Proceedings of the 2012 9th International Pipeline Conference IPC2012 September 24-28, 2012, Calgary, Alberta, Canada

IPC2012-90118

INFLUENCE OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS ON THE TOUGHNESS IN THE HAZ OF DSAW-WELDED LARGEDIAMETER LINEPIPES
Charles Stallybrass Olga Dmitrieva Salzgitter Mannesmann Forschung GmbH Ehinger Strae 200 47259 Duisburg, Germany Andreas Liessem Jens Schrder EUROPIPE GmbH Wiesenstrae 36 45473 Mlheim, Germany

ABSTRACT There is a strong interest worldwide to transport large gas volumes from remote areas and hostile environments to the market. Pipe producers are therefore faced with increasingly demanding requirements both with regard to the toughness of the base material and the heat-affected zone. The toughness of the base material depends primarily on the steel composition and the TM processing conditions. Impressive levels of toughness in the base material were achieved by extensive alloy and process development over the past decades. These were realised by balancing the steel composition and processing parameters to give an optimum microstructure with a low grain size and homogeneous distribution of phases. During double submerged arc welding (DSAW) in the production of largediameter linepipes, the heat-affected zone (HAZ) undergoes severe changes in the microstructure that include grain coarsening by about one order of magnitude and phase transformation during cooling and intercritical reheating. These have a negative impact on the toughness close to the fusion line. The higher austenite grain size close to the fusion line leads to a coarser structure after the phase transformation with larger carbon-rich M/A-phase particles than are typically observed in the base material in the as-rolled condition. This causes a drop of the toughness close to the fusion line compared to the base material. Classically, the carbon equivalent is an empirical measure for the weldability of steels and is known to correlate with the maximum hardness. However, its purpose is not to reflect the effect of individual alloying elements on the HAZ-toughness. The present paper addresses the relationship between base material composition and the HAZ-toughness of linepipe steels. An experimental investigation was carried out at EUROPIPE GmbH in cooperation with Salzgitter Mannesmann Forschung GmbH in which the chemical composition of laboratory heats was varied systematically. These heats were thermomecha-

nically rolled to a wall thickness of 30 mm and subsequently used for submerged arc welding trials. The processing parameters during rolling and welding were held constant in the trials in order to ensure that the effect of the alloying elements could be isolated. The fusion line toughness was tested at -30C and the microstructure was investigated by high-resolution scanning electron microscopy. This was complemented by microstructure investigations in the HAZ of large-diameter pipe material between the X65 and X80 strength levels. It was found that the influence of alloying elements on the HAZ-toughness is only reflected to some degree by the commonly used carbon equivalents, especially at similar strength levels. The results of the investigation were used for optimisation of the HAZtoughness in production. Keywords: UOE, HAZ toughness, M/A-phase, microstructure EFFECT OF WELDING ON HAZ MICROSTRUCTURE Submerged-arc welding of large diameter pipes requires a high heat input in order to achieve the welding speeds necessary for practical production. This leads to significant changes in the microstructure in the heat-affected zone [1]. Temperatures in excess of 1300C are reached in the coarsegrained heat-affected zone (CGHAZ) close to the fusion line which causes significant austenite grain coarsening, see e.g. [24]. This increase in austenite grain size retards the phase transformation during cooling as the nucleation density is reduced compared to the fine-grained heat-affected zone (FGHAZ), where the lower peak temperature does not allow extensive grain coarsening. This results typically in a coarse bainitic microstructure with a matrix of low-carbon bainite and carbon-rich transformation products between the bainite sheaves or prior austenite grain boundaries. This grain coarsening can be inhibited to some degree by the addition of titanium which forms stable nitrides that exert a pinning force on grain boundaries. However, exact control of the titanium and

