of 590-727 MPa. In this study three samples
of TMB and WCB were tested to find their
elastic moduli value. Uniaxial compression
test was used to determine the elastic
modulus of bricks. Strain gauges were used
to measure the strains in the longitudinal
directions. The stress-strain curves are
shown in fig 1 and the corresponding test
results for the tests conducted on bricks are
shown in table 3.

591

Figure 1: Stress-Strain Curves of Table Moulded and Wire Cut Bricks

Table 3: Test Results of Bricks: (Average of 3 Specimens)

Sample
Water
absorption
(%)
Wet
compressive
strength (MPa)
Modulus of
Elasticity
(MPa)
TMB 12.89 5.83 518.54
WCB 19.42 10.59 1814.70

Tests on Stack Bonded Brick Prisms:

IS: 1905-1987 specifies that when
compressive strength of masonry is to be
established by tests, it shall be done in
advance of the construction, using prisms
built of similar materials under the same
conditions with the same bonding
arrangement as for the structure. It is
evident that the strength of the masonry is
less than the compressive strength of the
brick (Hendry, 1998). Studies indicate that
the masonry strength is proportional to the
square root of brick strength and fourth root
of mortar strength (Lenczner, 1972).
Sahlin(1971) suggested that the masonry
strength in the west is about 25 to 40% of
the brick strength, whereas Monk (1967)
has observed the efficiency of brick masonry
in the range of 10 to 40% (Sahlin, 1971).
Sarangapani (1998) reports a masonry
efficiency of 28% for low modulus/moderate
strength bricks with conventional 1:6
cement mortar for bricks from Bangalore.
Raghunath (2003) performed compression
tests on stack bonded brick masonry prisms
using 1:6 cement mortar. He observed a
masonry efficiency value of 43% for the
prisms. Tests conducted by Gumaste (2004)
have revealed a masonry efficiency of 31%
for stack bonded prisms with a mortar of
1:6 mix. In this test programme, tests on
masonry brick prisms under the axial
compression was carried out to evaluate the
compressive strength, elastic modulus and
masonry efficiency. Three specimens each of
table moulded bricks and wire cut bricks
were investigated and one such brick prism
is as shown in Plate 5. The schematic
diagram of a brick prism is also indicated in
fig 2. The compressive strength was
evaluated in accordance with IS: 1905-
1987, appendix B.


Plate 5: Five Brick High Stack-Bonded
Prism

423
y
Mortar
Brick
220

Figure 2: Schematic Diagram of a Brick
Prism

Compressive Strength, Elastic Modulus
and Masonry Efficiency:

Prism specimens used to determine the
compressive strength of masonry were
measured for plumb and level. The mortar
mix used was of the proportion 1:6 and
mixed with a w/c ratio of 1.2. The units used
in the construction of prism were wetted
just prior to casting. The mortar joint of
thickness of 10mm to 12mm was
maintained for all the prisms. The castings
of prisms were carried out on a level
surface. Capping of CM 1:2 was provided.
The specimens were properly cured for 28
days using wet burlaps. After 28 days of
curing, the prisms were tested in an UTM
(600KN capacity) .The prisms were properly
seated on the plywood sheets and checked
for level in all the directions. Plywood sheet
of 12mm was also placed and MS plates of
25mm were placed over the plywood sheets
and checked for alignment and level for
uniform distribution of loading. The
demountable mechanical gauge points were
fixed on the prisms at a gauge length of
200mm for taking strain measurements. The
gauge points were fixed in a manner such
that the deformations were measured close
to mid-height of the prism also covering at
least one of the bed joints. The rate of
loading was constant during the entire
testing process and the readings on the
demec gauge were recorded for every 1KN
load interval. Finally the maximum load or
the load at failure was noted down. The
stress-strain curves for the table moulded
brick prisms and the wire cut brick prisms
are as shown in fig 3 and fig 4 and test
results summarized in table 4. An average
value of the elastic modulus for the table
moulded brick prism was 301.25 MPa while
that for the wire cut brick prism was 1553
MPa. Also the masonry efficiency value
defined as the ratio of the compressive
strength of the masonry to the compressive
strength of the masonry unit was found to
be 26.59% (table moulded bricks) and
37.20%(wire cut bricks) respectively.

