Epithelial Tissues

Structure| Sqaumous Epithelium| Cubiodal Epithelium| Columnar Epithelium| Stratified Epithelium| Functions of Epithelium|

Structure

Epithelial tissue covers the whole surface of the body. It is made up of cells closely packed and ranged in one or more layers. This tissue is specialised to form the covering or lining of all internal and external body surfaces. Epithelial tissue that occurs on surfaces on the interior of the body is known as endothelium. Epithelial cells are packed tightly together, with almost no intercellular spaces and only a small amount of intercellular substance. Epithelial tissue, regardless of the type, is usually separated from the underlying tissue by a thin sheet of connective tissue; basement membrane. The basement membrane provides structural support for the epithelium and also binds it to neighbouring structures.
Types of Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial tissue can be divided into two groups depending on the number of layers of which it is composes. Epithelial tissue which is only one cell thick is known as simple epithelium. If it is two or more cells thick such as the skin, it is known as stratified epithelium. Simple epithelium Simple epithelium can be subdivided according to the shape and function of its cells.

Squamous (pavement) epithelium. Squamous cells have the appearance of thin, flat plates. The shape of the nucleus usually corresponds to the cell form and help to identify the type of epithelium. Squamous cells, for example, tend to havehorizontall flattened, elliptical nuclei because of the thin flattened form of the cell. They form the lining of cavities such as the mouth, blood vessels, heart and lungs and make up the outer layers of the skin.

Simple sqaumous epithelium

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium. As their name implies, cuboidal cells are roughly square or cuboidal in shape. Each cell has a spherical nucleus in the centre. Cuboidal epithelium is found in glands and in the lining of the kidney tubules as well as in the ducts of the glands. They also constitute the germinal epithelium which produces the egg cells in the female ovary and the sperm cells in the male testes.

Simple cuboidal epithelium

Simple Columnar Epithelium Columnar epithelial cells occur in one or more layers. The cells are elongated and column-shaped. The nuclei are elongated and are usually located near the base of the cells. Columnar epithelium forms thelining of the stomach and intestines. Some columnar cells are specialised for sensory reception such as in the nose, ears and the taste buds of the tongue. Goblet cells (unicellular glands) are found between the columnar epithelial cells of the duodenum. They secrete mucus or slime, a lubricating substance which keeps the surface smooth.

Functions of Epithelial Tissue

Protection

Epithelial cells from the skin protect underlying tissue from mechanical injury, harmful chemicals, invading bacteria and from excessive loss of water.

Sensation Sensory stimuli penetrate specialised epithelial cells. Specialised epithelial tissue containing sensory nerve endings is found in the skin, eyes, ears, nose and on the tongue.

Secretion In glands, epithelial tissue is specialised to secrete specific chemical substances such as enzymes, hormones and lubricating fluids.

Absorption Certain epithelial cells lining the small intestine absorb nutrients from the digestion of food.

Excretion Epithelial tissues in the kidney excrete waste products from the body and reabsorb needed materials from the urine. Sweat is also excreted from the body by epithelial cells in the sweat glands.

Diffusion Simple epithelium promotes the diffusion of gases, liquids and nutrients. Because they form such a thin lining, they are ideal for the diffusion of gases (eg. walls of capillaries and lungs).

Cleaning Ciliated epithelium assists in removing dust particles and foreign bodies which have entered the air passages.

Reduces Friction The smooth, tightly-interlocking, epithelial cells that line the entire circulatory system reduce friction between the blood and the walls of the blood vessels.

Structure and Functions of Muscular Tissue

Note: This page is part of the section about the structure and function of different Tissue Types, which is related to the section about Histology and Cells (incl. structure of animal cells, cell division, mitosis, meiosis). This "Tissue Types" section is included to complete description of the knowledge of "Histology - The Cell" required by some courses in FirstLevel Anatomy and Physiology. To read about other tissue types see the list of on the left.

There are 3 types of muscle tissue: Skeletal muscle tissue, Cardiac muscle tissue, and Smooth muscle tissue.

The structure of these muscle tissues can be described from the level of detail of the muscle fibres (muscle cells) through all the other muscle structures and parts of structures that bind muscle cells together enabling them to perform their functions. The functions of muscle tissues depend on the type of muscle tissues and their locations in the body.

Here is an overview of the 3 types of muscle tissues: (a) Skeletal Muscle Tissue Structure: Skeletal muscle is called "striated" because of its appearance consisting of light and dark bands visible using a light microscope. As shown in the diagram (on the right), a single skeletal muscle cell is long and approximately cylindrical in shape, with many nuclei located at the edges (periphery) of the cell. Function: Movement of the skeleton under concious control, including movement of limbs, fingers, toes, neck, etc. Movement of tissues of facial expression under concious control, e.g. ability to smile and to frown.