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nitrogen levels is required to prevent the formation of coarse TiN precipitates that have a negative effect on toughness in the HAZ [5]. Niobium and vanadium, which also form carbonitrides, can prevent grain coarsening close to the fusion line to a lesser degree because of their higher solubility [1,6]. In the case of DSAW line pipe, the first weld seam and its HAZ undergo an incomplete phase transformation during welding of the second pass in the intercritically reheated coarse-grained heat-affected zone (ICCGHAZ), i.e. only a fraction of the material is transformed to austenite. Because of the higher solubility in the austenite, this phase is enriched significantly in carbon compared to the ferritic/bainitic matrix [1]. This has a strong effect on the phase transformation of the carbon-enriched austenite during cooling. Depending on the carbon content and the cooling conditions this austenite can form carbide aggregates or M/A-phase. The difference in the composition of the low-carbon and high-carbon phases is illustrated in Figures 1 and 2 which show results of 3D atom probe tomography of samples that were prepared along the interface of M/A-phase and bainite taken from the ICCGHAZ of a large diameter pipe. Carbon and manganese were found to be highly enriched on the M/A-phase side of the interface. The silicon content, however, showed a peak on the bainite side of the interface.

Content, at. %

3 2 1

Mn Si

0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Distance, nm

Figure 2: Distribution of carbon, manganese and silicon within the region of interest indicated in Figure 1

step size 0.5 nm

A model for the phase transformation of austenite during continuous cooling from the intercritical region has been presented [7,8]. According to this model, the carbon content at the phase boundary of the M/A-phase is elevated significantly because of incomplete carbon redistribution within the austenite phase during cooling. This leads to a local variation of the Mstemperature and martensite is formed first in those regions in the centre of the austenite phase. Close to the phase boundary, the high carbon content can stabilize the austenite to low temperatures. The volume fraction of carbon-rich phases in the CGHAZ and the ICCGHAZ depends on the base metal composition if the welding conditions are held constant. It has been reported that the volume fraction of these carbon-rich constituents has an adverse effect on the toughness in the HAZ [7,9-11]. Knowledge of the relationship between the base metal composition and the volume fraction of carbon-rich constituents is therefore a key factor for achieving high HAZtoughness under the increasingly demanding conditions encountered today. LABORATORY WELDING TRIALS AND MICROSTRUCTURE INVESTIGATION A series of 10 laboratory heats was produced at the SZMF by vacuum induction melting. The composition of these heats was selected to allow a systematic investigation of the effect of individual alloying elements on the toughness in the CGHAZ, see Table 1. The content of microalloying elements was held constant at 0.04% niobium and 0.01% titanium. The concentration of tramp elements in the laboratory heats was similar to the levels in large-scale production. The carbon equivalent of the materials ranged from 0.35 to 0.42. The ingots were reheated at a constant temperature between 1130C and 1180C and thermo-mechanically rolled to a wall thickness of 30 mm followed by accelerated cooling from above the Ar3temperature to around 500C. Round bar tensile tests of the laboratory heats were carried out in transverse direction in order to assess the effect of the composition on the base metal strength. Welding trials were carried out on the laboratory-rolled plates. In addition, X70 heavy plate material was used for comparison that was not optimized for high HAZ-toughness at low temperatures. The welding parameters were held constant and resulted in a heat input of 65-70 kJ/cm. The same welding consumables were used in these trials for all welds. The welding conditions that were used are realistic for the outer

20 nm

Figure 1: Distribution of carbon atoms close to the interface of the bainitic matrix and an M/A-phase particle as measured by atom probe tomography

An example of the microstructure in the ICCGHAZ of a DSAW line pipe is shown in Figure 3. In this example, the prior austenite grain boundary is decorated with carbide aggregates and M/A-phase has formed mostly within the grain. An M/Aphase particle at higher magnification is shown in Figure 4. The morphology of this particle indicates that austenite is still present in the smooth areas while the fine needle-like structure in the centre of the particle indicates a martensitic structure. This morphology is the result of an inhomogeneous carbon distribution in the M/A-phase.