SAMPLE - TMBP
y = -15291x
2
+ 301.25x
R
2
= 0.9719
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006
STRAIN
S
T
R
E
S
S

(

M
P
a

)

Figure 3: Stress-Strain of TMB Prisms

593
SAMPLE- WCBP
y = -196929x
2
+ 1553x
R
2
= 0.9631
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004
STRAIN
S
T
R
E
S
S

(

M
P
a

)

Figure 4: Stress-Strain of WCB Prisms

Table 4: Test Results of Brick Prisms

Sample
Compres
-sive
strength
(MPa)
Modulus
of
Elasticity
(MPa)
Masonry
Efficiency
(%)
TMBP 1.55 301.25 26.59
WCBP 3.94 1553.0 37.20

Test on Blocks and Block Prisms:

A block is a type of masonry unit whose
specifications are in accordance to IS: 3952-
1978. Depending on the raw materials and
manufacturing process, various block units
are used in the construction industry. Test
results for blocks used in India are confined
to the compressive strengths only. There
has been a lack of information on the
strength and elastic modulus of concrete
blocks. In the present investigation
stabilized mud block, aerated concrete
block, solid concrete block (thickness 4, 6
and 8 inches) and cellular concrete block
(2cells and 4 cells) were studied. Tests to
determine the compressive strength and
water absorption was carried out in
accordance to IS 2185(Part I):1979 for the
concrete blocks. As no code is available
specifically for the stabilized mud blocks, the
same test procedure as that for the concrete
blocks was followed. The SMB used in this
study was stabilized using 8 % cement.

Elastic Modulus:

The specimens were immersed in water for
48 hours before testing. They were tested in
a load controlled testing machine (600KN
capacity UTM). The strains were measured
using 150mm and 200mm digital strain
gauges. The stress-strain curves for the
respective block specimens are as shown fig
6. The test results such as the compressive
strength, water absorption and the Elastic
modulus of the various blocks studied are
indicated in Table 5.


Figure 6: Stress-Strain Curves of the various Types of Blocks

Table 5: Test Results of Smb and Concrete Blocks:

Sample
Water
absorption
(%)
Wet
compressive
strength
(MPa)
Modulus of
Elasticity
(MPa)
SMB 5.18 11.20 11626.00
ACB 33.05 2.82 398.72
K04 4.72 5.55 2827.70
K08 11.05 4.79 6574.40
K48 9.53 2.62 1581.70
A06 5.75 4.89 --
S06 7.62 3.16 --
B26 6.44 4.73 --
B46 5.82 7.70 --

Note: The test results of SMB, ACB, K04,
K48 are the average of 3 specimens while
for A06, S06, B26 and B46 are the average
of 8 specimens.

Tests on Stack Bonded Masonry Block
Prisms:

The compressive strength of block prisms
was computed in accordance with IS: 1905-
1987. In addition to compressive strength,
595
elastic modulus and masonry efficiency have
also been evaluated. In all cases three
specimens were cast, cured and tested and
evaluated as in the case of masonry brick
prisms. The masonry block prisms were
tested in a 2000KN capacity loading frame.
The test results of a few brands of concrete
block prisms indicating the respective
compressive strengths, elastic modulus and
masonry efficiency have been tabulated in
table 6 and table 6A. The stress-strain
curves for the block prisms under
investigation are shown in fig 7.

SAMPLE - ACBP
y = -57980x
2
+ 600.34x
R
2
= 0.9341
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0.002 0.0025
STRAIN
S
T
R
E
S
S

(

M
P
a

)

Figure 7: Stress-Strain Curves of the various Block Prisms

Tests on Mortar:

Mortar also plays an important role in the
behaviour of masonry walls. The present
study has been carried out on cement sand
mortar of mix 1:6 with a w/c ratio of 1.2
which is commonly practiced in the
construction. Even though mortar
constitutes 15-30% of the total volume of
masonry, variation in the properties of fresh
and hardened mortar affects the masonry
behaviour. Studies conducted by
Sarangapani (1998) showed a compressive
strength of 7.32 MPa for a w/c ratio of 0.80
with a secant modulus of 7666MPa. Also
with w/c ratio of 1.40 showed cube strength
of 3.05MPa with the modulus of 5766 MPa.
Elangonmani(1983) tests on mortar cubes
resulted in3.08MPa for a w/c ratio of 1.60
(Sarangapani, 1998). An attempt has been
made in this study also, to determine the
compressive strength and elastic modulus
value of mortar.

