Cthet 1213

!

"# $ " $# "

%

&

$

" '
( "
)* ' )+,,

LATEX

R
2 + 3i = 2 + ( + 1) i

+ 1 + 5i = 2 + 2 3 + 7 i
(1 + i) = 2 + 2i
!
# (12 i) (3 + 4i)
(2 + 3i) + (6 + 11i)
(4 + 5i) + (6 2i)
$ (1 + i) (2 + i)
(3 9i) (6 8i)
% (4 + 6i) (7 3i)
" (23 i) (1 + i)
& (1 i) (2 i) (3 i)
' (') + i, , R (

1+i
2i

1+3i
1 3i
#
1
i
12i
2+3i
"
(1i)2
(1+i)3
$
1
2+3i
*+ z1 = 2 3i, z2 = 1 + i -

z12 + z22
z1 (z2 z1 )

1
z1
1
z2
"
1
z1 +i
#
z1
z
z2 + z 1
$
z1 +
z2
z1 z2
z2
z1 +z2
z1 z2
1
1+i

+
2
4+i
2

-
3+i
(1+i)(12i)
4
5
+ 35 i
z1 = 2 + 3i . z2 = 1 i - z1 ((zz12+z2 ))
! (x 1 i) (x 1 + i) (x + 1 + i) (x + 1 i) = x4 + 4
!

t 1 i 2 t 1 + i 2 t 2 + i 3 t 2 i 3 = t4 6t3 +18t2 26t+21
/ 0 (0 + ( . ( x, y ( 1.

z1 = 9y 2 4 10xi5 , z2 = 8y 2 + 20i11
23
4 ( . . ' . (0 z + x . y
5 ( . . ' . (0 z 73
z 6 = 117 + 44i . z 7 = 278 29i z 3

6 (') + i ( 1.
(1 + i)80 (1 + i)82
i96
z = 3 4i - z 2 + z + (z z)2

z = 2 + 5i - Re (z + 1) + Im (iz)
/ () R (2 + i)3 = + (5 + 1) i3

!" 7- 2 + i 2 3 + 2 i 2 3

( 1. ( z1 , z2 + z1 +3z2 = 8
. 4z1 3iz2 = 17 + 9i
) C

x2 + y 2
4x2 + y 2
5 z1 + z2 i = z1 z2 i3

( 1. ( z, w + z + w = 7 + 2i
. z = w + 2i 3

( . ( x, y +
xi yi
+
=i
3+i 3i

( . , 0 ( 1. ( 2+3+3i
. 1 + ( 11) i

z + z + 3z = 5 + 7i
- !

http://lyk-evsch-n-smyrn.att.sch.gr

www.nsmavrogiannis.gr

x2 4x + 13 = 0
3t2 2t + 2 = 0
2x2 2x + 5 = 0
" x2 2 () x + 1 = 0
z = a + bi . z 2 + z = 3 + 15i
a, b
, , , , , ( . ( 1!
z = ( + i)2 + ( + i) + , w = ( i)2 + ( i) +
2

*+ z = 12 + i

2
2
3
2
. , ( . 1! (

z + z ( . ( .
z + z
/ ( 1. ( z + z 2 = z 5 -

z 3 = 4z 5
z 4 = 9z + 20
z 5 = 11z + 45

-)

Re(Re(z)) + Im(Re(z)) + Re(Im(z)) + Im(Im(z))
z = 12 + 12 i 3 - z 2 , z 3 , z 6

x
1
x
1
x+3i
1
x3i
Girolamo Cardano, 0 + -

0
Ars Magna 8 - 409 !1 #"#, '
!"
# $ % $ &'% % & '( $ $

$%% ) * &+% ,( - .

$
' & $
/
!) Cardano ( 2

-( 1
5 (), : ) ":, ( .
-(
;1 <3
*+ , ( . ( . +i =

=
z z4
z z+2z+2
z +4
1!
. =
1+z
z
- !+
2i(
z z)
z z+2z+2
z +4
1!=

z + 1z = 1 z
1
x+2
1
x+4
zz = 23

z2
z+2
z
z
Girolamo Cardano
1
x+3
= 23


>
! a, b, x, y R ( a, b = 0 .