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weld seam of large diameter pipes with 30 mm wall thickness. Charpy V-notch tests were carried out at -30C in the HAZ at the FL 50/50 position in order to compare the HAZ-toughness of the investigated materials. Because the scatter of the individual values in the HAZ is typically higher compared to the base metal, 18 specimens were tested in the case of all materials.

large-diameter pipes is given in Table 2. These pipes ranged from the grades X65 to X80.
Table 1: Composition of the materials used for laboratory welding trials in wt.%
Steel Mill A B C D E F G H I J C 0.09 0.09 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 Si 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 Mn 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.8 Cu 0.20 0.40 0.12 0.20 0.12 Cr 0.20 0.30 0.30 Ni 0.25 0.50 0.17 0.25 0.17 Mo 0.15 CE(IIW) 0.38 0.37 0.34 0.37 0.41 0.38 0.40 0.37 0.39 0.42 0.40 Pcm 0.19 0.17 0.15 0.16 0.18 0.16 0.17 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.17

Table 2: Base metal composition of the pipe samples used for the microstructure investigation in the ICCGHAZ in wt.%
Pipe EP 1 EP 2 EP 3 EP 4 EP 5 EP 6 C 0.03 0.09 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.06 Si 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.2 Mn 1.3 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 Cu 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 Ni 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 Mo 0.2 V 0.08 CE(IIW) 0.30 0.37 0.36 0.35 0.37 0.43 Pcm 0.13 0.19 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.19

Figure 3: SEM-image of carbon-rich phases at the prior austenite grain boundary and within grains in the ICCGHAZ at a magnification of 2,000x

The microstructure in the CGHAZ was investigated by high-resolution scanning electron microscopy of cross sections of the welds produced using the laboratory heats. The samples were etched for a few seconds using a solution of nitric acid. 15 images were taken per sample at a magnification of 2000x within the CGHAZ in the position where the notches of the Charpy specimens intersect the fusion line. These were subsequently used for point analysis in order to measure the volume fraction of carbon-rich microstructure constituents.

RESULTS Thermo-mechanical rolling of the laboratory heats followed by accelerated cooling led to a predominantly bainitic microstructure in all cases. The results of the round bar tensile tests that were carried out on the investigated materials in transverse direction are shown in Figure 5. The industrially produced material and steel A with a reduced Si-content show no significant difference in yield strength. The reduction of the Si-content, however, led to a drop in the tensile strength from 620 MPa (mill) to 593 MPa (steel A). The reduction of the carbon content, which is well known to improve the HAZ toughness, from 0.09% (steel A) to 0.06% (steel B) led to a reduction of the carbon equivalent down to 0.34 and a loss of strength below X70 requirements. The addition of copper and nickel is one possibility to compensate for this loss of strength, as illustrated by the results for steel C (CE=0.37) and D (CE=0.41). An alternative possibility to increase the strength is to increase the manganese content. This was investigated with steel E (CE=0.38) and steel F (CE=0.40) in which the manganese level was raised to 1.8% with and without a copper and nickel addition. A further strategy lies in the addition of chromium. This was investigated at levels of 0.2% in the case of steel G (CE=0.37) and 0.3% in steel H (CE=0.39). A combination of copper and nickel with chromium at 1.6% manganese was tested in steel I (CE=42). This material reached a similar level of yield strength and tensile strength compared to steel D without the chromium addition and the higher copper and nickel content. A combination of copper, nickel and molybdenum at 1.8% manganese used in steel J (CE=0.40) and was found to raise the strength to the X80 range.

Figure 4: SEM-image of an M/A-phase particle in the ICCGHAZ at a magnification of 19,000x

In addition, the microstructure of production welds was investigated in the ICCGHAZ of pipe samples using the same method. The chemical composition of the base metal of these

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700 650 Stress [MPa] 600 550

of 0.17 (steels A, F, I, J) had average impact energies that ranged from 162 J (steel A) to 252 J (steel F). This shows that the variations in compositions of these steels at constant Pcm value have a significant effect on the toughness.
350 300

500
Impact energy at -30 [J] C

450 400 Mill A B C D E F

Yield strength Tensile strength G H I J

250 200 150 100 50

Material

Figure 5: Results of the round bar tensile tests in transverse direction and the specified minimum yield strength and tensile strength for X70