Compressive Strength and Elastic
Modulus:

Mortar cubes of 70.5mm x 70.5mm were
cast and tested in accordance with IS 4031
(Part6):1988. The cubes were tested for
their compressive strength after a curing
period of 28 days. The mortar prisms were
cast in moulds of 300mmX150mmX150mm
size. Three specimens were cast and cured
in water for 28 days. The stress-strain
relationship was determined by subjecting
the mortar prism to compression test in a
600KN capacity load controlled UTM. The
test results are as shown in table 7 and the
stress-strain curves are as shown in fig 8.

Table 7: Test Results of Cement Mortar
Cubes and Prisms

Sample
Compressive
strength
(MPa)
(from cubes)
Modulus of
elasticity
(MPa) (from
mortar prisms)
Specimen 1 8.23
1888.00 Specimen 2 7.82
Specimen 3 8.03

SAMPLE-MORTAR PRISM
y = -372564x
2
+ 1888x
R
2
= 0.9383
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0004 0.0005 0.0006
STRAIN
S
T
R
E
S
S

(

M
P
a

)

Figure 8: Stress-Strain Curve of Mortar
Prisms

Design Implications:

The design of masonry walls, to bear
compressive force essentially involves
limiting the compressive stress level in the
wall to the permissible compressive stress.
The permissible compressive stress depends
597
on the compressive strength of the units
and the type of mortar used. An alternative
method is through the design based on
prism strength of masonry outlined in
appendixB of IS: 1905-1987. The
permissible stress is again multiplied by
three factors viz., (i) the stress-reduction
factor, which takes into account the
eccentricity and slenderness, (ii) Area
reduction factor, which is to account for the
statistical variation of compressive stress of
units and (iii) Shape modification factor,
which is to account for the increase in
strength when number of horizontal bed
joints are reduced (SP-20, 1991). These
factors appear as K
a
, K
s
, and K
p
respectively
in the IS: 1905-1987. In the present
investigation an attempt has been made to
obtain the permissible stress in a typical
masonry wall based on the compressive
strengths of masonry unit and the mortar,
as outlined in IS 1905-1987. Later the
permissible stresses have also been
obtained based on the prism test results. As
a case study a 4.0 m length wall of height
3.0m has been considered. Table 8 gives the
comparison of permissible stress as obtained
by the compressive strength of unit and as
obtained by the prism test. It is rather very
apparent that the two approaches do not
agree with each other. A clear trend that
can be noticed is that the unit strengths
approach over estimates the permissible
stress for masonry with burnt bricks while it
grossly underestimates the permissible
stress for masonry made of wire cut bricks,
stabilized blocks and concrete blocks.

Table 8: Comparison of the Permissible Stresses Based on the Two Approaches

Sample
Permissible stress
based on unit
strength approach
Permissible stress
based on the Prism test
approach
% age variation in
stress
TMB 0.43 0.34 +20.93
WCB 0.74 0.87 -17.57
SMB 0.63 0.72 -14.29
ACB 0.36 0.40 -11.11
K04 0.42 0.92 -119.05
K08 0.44 0.84 -90.91
K48 0.36 0.71 -97.22
A06 0.44 0.84 -90.91
S06 0.43 0.72 -67.44
B26 0.55 1.25 -127.27
B46 0.69 1.29 -86.96

Note: Positive Values Indicate Overestimation while Negative Values Indicate the
Underestimation of the Permissible Stress Values.