(a + bi) (x + yi) = a2 + b2 i
x = b . y = a
*+ z = x + yi, x, y R . w = x2 y 2 + x + (2xy + y) i

.' w ) z

() A =
'. (
1i
1i
6 (') + i ( z =
1 ' (0

p+qi
pqi
+ pqi
p+qi p, q R
*+ z = x + yi
z + ( w =
(z 2) (
z + i) ( .
*+ 0 ( ( . ( 1. ( 1! .
( 1. ( z ( ' . ( 1. (')
z = + ,
, R

( . ( ,
1
19 17
1
+
=
i
+ i + 2i
26 26
( 1. ( z1 = 2 3i, z2 = 4 + i . z = 2 i
( . ( , 0 z = z1 + z2
1! , , R

Re (( + + i) ( + + i) ( + + i)) = 2
1! z 3 = 1 . z / R

5
5
1 z + z 2 + 1 + z z 2 = 32
( 1. ( z = x + yi -- - 2( ( 2 + 3i

0 ( ' . ( 5 0 10 x, y 3
*+ f (z) =
z+
z1 ,
z = 1
f (i) = 12 52 i . f (1 + i) = 2 5i
f (2 + i)

- !+ (1 i)18 x = (1 + i)31
*+ z =
2+i
1i
> ( . . ' . (0 z + z1



w 3w2 + w + 1 2 + w2 + 2w + 2 2 = 0
*+ u 0 ( (1. ( 1. ( 5+ 0 -0!(
( 1. ( z ( (z u) (z u) ( .3
/ ( 1.

+ Re (z) = 2 . Im (z) = 1
( z

Re z 2 . Im z 2
*+ !+ x2 2mx + m = 0 ( 2 x1 = x2

x1 , x2
+ x31 + x32 = x21 + x22
> z + z 2 = 5 + 12i

. .0 1 -- - "
1!

1 + i2 (1 + i ) = 0

( + =+
= i + (2 + 3i) + (4 + 5i) + ... + [(2 2) + (2 1) i]

1! ( 1. ( z 1z z 1z ( .

# $%&' ( *+ ( 3 = 1,
C . = 1 - ()

y = (1 ) 1 2 1 4 1 5
1!
1 + + i
= + i
1 + i
4 ( . ( 1 ( 1. ( ( =

( . * 1 ( 1. 23
- !+ zz + (z z) = + i , , , (
(1. ( .
*+ z +
1
z 3
1
z
= 1 50 (0 ( A =
Bombelli .

-( .
( 1. (
+ i
( + i)3 = 2 + 11i
- ( 1. 2 + i -

-)(

-- ( 1. ( -

-)(
Rafael Bombelli


" !
"

1! . .0 , , , i +
i + i + i = 0 i+4 + i+4 + i+4 + i+4 = 0
*+ w1 = p3 3p2 i, w2 = pq 2 i, w3 = p2 + pqi p, q
1 ' ( (1. ( . 1! (

' . p + q = 1
w1 +iw2
w3
1
34
118
*+ F (z) = (1 + z)4 + 1+z
2 F (1 + i) = 5 + 5 i
F (1 i)3
z + 1z = 12
z 2 + z12

/ 0 (0 + ( . ( x, y ( (x + yi)3
( . . ( - &3
1!

xi y
x + yi
4n
x + yi
xi y
4n+1
=1+i
*+ (X + Y i)3 = x + yi 1!

y
x
+
= 4 X2 Y 2
X
Y
*+ , , 1 1 ' ( 1. ( 1!

, , . . . + ). . .
-
=0
( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) = 0
( )2 = ( ) ( )
" ( )2 = ( ) ( )
# ( )2 = ( ) ( )
$ ( )2 + ( )2 + ( )2 = 0
% 2 + 2 + 2 = + +
*+ 5 = 1 1

4
2
3
+
+
+
=2
1 + 2 1 + 4 1 +
1 + 3



/
1! 1) 1 . . + , ,

i + i + i = 0
( (1 + i)2n + (1 i)2n ( . 8n N9 5

.3
1! w3 = 1, w = 1 . n .