The average impact energy and standard deviation of the Charpy impact tests at -30C of the investigated materials are shown in Figure 6. The lowest impact energy was observed in the industrial material that was not optimized for lowtemperature application with a carbon content of 0.09% and a silicon content of 0.3% (Mill). The low standard deviation indicates that this material shows lower-shelf behaviour at this testing temperature. The laboratory heat A with a reduced Sicontent and a C-content of 0.09% showed a significant increase in the average impact energy to a value of 162 J. A further increase was obtained by a reduction of the C-content to 0.06% in steel B with an average of 272 J. The results for the steel C show that a moderate addition of copper and nickel does not have a significant effect on the mean impact energy (254 J). The lower average value of steel D of 173 J, however, indicates that excessive levels of copper in combination with nickel lead to a drop in the HAZ toughness. An increase of the manganese content to 1.8%, as used in steel E and steel F, led to average values of around 250 J. The steels G and H, which contain additions of chromium of 0.2% and 0.3% at 1.6% manganese, reach a similar level of average HAZ toughness around 250 J. In the case of steel I, which contained a combination of copper, chromium and nickel at 1.6% manganese, an average impact energy of 209 J was reached. A lower level of HAZ toughness (168 J) was observed in the case of the molybdenum-alloyed steel J. The average volume fraction of carbon-rich constituents in the CGHAZ and standard deviation obtained from the point analysis of 15 SEM images per weld are shown in Figure 7. Volume fractions of 6% or above were observed in the mill material and the steels A, D, H and J. In the steels B, C, E, F, G and I, which achieved average impact energies of above 250 J, the observed volume fraction was between 4.5% and 5.5%. A graph that correlates the average impact energy with the carbon equivalent CE(IIW) and the Pcm is shown in Figure 8. This graph illustrates that the impact energy is not directly related to the CE(IIW), as average impact energies around 250 J were obtained with compositions that have a CE(IIW) between 0.34 and 0.40. The Pcm was found to be a significantly better measure of the impact energy with higher toughness at lower Pcm values. However, the four compositions with a Pcm

0 Mill A B C D E F G H I J
Material

Figure 6: Results of the Charpy tests at -30C of the investigated materials at the FL 50/50 position
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 Mill A B C D E F G H I J Material

Figure 7: Volume fraction of carbon-rich constituents in the CGHAZ of the investigated laboratory heats

The volume fraction of carbon-rich phases that was observed by point analysis, on the other hand, was found to correlate well with the impact energy in the FL 50/50 position, as shown in Figure 9. If the observed volume fraction of carbon-rich constituents of the four steels with a Pcm value of 0.17 are compared, it is apparent that the volume fraction of the steels A (6.5%) and J (6.3%) which achieved nearly identical average impact energies was above that of the steels F (5.1%) and I (5.3%). Apart from the steel G and steel H which achieved average impact energies of 266 J and 244 J, all other

Volume fraction of C-rich constituents

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steels showed a drop in the mean impact energy above an average volume fraction of 5% of carbon-rich constituents. The results of the microstructure investigation of the largediameter pipes in the ICCGHAZ are presented in Figure 10. The observed average volume fraction of carbon-rich phases varied between 1.6% (EP 1) and 8.3% (EP 2). While the carbon-rich constituents were predominantly carbide aggregates in the CGHAZ, a significantly higher volume fraction of M/Aphase was found in the ICCGHAZ. The two extreme cases were the materials EP 1 (X65) and EP 2 (X70) which show the strongest difference in the carbon content of the investigated samples. The materials EP 3, EP 4 and EP 5, which are on the X70 strength level, differ in the silicon content and the addition of copper and nickel. In the case of these three materials, a higher volume fraction of M/A-phase was observed at the higher silicon content of 0.3% (EP 4 and EP 5). The moderate copper and nickel addition of the pipe EP 5 did not affect the volume fraction significantly. In the ICCGHAZ of the sample EP 6 (X80) which was also contained molybdenum, 7.6% of carbon-rich constituents were observed. Of these six materials, EP1 and EP 3 reached the lowest volume fractions.
350

350 300 Impact energy at -30 [J] C 250 200 150 100 50 0 3.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 Volume fraction of C-rich constituents [% ]

Figure 9: Impact energy at -30 vs. the volume fraction of C carbon-rich microstructure constituents
10 Volume fraction of C-rich constituents [%] 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 EP 1 EP 2 EP 3 EP 4 EP 5 EP 6 Material