Conclusion:

The strength efficiency of commonly used
brickwork and block work masonry from in
and around Bangalore city using cement
mortar of mix1:6, has been reported in this
paper. From the experimental investigation
carried out on eleven different types of
masonry, the following can be summarized.
- The compressive strength and the
modulus of elasticity of TMB is 5.83MPa and
518.54 MPa, while that of WCB is 10.59MPa
and 1814.70 MPa.
- The compressive strength and modulus
of elasticity of the SMB is 11.20MPa and
11626 MPa.
- The compressive strengths of the solid
concrete blocks K04 is 5.55 MPa, A06 is
4.89 MPa, S06 is 3.16 MPa,K08 is 4.79MPa,
while for the cellular blocks B48 it is 2.62
MPa, for B26 it is 4.73 MPa and for B46 it is
7.70 MPa. For the aerated concrete block it
is 2.82 MPa. The modulus of elasticity for
K04 is 2827.70, K08 it is6574.40 MPa, K48
it is 1581.70 and for ACB it is 398.72 MPa.
- The masonry compressive strength
(prism strength) of TMB and WCB prisms
was found to be 1.55 MPa and 3.94 MPa
respectively.
- The masonry compressive strengths for
the block prisms namely K04, K08, K48 ,
ACB and SMB was found to be 4.11MPa,
3.33 MPa, 2.80 MPa, 1.59 MPa and 4.01
MPa.
- The Modulus of Elasticity for K04, K08,
K48, ACB and SMB as obtained from graphs
was 714.59MPa, 8115.50MPa, 2533.90 MPa,
600.34 MPa and 1102.9 MPa respectively.
- All the prisms failed typically by
developing vertical cracks.
Based on the experiments carried out on
masonry units and prisms, an attempt was
made to calculate the permissible
compressive stress (design stress) in
masonry based on the two approaches
mentioned in IS 1905-1987. It was found
that the permissible stress based on unit
strength approach overestimates for TMB
while it grossly underestimates for WCB,
SMB, ACB, solid and cellular concrete blocks.
Hence there is a need to rationalize the two
approaches in view of this disparity.

References:

[1] G.Sarangapani(1998) ,Studies on the
strength of brick masonry, PhD Thesis,Dept.
of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of
Science,Bangalore, India.
[2] Hendry A.W. (1978), Structural Masonry,
Macmillan Pres, Second Edition, London.
[3] IS: 1077-1992, Specifications for
Methods of Test for Burnt Clay Building
Bricks, BIS,New Delhi, India.
[4] IS: 1905-1987, Code of Practice for
Structural Use of Unreinforced masonry,
BIS, New Delhi, India.
[5] IS: 6441(Part1-8)-1972, Code of
Methods of test for Autoclaved Cellular
Concrete Products,BIS, New Delhi, India.
[6] IS: 2185(Part1-3)-1979, Specification
for Concrete Masonry Units, BIS, New Delhi,
India.
[7] IS: 3495-1992(Part I and II), Method of
test for burnt clay Building Bricks,BIS,New
Delhi,India.
[8] Krishnakedar S. Gumaste.(2004) ,
Studies on strength and Elasticity of Brick
Masonry Walls, PhD. Thesis. Dept. of Civil
Engineering, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore, India.
[9] M.S.Shetty (2000), Concrete Technology
Theory and Practice, S.Chand and Co.Ltd.,
New Delhi
[10] P.K.Mukerjee (1997), A Text Book of
Geology, the World Press Pvt.Ltd., Calcutta
[11] Raghunath S.(2003),Static and
dynamic behaviour of brick masonry with
containment reinforcement , PhD.Thesis,
Dept.of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore, India.
[12] Sahlin S.(1971) Structural
Masonry,Prentice Hall Inc., New Jersey.
[13] SP-20 (1991), Handbook on masonry
design and construction, Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi, India.
599
Identification of Artificial Recharge Sites in
Hard Rock Terrain Using RS and GIS in Chintapally
Mandal, Nalgonda District, Andhra Pradesh, India
RAJU. A
1
, A. G. S. REDDY
2
and D. VENKAT REDDY
3
1
Department of Environmental Sciences, Maheshwara Institute of Technology, Patancheru,
Hyderabad 502 307, Andhra Pradesh, India.
2
Central Ground Water Board, Southern Region, GSI II gate, Bandlaguda, Nagole,
Hyderabad. India
3
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Karnataka
Srinivasnagar -575025, Mangalore D.K-India.
Email: Pra_ju21@yahoo.com, sugrive_59@rediffmail.com, dvr1952@gmail.com

Abstract: A study has been undertaken to identify the favorable areas for artificial recharge
in Chintapally mandal in Nalgonda district, Andhra Pradesh. Geographical Information
System (GIS) and Remote Sensing technology contributes an efficient and effective result
oriented methods for studying the occurrence and movement of groundwater resources.
Integration of various thematic layers such as geomorphology, slope, soil types, lineament
density, and drainage density have been used to identify the suitable zones for the artificial
recharge in the study area. For identifying the suitable zones, weightage and ranking scores
were assigned to each thematic layer then using ARC/INFO GIS software, the above themes
have been integrated and the areas suitable for artificial recharge have been identified using
spatial analysis tools from GIS environment. The favorable areas for artificial recharge have
been categorized into Very Good, Good, Moderate to Good, Moderate, Poor to Moderate and
poor for recharge in the study area.