n1
n
+ w2 = 2n
1 w + w2 1 w2 + w4 1 w4 + w8 ... 1 w2
*+ z1 , z2 , z3 1 1 ' ( 1. (
z1 z2
z2 z3
/ R
1! . ( 1. ( z ( ' . ( 1.
+ z = z1 + z2 + z3 , , ( . ( (

(0 ( 1. ( z
z = 4 + 3i
z =1+i
4
5
z =

|z| = 2 (0 z3 4 z 2 3 4
+ 35 i
1
3
z3
( 1. ( x+yi 0 (0 (0 2y+2xi3

( 1. ( z
|z| = 1 1! z = 1z
1!
1
z1
1
z2
z1
|z1 |2
z2

|z2 |2
/ () |z| = 3

z = 1 + i
z = + 3 ( + 1) i

(0 + ( 1.
z1 = + i, z2 = + i, z3 =
2t
1+t2
+ i 1t
1+t2

(0 + ( 1. (
z1 = (1 + i) (2 + i) (3 + i) ,
z2 =
1+i
(2 + i) (3 + i)
|z1 | = 2 . |z2 | = 3 (0
z13 z2
3
z14
*+ z = 2 4i -


!
|z|2 z 2
|z + 2 + i|
"
|2z i|
1
|z+i|
/ ( 1. ( |z|2 = z 2 3

1! |z1 | > 1, |z2 | < 2 |2z1 + z2 | > |2 + z1 z2 |
/ z 0 + 0 (0
. 1 ( .
1! ( ' (') z = +i
i , R

1! |z1 + z2 | |zz11 | + |zz22 | 2 (|z1 | + |z2 |)
- !+ 4z 2 + 8 |z|2 = 3

5
z4

z + z12
z8i = 3 . z8 = 1

- ( 1. ( z z 3 =
|z|
1! |z + i| = |z + i| . , 1 '

( . ( z z = ( + ) i
1! |1 z1 z2 | 1 |z1 | |z2 |
|z| = 1
(0

z 2 (zi)
1+zi
- (1 + i)34 2 |1 i|33

(0 z = 2 2 + 2i, , R
- !+ z + |z| = 17 + 7i
|z| = 2, |w| = 3 -
A = z (
z + w) w (z w)
w 16
w
= 0 (0 w 3
! |Re (z)| |z| . |Im (z)| |z|
> z + |z| = 1 . |z + 1| = 1
/ ( 1. ( z = x + yi 3x = 4y > 0 1!
|z| = 54 x
/ . ( 1. z . . . ( . r |rz| = r|z|
/ 3



/ z1 , z2 + |z1 | 2 . |z2 | 3 1!

|z1 + 3z2 | 11
|5z1 6z2 | 28
|3z1 5z2 | 21

" z12 z22 13
*+
|u + v| = |u| = |v| ! )
12
3
2
= 12 + i
u
v
3
2

u
v
2- % % ,

4 (0 (0 1 ( 1. ( 3 . (0
-. 4 5 (0 3

>
/ ( 1. (

z1 . z2
|z1 | = 5, |z2 | = 13, |z1 z2 | = 82

(0 (
, , ( . .
1
zi
1
+i
1
+i

|z|2
1! ( 1. ( z |z + 1| = |z| + 1
z ( . ( .
1! x + yi =
a+bi
c+di
x2 + y 2 =
a2 +b2
c2 +d2

- ( 1. z |z|2 + z = 0

|z + 16| = 4 |z + 1| , 1!
|z| = 4
1! u, v ( (1. ( 1. ( u + v = 0

|u + v|2 = |u|2 + |v|2 . ( ( uv ' .
*+ ( (1. ( 1. z1 , z2 , z3
z1 + z2 + z3 = 0 .
|z1 | = |z2 | = |z3 |
1!
z2 z3
z1 , z1
2 !+ z 2 + z + 1 = 0

z = 1 + 0i . z = 1 + 0i
1!