Above: Diagram of Skeletal Muscle Tissue

(b) Cardiac Muscle Tissue Structure: Cardiac muscle fibers are striated, branched (sometimes described as Y-shaped), and have a single central nucleus. These fibers are attached

at their ends to adjoining fibers by thick plasma membranes called intercalated discs (shown in digram on the right). Function: Pumping of blood through the heart: Alternate contraction and relaxation of cardiac muscle pumps o De-oxygenated blood through the Right Atrium and Right Ventricle to the lungs, and o Oxygenated blood through the Left Atrium and Left Ventricle to the aorta, then the rest of the body.

Above: Diagram of Cardiac Muscle Tissue

(c) Smooth Muscle Tissue Structure: Unlike Skeletal and Cardiac muscle tissue, Smooth muscle is not striated. Smooth muscle fibers are small and tapered - with the ends reducing in size, in contrast to the cylindrical shape of skeletal muscle. Each smooth muscle fiber has a single centrally located nucleus. Function: Contractions of smooth muscle constrict (i.e. narrow = reduce the diameter of) the vessels they surround. This is particularly important in the digestive system in which the action of smooth muscle helps to move food along the gastrointestinal tract as well as breaking the food down further. Smooth muscle also contributes to moving fluids through the body and to the elimination of indigestible matter from the gastrointestinal system.

Above: Diagram of Smooth Muscle Tissue

Table comparing the 3 types of muscle tissue:

Type of Muscle Tissue Skeletal Muscle Tissue Locations in body Voluntary or involuntary Voluntary Striations ? Cell Nuclei

Attached to bones (of the skeleton). In the case of facial

Yes: Striated Muscle

Many nuclei (locate at periphery of long cylindrical muscle

muscles, attached to other tissues including skin - hence muscles "of facial expression". Cardiac Muscle Tissue Smooth Muscle Tissue Wall of the heart only. Involuntary Involuntary Yes: Striated Muscle No:"Nonstriated" = "Smooth" (Muscle)

fiber)

One (centrally located) nucleus One (centrally located) nucleus

Walls of hollow internal structures, incl.: Blood vessels Stomach Intestines Gallbladder Urinary Bladder Airways to the lungs

Neurones: Structures and Functions

This page summarises basic information about neurones and their components.

Figure (1): Motor Neurone

Figure (3): Relay Figure (2): Sensory Neurone Neurone

The following table lists key terms in alphabetical order a refers to the diagram above.

Term
Axon

Function(s)

Structure(s)
A nerve fibre: a single process extending from the cell body of a neurone and carrying nerve impulses away from it.

Dendrite

Carries nerve impulses from adjacent neurons into the cell body.

One of the shorter branching processes of the cell body of a neurone. All dendrites have synaptic knobs at the ends, which are the "connections" to adjoining nerves.

Mixed Nerves

Contain both motor and sensory nerve fibres running to/from a particular region of the body. (Examples include most large nerves such as the brachial nerves, and all the spinal nerves.) Transmitting impulses (electrical See Figure (1) in the diagram signals for communication within above. the body) from the Central Nervous System (which is sometimes referred to by the abreviation: CNS, and) which consists of the brain and spinal cord, to muscles & glands elsewhere in the body. Three key functions of Myelin Sheath are: Protection of the nerve fibre. Insulation of the nerve fibre. Increases the rate of transmission of nerve impulses. A complex material formed of protein and phospholipid (fat) that is laid down as a sheath around the axons of certain neurons.

Motor Neurone = "Efferent Neurone"

Myelin Sheath

Nerve

A nerve is a bundle containing 100s to 1000s of axons (thread-like conductors) plus the associated connective tissue and blood vessels.

See the diagrams above. Figures (1), (2) and (3).

Neurilemma

The sheath of the axon of a nerve fibre. The neurilemma of a medullated fibre contains myelin laid down by Schwann cells. A cell specialized to transmit electrical nerve impulses and so Each neurone has an enlarged portion the

Neurone

carry information from one part of the body to another. "Neurone" = "Nerve Cell"

cell body (perikaryon), containing the nucleus; from the body extend several processes (dendrites) through which impulses enter from their branches. A longer process, the nerve fibre (axon), extends outwards and carries impulses away from the cell body. This is normally unbranched except at the nerve ending. The point of contact of one neurone with another is known as a synapse. Gaps that occur at regular intervals in the myelin sheath of medullated nerve fibres, between adjacent Schwann cells.

Nodes of Ranvier

Key functions of Nodes of Ranvier include: Allowing nutrients and waste products to enter/leave the neurone. Allowing nerve impulses to move along the neurone through a process of de-polarisation and repolarisation of the nerve membrane.