Key words: Remote sensing, GIS, Spatial analysis, Artificial Recharge, Groundwater.

Introduction:

Water is most important resource for
domestic, agriculture and industrial
purposes. Efficient water use is the key for
sustainable management of water
resources. With the increasing use of
groundwater for various activities the fast
decline in groundwater takes place [5]. In
order to prevent the aquifer from fast
depletion, the artificial recharge is very
essential to balance the over exploitation of
the aquifer. Water reservoirs always play a
vital role in the development and economics
of a country, especially, countries like India
where agriculture is the back-bone.
Groundwater, unlike surface water, is
available in some quantity almost
everywhere. Although it is replenishable, it
is not inexhaustible [4]. Groundwater
constitutes an important source of water
supply for various purposes such as
agriculture, domestic and industrial use
especially in many parts of Andhra Pradesh
where increase in population has resulted in
increase in demand. The main source for
ground water is precipitation resulting in
drainage flows through fracture zone or
lineament on the earth surface [1]. The
practice of artificial recharging is
increasingly emerging as a powerful tool in
water resources management. Surface and
sub-surface hydrological features such as
lithology, geological structure, landforms,
drainage density, water bodies, lineaments
and slopes play an important role in
groundwater replenishment [14]. A detailed
study or extreme groundwater recharge is
required using techniques GIS and Remote
Sensing in such as combination with field
survey and collection and interpretation of
data. Integration of GIS and remote sensing
techniques provides an appropriate platform
for a spatial analysis of diverse datasets for
decision making in evaluation and planning
of groundwater recharge [9].

600 RAJU. A, A. G. S. REDDY and D. VENKAT REDDY
Study Area:

Chintapally mandal is one of the 59 mandals
of Nalgonda district; it is bounded on the
north and west by Mahabubnagar district;
east by Marriguda and Nampally mandals,
and south by Devarakonda mandal of
Nalgonda district as shown in figure 1. The
mandal lies between North latitudes 16
o
45

-
16
o
55

and East longitudes 78
o
40

- 78
o
55
.
The area of the study area is 303.55 sq.
Kms.

Figure 1: Location Map of the Study Area

Climate and Rainfall:

The normal rainfall of Chintapally mandal is
573 mm as per the data collected from the
rain gauge stations located at Mandal
headquarters. The mean rainfall of the
mandal is 463 mm, 299 mm, 521.8 mm,
313 mm and 520 mm during 2001-02,
2002-03, 2003-04 and 2004-05 respectively
(Rainfall Section, APSRAC, Hyderabad). The
mean rainfall of the Chintapally mandal from
the year 2003-2009 is shown in figure 2.
The data shows that there is a deficit of
rainfall during the period 2003-2004 and
2004-2005 and also shows the more than
normal rainfall during 2005-06, 2006-07,
2007-08 and 2008-09. The highest rainfall is
received during 2007-08. About 70% of the
rainfall is received by South-West monsoon
and 18% by the North-East monsoon.

521.8
313.0
721.9
670.6
1140.4
1076.8
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09

Figure 2: Year-Wise Rainfall of Chintapally
Mandal

Temperature:

The study area has recorded highest annual
temperature value 38.05
o
C in the year
2004-05 and minimum annual temperature
value 19.14
o
C in the year 2005-06. The
maximum and minimum annual
temperatures of the study area are shown in
figure 3. The temperature in this mandal is
varying as it is has rocky exposures. This
mandal is malicious from August to October
and very hot during April and may, the
temperature range from 97F to 110F. The
months of April, May and June as the
maximum monthly temperature of more
601
Identification of Artificial Recharge Sites in Hard Rock Terrain Using RS
and GIS in Chintapally Mandal, Nalgonda District, Andhra Pradesh, India
than 40
o
C and the minimum monthly
temperature in the months of December,
January and February less than 15
0
C.