!
|z| = 1, (

(
z1
z+1
z1
z+1
. ' .
. ' . |z| = 1

# $%&' ( =
z+i
iz+
. z = i 1
( R
' . ( . ( z ' .

(
? || = 1 . ( z ( . (

z9
z1 = 3
|z|
1! |z z1 | = |z z2 | .

z 1 z1 + 2 z2 = z 2 z1 + 1 z2

3
3
3
3

( 1. ( z + |z + 3i| = |z + 5 2i|
. |z 4i| = |z + 2i|
1!
(1 + 1 i) (

2 + 2 i) ... ( + i) = A + Bi
21 + 12 22 + 22 ... 2 + 2 = A2 + B 2

1! !+ (1 + iz) =
1+i
3
3+i
( N . z C 1 0 ( .) -
/ z |z i| + |z + 3| = 13

/ ( 1. ( z z 2 = z 1 !

1
|z| = = |z 1|
z
/ z |z 1| = |z 3| = |z i|3

z1 +z2
1! 1+
z1 z2 = 1 0 - z1 , z2
0 (0

*+ !+ z 2 + az + b = 0 a, b ( . ( a2 4b < 0
1! 2 !+ 0 (0 (.

( b < 1
.
*+ |2z + 1| = |2z + 3| > Re (z + 3)



2

u
/ ( 1. (
u + u iu < i 1!
( 1 + Im u2 . ( .
1! (
z|z|
z+|z|
' .
1! 1 ( 1. z 0 |z + 1 i| = 2
. |z| = 3
*+ p, q R .
z =
1

|z1 z2 |
d
4d2
1+pi
1pi ,
z2 =
1+qi
1qi
1! d =
pq
= 1+pq

*+ |z1 + z2 | = |z1 | = |z2 | 1! |z1 z2 | = 3 |z1 |
1! |z 10| = 3 |z 2| |z 1| = 3
1!
|z1 + z2 |2 = |z1 |2 + |z2 |2 + 2Re (z1 z2 )
|z1 z2 |2 = |z1 |2 + |z2 |2 2Re (z1 z2 )
1! ( 1. ( z1 , z2 , z3 0 (0
( 1 ' = ( 1.
.
z1 + z2 + z3 + z1 z2 + z2 z3 + z3 z1
1 + z1 z2 z3
( .

1!
|z + |z|| + |z |z|| = 2 |z| z R
1! |z1 |2 + |z2 |2 z1 z2 + z1 z2

1! |z| 1 1 |z 4| 7
) *'* Lagrange 1!

2 z2 w
1 | 2
|z1 |2 + |z2 |2 |w1 |2 + |w2 |2 = |z1 w1 + z2 w2 |2 + |z1 w

+,-'*.
1! . ( 1. ( ( ' +
( 1. (

! " # $ % % # &'! (
$
&'
#) &# + i * #) x + yi
+

(x + yi)2 = + i! ,
+ *

# x2 y 2 = %
2xy = +
!


!
z1 , z2 C, 1!

|z1 + z2 |2 + |z1 z2 |2 = 2 |z1 |2 + |z2 |2
, C ('+ ( 8 9 0 z C 0
= z 2 1!

+
+

|| + || =
+ z +
z
2
2
Joseph Louis Lagrange
!" 0

2
2
1 + |z2 |
(x) = x + 2 |z1 z2 | x + 1 + |z1 |
2
z1 , z2 1 0 ( 1. ( 1! (x) 0 .

( . ( x 5 3
( 1. (

z=
2 + i
, ( R
+ 2i
1! . ( 1. z ). ..- ( .0
O(0, 0) . . = 1
*+ z1 , z2 ( 1. ( .
z=
2 + i
+ 2i
= 0 . = 2
8 @9
+ .+ + ( 1. (+ z1 .
z2
8
@9 1
(z1 )2 = (z2 )
. '. (

-.

!



/
1!

|z1 |
|z2 |
|z1 + z2 |
+
1 + |z1 + z2 |
1 + |z1 | 1 + | z2 |
A 1!
|z1 |
|z2 |
|z |
|z1 + z2 + ... + z |
+
+ ... +
1 + |z1 + z2 + ... + z |
1 + |z1 | 1 + | z2 |
1 + | z |
/*01& Putnam#

1
11z 10 + 10iz 9 + 10iz 11 = 0
|z| = 1
*+ S - + z C z + z1 =
+ 0 - > 0 - () + (0+ +

+ S 12

1! . 2 ( 1. ( , . .
. .0 r
| + |r 2r1 (||r + ||r )