Relay Neurone

Located within the Central Nervous System (CNS), relay neurons transmit the electrical impulses generated by the stimuli to other nerves. Schwann cells are the cells that lay down the protective myelin sheath around the axon of medullated nerve fibers. Transmit impulses inwards from sense organs to the Central Nervous System (CNS). Reaching a synapse, an impulse causes the release of a neurotransmitter, which diffuses across the gap and triggers an electrical impulse in the next neurone. (Some brain cells have more than 15,000 synapses.)

See Figure (3) in the diagram above.

Schwann Cells

Each Schwann cell protects one length of axon, around which it twists as it grows - enveloping the axon. See Figure (2) in the diagram above. The minute gap across which nerve impulses pass from one neurone to the next, at the end of a nerve fibre.

Sensory Neurone

Synapse

Connective tissue is found throughout our body. There are many types of connective tissues depending on what it has to do. For example:
the connective tissue directly under our skin, in the hypodermis, contains a lot of fat-- that helps to maintain our body temperatures a very loose type of connective tissue, areolar connective tissue, is found connecting our hypodermis to other organs (like muscles) and is found surrounding many organs-- this tissue allows for some movement of the attached structures relative to one another tendons (that attach muscle to bone) are made up of dense regular connective tissue; they need the toughness of this material to withstand the high forces the muscles apply to them even bone is considered a type of connective tissue, and it is very hard material

In order to understand connective tissue, you must understand its general properties, the extracellular matrix material in which it lies as well as the cell types it contains. You can follow the links in the last sentence, or just keep reading, in order to spend more times on these concepts. If you understand them already, jump down below those sections to read more about some of thespecific types of connective tissue. Click here to link to another website that describes connective tissue... it is a beautiful site with lots of images (clicking on an "E" button will show you an Electronmicrograph while clicking on a "L" button will show you a Light micrograph). Just keep in mind that it goes into even more detail than I require, OK?
General Properties of Connective Tissue

It is difficult to describe general properties of CT in the same way as I did for epithelial tissue. That's because CT is so much more diverse. So, keep in mind that some of the characteristics that I am writing may not fit all of the CT types perfectly-- but they will fit most of them.
connective tissues are typically well-vascularized they can usually reproduce well (to recover from injury) Exception: They need a good
number of cells to help with this, and dense connective tissue has only sparse numbers of cells.

they have a lot of noncellular material, called extracellular matrix material (or just matrix). Exception: adipose tissue. there is no single function that can be described for this tissue, since there are so many.

Extracellular Matrix

The space between cells can be called the extracellular space/material or the intercellular space/material. "Extra-" means outside of, while "inter-" means between. I prefer to use the term extracellular space to prevent other confusion... that's because intercellular is easily confused with another term we will be using: intracellular. "Intra-" means within, and we will use intracellular to discuss what is inside the cell. In the drawing to the right, the extracellular space is all in pink. This space is not a vacuum, but it is filled with material. If the material is only liquid, the tissue as a whole will be loose. An example of that is in blood. If the material in the extracellular space has some tough strands (called fibers) of protein in it, that gives the entire tissue a stronger consistency (because the cells are now sitting in a mesh of fibers). This diagram shows a connective tissue with a lot of extracellular space. There are some connective tissues with less (and even more) extracellular space. If there's a lot of extracellular space (with little material in it), the tissue could be quite loose, while if there is little extracellular space the material will tend to hold together well. You should now understand that it is important to know how much and of what consistency the extracellular material is for any one type of connective tissue. Please note that I will refer to it from now on as extracellular matrix material, or even just as matrix, because it is a complicated enough material to be called a matrix.
Ground Substance:

This is the liquid portion of the extracellular matrix. It is never entirely watery, but more gel-like. A thin ground substance is seen in blood. The ground substance is not just water, but it is also filled with many dissolved solute particles.
Extracellular Matrix Fibers:

The number, properties, and alignment of fibers in the extracellular matrix will help determine the properties of the connective tissue. There are three main types of connective tissue fibers. Two are made out of a protein called collagen, while the third is made out of a protein called elastin. Collagen is a protein that forms a long strand. If many of these strands are put together the large resultant bundle can be quite strong. If only a few of these strands are intertwined, the small resultant bundle is only somewhat strong. Either way, collagen is has greater properties of strength than of

elasticity. Elastin, on the other hand, is not so strong, but has elastic properties.
Collagenous fibers: Very thick bundles of collagen. The picture at the far right is an image (from RasMol) of a large collagen bundle, containing 12 collagen fibers all intertwined; this is representative of a collagenous fiber. Reticular fibers: Thin bundles of collagen. The picture immediately to the right shows a small bundle of collagen fibers, only 3; this is more representative of a reticular fiber. Elastic fibers: stretchy branching bundles of elastin. Also called yellow fibers, because they tend to look yellower than collagen bundles do. (I have not included a photo).