20.6
19.14
17.57
18.36
19.67
38.05 37.47
35.39
36.43 37.58
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09
MINIM.TEMP MAX. TEMP

Figure 3: Max & Min Temperature Levels of
Study Area

Cropping Pattern:

The major crops grown in the study area in
karif season are Paddy, Jowar, Bajra, maize,
chillies, groundnut, sesamum, cotton and
during rabi Paddy, Jowar, Maize, Green
gram, Horse gram, Black gram, Bengal
gram, Ground nut, Sunflower and Chillies.
The whole of Nalgonda district is drained by
the river Krishna along with tributaries Musi,
Aler, Dindi, Halia and Peddavagu [7].

Data Inputs:

The detailed data bases used in the study
were:
The Survey of India (SOI) topographical
sheet no. 56 L/9, 56 L/13 and 56 L/14 of
scale: 1:50,000. The depth to water levels
for month of January, April, August &
November for years 2003-2009 from State
Ground Water Department (SGW Dept.),
Nalgonda, Andhra Pradesh. Thematic maps
of Action plan, Land Use/Land Cover,
Hydrogeomorphological data, Slope and Soil
Maps (scale 1:50,000) of Andhra Pradesh
State Remote Sensing Applications Centre
(APSRAC) and Satellite data IRS LANDSAT-
TM from the Periods February, March 1994,
February 1993 and November 1994
(National Remote sensing Center,
Hyderabad).

Methodology:

For evaluation of groundwater recharge in
the region, various datasets and methods
have been used to analyze and demarcate
the recharge zones. First the thematic maps
were prepared from the remotely sensed
data and from data collected by
conventional field methods which directly
influence the recharge factors to
groundwater. The thematic maps are
geomorphology, slope, soil types, drainage
pattern and lineament from IRS LANDSAT-
TM and conventional field maps.

In the next stage of study, Geographical
Information System techniques were used to
integrate and analyze the thematic maps
and to prepare a map showing areas
suitable for artificial recharge to
groundwater. By superimposing all the
thematic maps in the Spatial Analyst of Arc
GIS software, identified different types of
artificial recharge sites like, Poor, Moderate
to Poor, Moderate, Moderate to Good, Good
and Very Good. The GIS procedure for
identifying recharge zones are shown in
figure 4.


Figure 4: GIS Procedure for Delineating Potential Recharge Zones

The analysis of the present study is done
with ESRI ArcGIS 9.1 version of which
software GIS with spatial analyst tool. After
preparing all the thematic maps of the study
area they were converted from vector files
to raster files for further analysis by using
Spatial Analyst tool. After converting to
raster files reclassified the files and assigned
the weights to each class for each map
individually and then combined all the maps
for getting the suitable sites for the recharge
in the study area.

Determining Factors of Groundwater
Recharge Zone:

Geomorphology:

Geomorphology reflects various landform
and structural features. The Geomorphology
map of the study (Fig. 5) area was prepared
from IRS LANDSAT-TM data using image
characters such as tone, texture, and
drainage pattern. Landforms are important
indicators in the search for suitable artificial
recharge sites, since each landform differs in
its physiographic disposition and areal
extent [2]. Eight geomorphological units
were identified in the study area namely,
Residual hills, Pediplain with moderate
weathering, Pediplain with shallow
weathering, Pediment, Inselberg, Pediment
Inselberg Complex, Valley fills and Tor
complex. Pediplain with moderate
weathering and Valley fill were accorded the
highest rank for groundwater recharge
zoning. Pediplain with shallow weathered
zone covers to maximum extent in southern
part and partially northern part of the study
area. The Pediment with moderate
weathered are in the southern and middle
parts of the study area along the corners of
the boundary and are present in the
southern parts but this feature covers
second highest percentage of the area.
Valley fills (VF) are in the northern and
603
northeast of the study area with a low
percentage of area being covered by it.

Figure 5: Geomorphology Map of the Study
Area.

Rocky Pediment (P) is in the northern and
north-east of the study area and along the
corners of the boundary but is present at all
the four corners of the area. The Pediment
inselbergs are in the northeast of the area
along the corners of the boundary and are
present in the southern parts but this
feature covers less percentage of the area.
Inselberg is in the northeast of the study
area and a very low percentage of area is
covered by this feature. Residual Hill is in
the north and this feature covers northeast
of the study area and in a less percentage of
the area.