/ ( (1. ( 1. ( z1 , z2 , ..., z
|z1 + z2 + ... + z | = |z1 | + |z2 | + ... + |z |

1! . ( 2 , ..., 0
z2 = 2 z1 ,, z = z1

B . + )( ( A . z 1

. 12 z


,
" # $

1
1! . + ( 1. ( x+yi, 0, x+yi

( .
1 + 01 ). . +

( 1. ( z . +
Im (z) > Re (z)

Im (z) > Im z 2
-- - 3 + i ( i 0-(
-- - ! ( i -
-- ( '
. 0 )(
C . z ). ( !+ 2x3y = 1 .'

z ) z
B . 0 . + )( (' 2 1 (.
..- ( .0 . z0 . . 1 < 2 6
. + ((. (0 +
9
9
"9
#9
$9
! ( z = 0 1 (

z 5 = z6 z 11 = 1
. + z1 , z2 0 d 1!

d2 = z1 z1 z1 z2 z1 z2 + z2 z2
1! + .'0 . +

z1 = 1 + 2i, z2 = 4 2i, z3 = 1 6i
.-0
- |z1 z2 | = |z2 z3 | = 5

B - . + +(. .
z ..-
.0 K . .



|z 2| = 4
|z 2 3i| = 1
# |z + 2 3i| = 1
|z 2i| = 2
" |z + 2 + 3i| = 1
$ |2z 2 + 4i| = 1
1! . + ( 1.

2 + i, 3 + 2i, 2 + 3i, 1 + 2i
.'0
. z ). ..- ( !+ (x 2)2 + (y 3)2 = 4
. z ). 0 ..- B 3
1! . z ). ( !+
x + y = 1 |z| = |z + 1 i|
/ (0 x . ( 1. ( z = x + (x 1) i
). ..- ( .0 A(2, 3) . . 43
1! . + ( 1. z, z, 1z , 1z , 0 (
.

# $%&' ( *+ ( 1. =
( z = x + yi, x, y R 1! ( 1. 1

+(. + (+ M (x, y) 0 |z 1|2 +
|z 3 2i|2 = 6 ..-
.0 . . ..-

B . 0 ( )( .2 1 ((

..- ( .0 . + z1 , z2 . . 1 2 6
. + ((. (0 +
9
9
"9

+(. + .+ + ( 1. ( z
4 (z z)2 = 9z
z 225


"
" # $

5

+(. + .+ + w

1 w2 = 13

D+( ( 1. z1 = 2 + i . z2 = 3 + 4i 5
(
1 ( 2 . + z1 , z2 , z1 + z2 3

+(. + .+ + z
|z 2 + 3i| = 5 |z + i|
5 +(.
+ .+ + ( 1. ( z
Re z 2 = 13

# $%&' ( *+
z = (2x 3) + (2y 1)i
( x, y R 1! ( 1. 1 +(. +
(+ (x, y) 0
|2z 1 + 3i| = 3
..- B 0
(0 ..- .
.
*+ z1 , z2 1 ( 1. ( . u1 , u2 1 (
1!
u1 u2 z1 z2 + z1 z2 = 0
A 1! (( ()( ( . . + u, v
. (( ()( ( . . + w, z . (
uv
( wz
' .
( 1. ( z = 1 + i

(). - =
(0 (( >/ , >, /, . + z , z 2 , z 3 , z 4

+(. + .+ + ( 1. z

Re
z1i
z+1+i

=0
>
. + ( 1. ( 3 + i . 4 + 2i 1 1.0

.'0 4+ ( 1. ( . --
1 .'0 3
R, . w C 1! - ( 1.
( z . 0 Re(wz) = ). (



!
1! . + ( 1. ( 0, z1 ,z2

.'0 . . + ( 1. 0, 1, zz12 .'0
( .

*+ ) . ( 1. ( z ). . (-
*+ a 0 ( (1. ( 1. . S , M . + u = a + z .
w = az + (- .

|z z1 | = |z z2 |
|z z0 | =
S :
1
3
M :
2
4
*+ z1 , z2 ,z3 1 1 ' ( 1. ( 1!