300 Impact energy at -30 [J] C 250

200 150

100 50

0 0.32

0.34

0.36

0.38 CE (IIW)

0.40

0.42

0.44

350

300 Impact energy at -30 [J] C 250

Figure 10: Volume fraction and standard deviation of carbon-rich microstructure constituents in the ICCGHAZ of the investigated pipe samples

200

150

100 50

0 0.14

0.15

0.16

0.17
Pcm

0.18

0.19

0.20

Figure 8: Impact energy at -30C vs. the CE(IIW) (top) and Pcm (bottom) of the investigated materials

DISCUSSION The development of gas fields in remote areas places tight requirements on the HAZ properties. The aim of the present investigation was to clarify the relationship between the base metal composition and the toughness in the HAZ and to find a balance between the composition and the strength. In the laboratory trials, several potential strategies were identified that make it possible to reach the X70 strength level at 30 mm wall thickness. The laboratory welding trials were found to be well suited to assess the potential of the laboratory heats regarding HAZ toughness. The results show that a reduction in the carbon content to 0.06% and in the silicon content to 0.1% is an effective measure to achieve high mean impact energies at -30C. The positive effect of a reduction of the silicon content has been noted previously and attributed to the reduced stability

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of retained austenite [12,13]. In the present case, this step, however, led to a drop in strength below the X70 requirements. The strategies that were investigated to compensate for this loss included the addition of copper and nickel, an increase of the manganese content to 1.8% and the addition of chromium and molybdenum. A moderate increase of the copper and nickel content did not have a strong negative effect on the HAZ toughness and on the volume fraction of carbon-rich constituents. Increasing the levels of both elements led to a higher volume fraction of carbon-rich constituents and a decrease in the mean impact energy. The two steels that were alloyed with 1.8% manganese both fulfilled the tensile test requirements for X70 and offer a high level of HAZ toughness on par with the steel B with 1.6% manganese. In addition, the volume fraction of carbon-rich phases in the CGHAZ of these samples was on a similar level as that of steel B. The addition of chromium at 1.6% manganese (steel G and H) increased the strength level but did not prove as effective as increasing the manganese content to 1.8%. However, no negative effect of the chromium addition on the toughness in the CGHAZ was observed, even though the microstructure investigation showed that these steels have an elevated volume fraction of carbonrich constituents. A combination of chromium with a moderate addition of copper and nickel (steel I) proved to be less detrimental to the CGHAZ toughness than a high level of copper and nickel (steel D). This was also reflected in the lower volume fraction of carbon-rich constituents. The addition of 0.15% molybdenum in combination with moderate levels of copper and nickel at a manganese content of 1.8%, which constitutes a strategy to reach the grade X80, led to a significant drop in the toughness and an increase in the volume fraction of carbon-rich phases. It is generally important that the requirements for HAZ-toughness take the fact into account that higher additions of alloying elements are necessary in order to reach the X80 strength level. Lower strength grades do not require such high additions of alloying elements in order to realize the strength requirements and therefore offer a higher potential to achieve higher HAZ-toughness. Carbon equivalents are a valuable tool to assess the susceptibility of a steel to cold cracking [15]. In the present investigation, the CE(IIW), however, was not found to correlate well with the HAZ-toughness within the range of investigated compositions. The Pcm was found to be a better measure of the dependence of the toughness in the CGHAZ on the base metal composition. However, four materials with a Pcm value of 0.17 showed a considerable variation of the average impact energy. The volume fraction of carbon-rich phases, on the other hand, was found to correlate well with the toughness in the CGHAZ. With the exception of the chromium-alloyed steels G and H, volume fractions of above 5% led to an average impact energy below 200 J and a standard deviation above 50 J. The comparison of the microstructure in the ICCGHAZ of the production welds indicates that the materials EP 1 and EP 3 offer the highest potential to achieve low-temperature toughness requirements. The base metal of the sample EP 1 only contained 0.03% carbon. Therefore the volume fraction of austenite that can form during intercritical reheating is lower compared to the other materials. The influence of carbon is evident if the results for EP 1 and EP 2 are compared. The carbon content of the samples EP 3-6 is, however, relatively similar. In these cases, the differences in the volume fraction of