Lineaments:

Lineaments, which are linear or curvilinear
features, can play a major role in identifying
suitable sites for artificial recharge to
groundwater because they reflect rock
structures through which water can
percolate and travel up to several kilometers
[6]. The areas around lineaments may play
an important role in promoting recharge of
water into the groundwater regime, a zone
extending 300m around each lineament was
considered in our study. The lineament map
of the study area is shown in fig.6.

Figure 6: The Lineament Map of the Study
Area

Drainage Density:

The drainage map was prepared from the
survey of India toposheets. The drainage
pattern of the study area was divided up to
5
th
order streams. More ponds are presented
in south part of the area. Two rivers are flow
through the study area, one is from middle
and another one is from south part of the
study area.

Rivers are seasonal and short-lived [16].
The overall drainage pattern in the study
area is dendritic to sub -dendritic and
rectangular. Groundwater prospects were
found to be good in very high drainage
density zones where lineaments are located
parallel to the drainage channel. Surface
water infiltration was found more in case of
sheet wash than in channel flow. Area with
low slope with low drainage density permits
more infiltration and recharge to
groundwater. The drainage density values
were grouped into four categories: (i) 0-1
Km/Km
2
(ii) 1-2 Km/Km
2
(iii) 2-4 Km/Km
2
(iv) 4 -6 Km/Km
2
. Drainage map of the
study area is presented in fig. 7.

Figure 7: Drainage Map of the Study Area

Slope:

Slope is very vital for land, irrigation and
land capabilities assessment. The density of
contour map is used for preparing slope map
that gives various groups or categories of
slopes [10] [15]. The speed and extent of
runoff depends on the slope. The velocity of
flow of runoff and soil erosion increases with
the increasing of slope [13]. The maximum
in part southern, middle and partial in
northern part is covered by nearly level
sloping with 199.12 Sq. Kms area (Fig. 8).
The maximum part of the northern and
partially southern part is covered by very
gently sloping with 72.29 Sq. Kms area.
Very low part of the study area is covered
by Very Steep Sloping, Gently Sloping,
Strongly Sloping and moderate steep to
steep sloping patterns.

Soils:

Soil characteristics invariably control
penetration of surface water into an aquifer
system and they are directly related to rate
of infiltration, percolation and permeability
[3] [8]. Areas that are characterized by
highly permeable soils are more suitable
than those of low permeability. The soils of
the study area can be grouped in to
Cracking Clay-Calcareous, Gravelly Loam,
Clay- Calcareous and Clay. The maximum
part of the study area is covered by the
Gravelly Loam soils.

Figure 8: Slope Map of the Study Area

The southern and Middle of the area covered
with Clay Calcareous and Clay soils to a
maximum extent. The northern part and
partially southern part of the study area is
covered by Cracking Clay Calcareous soils
(Fig. 9). Infiltration of water into the soil is
affected by several factors like hydraulic
conductivity of the soil profile, texture,
porosity, vegetative cover etc.

Categorization and weight assignment:

The thematic layers describing the section
on thematic map were digitized and all the
polygons were labeled. Each polygon on
each thematic layer was categorized
according to its recharge characters as
either Very good, Good, Moderate to Good,
Moderate, Moderate to Poor and Poor. The
relative ranking of the polygons is based on
the positive and negative consequences of
their characteristics relative to artificial
recharge to groundwater [4]. After
understanding their behavior with respect to
recharge, different classes were weighted
relative to their importance in comparison to
other classes in the same thematic layer.

605

Figure 9: Soil Map of the Study Area

Integration of thematic layers:

After categorization, all the thematic layers
were integrated with one another by a GIS
technique that uses the weighted
aggregation method. In this method the
total weights of the integrated thematic
layers that were ultimately formed were
derived as a sum or product of the weights
that had been assigned to the different
layers according to their suitability. The
polygons of the final integrated layer were
classed as very good, good, moderate to
good, moderate, poor to moderate and poor,
based on the weight ranges obtained from
logical conditions that had been established.
The way in which the upper and the lower
limits of the weights were derived for
demarcation of artificial recharge zones is
given in Table 5.