All of these types of extracellular matrix fibers can run together in different ways:
as a mixture of fiber types mainly of one fiber type

OR
loosely piled, with no one orientation densely piled, with no one orientation densely piled, all having the same orientation Connective Tissue Cell Types

There are three main cell types in connective tissue. These three cell types may appear in most of the types of connective tissue. There are also cell types that are specific for certain connective tissues (and are only found there). The three main cell types are:
1. fibroblasts-- these important cells are the ones that lay down the extracellular matrix fibers! They tend to be elongate in appearance. 2. macrophages-- these cells are large and are derived from blood cells. A certain white blood cell can leave the blood and enter tissue, and is then called a macrophage. This

cell is a scavenger in our connective tissues. It chews up foreign particles in the tissue by phagocytosis, protecting and cleaning out our bodies. 3. mast cells-- these cells communicate chemically with our blood. They signal our blood by releasing heparin and histamine, telling our blood when it should clot or allow inflammation of certain tissues. That means that these cells help begin a repair process, when needed, in tissue.

Other cells that you may find in specific connective tissues are:
1. 2. 3. 4. osteocytes-- only found in bone chondrocytes-- only found in cartilage (or developing bone) adipocytes-- only found in adipose tissue for storing fat blood cells-- found only in blood (unless you are injured) and there are many types of blood cells. You will get to know each and every blood cell type in A&P2, but for now know at least red blood cells. 5. reticulocytes-- found only in reticular connective tissue. Our textbook just calls them fibroblasts, but our lab manual gives them the different name to match their tissue.

If a connective tissue has plenty of cells within it, it is better at recovering after injury. For example, if the skin is cut, and the dermis is thus cut, the mast cells will, of course, help get blood in the area to fill the hole left by the cut and then will also get the blood to begin clotting. After that, however, we need to replace the clot with more dermis. This is possible because the fibroblasts in the remaining dermis begin dividing and secreting more fibers for the matrix. As the fibroblasts make more dermal connective tissue, the macrophages start removing the clot. And, voila! The repair is done. If, however, a connective tissue has few cells (and/or blood supply is limited), it is more difficult to repair that connective tissue. An example of this is in tendons and ligaments. You probably also have heard that it is difficult to repair tendons and ligaments after injury-- the healing time is much longer than for a broken bone.
Some Specific Types of Connective Tissue Not all of the types are discussed here, since we are also doing them in lab. I am just highlighting some important features in connective tissues. Loose connective tissue

"It binds the skin to the underlying organs and fills spaces between muscles." This is built from a scattered array of a mixture of collagenous and elastic fibers within a gellike ground substance. Fibroblasts, macrophages, and mast cells can be found within it.
Dense connective tissue

This tissue is made up of A LOT of fibers. If it is regular dense connective tissue, it is mainly made up of parallel collagenous fibers. Figure 5.21 in your book shows you this tissue. In fact, there are so many fibers that there is little room for the fibroblasts to

remain embedded within it. There is also very little room for vascularization. This is the type of tissue that makes up tendons and ligaments. If it is irregular dense connective tissue, it is found making up the dermis of your skin. It has a lot of collagenous and elastic fibers, but these are not oriented in parallel bundles; the fibers are randomly arranged in orientation.
Cartilage

This tissue contains chondrocytes, and the extracellular matrix material was secreted by them. They secrete a dense matrix, so dense that after they secrete it they end up stuck inside of it. There are different types of cartilage, each having its own appearance and elastic qualities.
Bone

This tissue contains osteocytes, which are mature bone cells. These cells also end up stuck inside the dense extracellular matrix that we think of as bone. Because bone extracellular matrix is so dense, much more so than others, diffusion of nutrients through it is very difficult. Therefore, osteocytes do not use diffusion to get their nutrients. Instead, they extend tiny little processes to communicate with each other and with the blood; the development of these processes makes tiny little holes in the matrix, and these holes are called canaliculi.
http://www.technion.ac.il/~mdcourse/274203/lect3.html http://www.ivy-rose.co.uk/HumanBody/Tissue/Tissue_Muscular-Tissue.php http://www.ivy-rose.co.uk/HumanBody/Nerves/Neurons.php http://www.bcb.uwc.ac.za/sci_ed/grade10/mammal/epithelial.htm http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/ap/histology_mh/cartilag.html http://lifesci.rutgers.edu/~babiarz/bloodtx.htm