carbon-rich constituents can be attributed to the difference in silicon content (EP 3 vs. EP 5) and the molybdenum addition (EP 5 vs. EP 6). This tendency corresponds to the results obtained in the laboratory welding trials. CONCLUSIONS This investigation has demonstrated that the HAZ toughness of linepipe steels at low temperatures depends strongly on the base metal composition. A reduction of the levels of carbon to 0.06% and silicon to 0.1% was found to constitute an effective strategy for the improvement of the toughness. Several alternative strategies to compensate the inherent loss of strength and to reach the X70 strength level at 30 mm wall thickness were identified. An increase of the manganese content from 1.6% to 1.8%, moderate additions of copper in combination with nickel and chromium were found to lead to a favourable combination of strength and HAZ toughness. A high copper and nickel content and the addition of molybdenum had a negative impact on the HAZ toughness. The toughness correlates with the volume fraction of carbon-rich constituents in the CGHAZ. In most cases where this volume fraction exceeded 5%, the mean impact energy dropped to values below 200 J and the standard deviation was above 50 J. REFERENCES [1] Batte, A.D., Boothby, P.J., Rothwell, A.B., Understanding the weldability of niobium-bearing HSLA steel, Proceedings of the International Symposium Niobium 2001, Orlando, 931 [2] Militzer, M. et al., Austenite Grain Growth Kinetics in AlKilled Plain Carbon Steels, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 27A (1996), 3399 [3] Manohar, P.A., Dunne, D.P., Chandra, T., Killmore, C.R., Grain Growth in Microalloyed Steels, ISIJ International, 3 (1996), 194 [4] Schaffnit, P. et al., Quantitative Phase-Field Simulation of the Austenite Grain Growth Between 900C and 1400C if a Micro-Alloyed Line-Pipe Steel, in Mathematical Modelling of Weld Phenomena 9, Cerjak, H., Enzinger, N. (eds.), Graz (2010), 277 [5] Grss, H., Krebs, H., Dahl, W., Investigation of the influence of titanium addition to the base material on toughness properties in the HAZ, Steel Research 12 (1992), 554 [6] Mitchell, P., The Effect of Vanadium on the Microstructure and Toughness of Weld Heat Affected Zone, Iron and Steel, 40 (2005), Supplement, 36 [7] Matsuda, F. et al., Review of Mechanical and Metallurgical Investigations of M-A Constituent in Welded Joint in Japan, Transactions of JWRI, 24 (1995) 1 [8] Santofimia, M.J., Zhao, L., Sietsma, J., Microstructural Evolution of a Low-Carbon Steel during Application of Quenching and Partitioning Heat Treatments after Partial

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Austenitization, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 40A (2009), 46 [9] Davis, C.L., King, J.E., Cleavage Initiation in the Intercritically Reheated Coarse-Grained Heat-Affected Zone: Part I. Fractographic Evidence, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 25A (1994), 563 [10] Davis, C.L., King, J.E., Cleavage Initiation in the Intercritically Reheated Coarse-Grained Heat-Affected Zone: Part II. Failure Criteria and Statistical Effects, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 27A (1996), 3019 [11] Lambert-Perlade, A. et al., Mechanisms and Modelling of Cleavage Fracture in Simulated Heat-Affected Zone Microstructures of a High-Strength Low Alloy Steel, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 35A (2004), 1039 [12] Taillard, R. et al., Effect of Silicon on CGHAZ Toughness and Microstructure of Microalloyed Steels, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 26A (1995), 447 [13] Grf, M., Niederhoff, K., Properties of HAZ in two-pass submerged arc welded large-diameter pipe, Proceedings of the 3rd International Pipeline Technology Conference, Brugge, May (2000), 553 [14] Niederhoff, K., Grf, M., Toughness Behaviour of the Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ) in Double Submerged-arc Welded Large Diameter Pipe, Proceedings of the International Pipeline Technology Conference, Oostende, (1990), Vol. B, 13.1 [15] Lorenz, K., Dren, C., Evaluation of large diameter pipe steel weldability by means of the carbon equivalent, Proceedings of the International Conference on Steels for Line Pipe and Pipeline Fittings, Metals Society, London (1983), 322

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