Scientifically designed artificial recharge
measures at recharge-potent sites are the
requisites for reducing groundwater scarcity,
in areas with low natural groundwater
recharge [12]. Using GIS software
packages, it is possible to analyze the
variations of hydrologic as well as hydro
geologic parameters easily and efficiently.
By utilizing the model discussed above, a
map with the artificial recharge zones of the
study area was prepared (Figure 10). Which
was verified in the field for its correctness:
the artificial zones demarcated were in
agreement with conditions in the field. By
superimposing the drainage network map
over the artificial recharge zone map and
also considering the terrain conditions, the
exact type of artificial recharge structure
suitable for replenishing groundwater in the
study area was identified. The results of the
study help decision-makers to set in motion
the steps required for replenish groundwater
to aquifer systems. The resulted classes and
their area coverage are exhibited in the
Table 6. Ares of different artificial recharge
zones are shown in Figure 11.

Figure 10: Map of Artificial Recharge Zones
in the Study Area

Table 6: Areas of the Recharge Zones of
Study Area in Sq. Kms

Sl.
No.
Classes of
Recharge zone
Area in Sq.
kms
Area
(%)
01 Very Good 13.66 4.5%
02 Good 114.96 37.87%
03
Moderate to
Good
96.46 31.78%
04 Moderate 53.96 17.78%
05
Poor to
Moderate
16.19 5.33%
06 Poor 8.32 2.74%

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Area (%) Area in Sq. Kms

Figure 11: Areas of AR Zones in Sq. Kms

Conclusion:

In order to demarcate artificial recharge
zones, different thematic maps were
prepared using remote sensing techniques
and GIS such as lineaments,
geomorphology, slope, soil type and
drainage density etc. Different thematic
layers were integrated in the GIS
environment using spatial analyst tools by
applying simple arithmetical model. The
artificial recharge zoning of the area was
prepared. It is found that only 13.66 sq.kms
of the area is very much suitable for
recharge zone out of the total area 303.55
sq.kms. This map can be used for future
development of for valuable artificial
recharge constructions at appropriate
locations which helps better management
and improvement of large groundwater
reforms of this drought form and area of
Nalgonda district, Andhra Pradesh.

607
Table 5: Weights Assigned to different Features Affect Artificial Recharge Site Selection

Thematic Map Related Features Symbol
Weightage
Assigned
Hydrogemorphology
Pediment Inselberg Complex PIC 1
Residual Hills RH 1
Rocky Pediment P 1
Pediplain with Moderate
Weathered
PPM 3
Pediplain with Shallow
Weathered
PPS 3
Valley Fill VF 4
Inselberg IB 1
Tor Complex TC 1
Slope
Nearly Level 0-1% 4
Very Gentle 1-3% 3
Gentle 3-5% 2
Moderate 5-10% 1
Moderate Steep 10-15% 1
Steep 15-35% 1
Very Steep >35% 1
Lineament
Present -- 3
Absent / Dykes -- 1
Drainage-density
Low density / coarse texture
0-1
Km/Km
2

4
Medium density / medium
texture
1-2
Km/Km
2

2
High density / fine texture
2-4
Km/Km
2

1
Very high density / superfine
texture
4 -6
Km/Km
2

1

Soil
Clay --- 5
Clay, Calcareous --- 4
Cracking Clay, Calcareous --- 1
Gravelly loam --- 3

References:

[1] Arun k. Saraf, p. Kundu, b. Sarma;
Department of Earth Sciences; Indian
Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India;
Integrated Remote sensing and GIS in
groundwater recharge investigation and
selection of artificial recharge sites in a
hard rock terrain.
[2] Bhagyashri Maggirwar; Junior Geologist,
G.S.D.A., Aurangabad; Bhavana N.
Umrikar Lecturer, Department of
Geology, University of Pune, India;
Scope for Artificial Recharge in
Overdeveloped Watershed GV-41,
District Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India
Using RS - GIS Techniques.
[3] David K. Todd; The Distribution of
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Department of Agriculture, Soil
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Agricultural Engineering, University of
Maiduguri, PMB 1069, Maiduguri,
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groundwater resources in semiarid
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[10] Raymond A. Duraiswami, Vrishali
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