. ( . . (
z1 z2
R
z2 z3
1!
4 +. ( + 1 ( + .' 2 ( 1.
( z1 , z2 ( 12 (z1 z2 + z1 z2 )
4 (
1 0 + .'0 . + ( 1.
( z1 , z2 , z3 (
1
|z1 z2 + z2 z3 + z3 z1 z1 z2 z2 z3 z3 z1 |
4
*+ z1 , z2 1 ( 1. ( . u1 , u2 1 (
1!
u1 u2 z1 z2 + z1 z2 = 0
A 1! (( ()( ( . . + u, v
. (( ()( ( . . + w, z . (
uv
' .
( wz
. + ( 1. ( z1 . z2 ( A . B
1! + OAB O . .-0 .

( z12 + z22 = 0

+(.

+
+ ( 1. ( z

.+

Re
z1
z+1
= 2Im
z1
z+1

+(. + .+ + ( 1. ( z
2z
z = z 2 + z2 + 8z + 8
z

/ ( 1. ( z + 1 + z 2 2 + 1 z 2 2 = c
c > 1
+(. . z


0
" # $

B . ( 1. ( z = 0 . .

y = x + ( ( 1. w = 1z
+(.
. w

+(. . w = iz + 3 , .
+,
C . z ). x + y = 1
z=1
z
|z 2 + 3i| = 1
" Re(z) = 1
# Im(z) = 3

+(. . w =
+,
z+i
z+1
, .
(2i + 3) z + (2i 3) z = 2i
|z + 3 + i| = 2
*+ w =
3
2

+ 2i z 52 zi
z = + i
Re (w), Im (w)
1! . ( 1. 1 + ( w ).=
x + 3y = 0
- . " ( +(. )(
( z1 , z2 0 1 |z1 + z2 | |z1 z2 | 5

+(. . (0 3

# $%&' (

f (z) =
(z 1) (
z + 1)
z + z
z C . Re (z) = 0

1! f 1z = f (z)

1 . (- ). ( M (x, y)
( 1. ( z = x + yi ( , , x, y R .
x = 0 . 0 Re [f (z)] = 0



1
> ( 1. . 0

|z 1 + i| = 2
0 (0 . - (03

# $%&' ( D+( (=

1. ( z, w . w1 0 w = z zi . w1 = 1 +i,
1 ,
R 1! (
-- R . w = w
. P z ( 1. 1 . (
-)
*+ P , Q . + ( 1. z1 , z2 1!
+ OP Q - z12 + z22 = z1 z2
1! , R ( 2 > . + ( 1.+
z - !+ z

z = az + a
z + b ). ..-
( 1. ( z

. w

i + 2 2 z = 6 . |w (1 i)| = |w (3 3i)|

+(. + .+ + ( 1. ( z
+(. + .+ + ( 1. ( w
- () |w|
" - () |z w|
/*01& Putnam#

1!
. +, 1 '+, ( 1. ( z1 . z2 .'0 -
.') . (=
1. (
z1 2 z2
( ( ( .) 2 !+ x3 = 1


" # $

*+ 1 ( 1. p, q ( (0 . f (z) =

pz + q z, z C 1! . + f (z) ). (
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(A2 + B 2 ) 2C (A2 + B 2 ) (A2 + B 2 4C)
2


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h (x) = Im (f (x) + ig (x))2
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f 0 - ( 1 ( [1, 1] 5
- ( g (x) = 2f (x) + 33
C y = 1 0( '.) f 1

( * f 06(3
>

1 ( + )+
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(x) = ln e2x 5ex + 6
1 x2
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k
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x
f
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Flanders#
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x 4 - (
[0, +)
R
[ 14 , +)


*+ '( , '(&!
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# [ 12 , +)
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f (x) =
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f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y)
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f (x) = f (x) . x R . . N

" f x = 1 f (x) . x R . . N
# f (qx) = qf (x) . . q Q ( q > 0
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x
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# f (1) = 0
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* %&**
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1 ( x1 , x2 , x3 ( x1 < x2 < x3
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x2 x1
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2)
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f (0) . f (1)
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x1 + x2
f (x1 ) f (x2 )

= 2 1 + 2 2
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gf . gf 06( . (g f )1 = f 1 g 1
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g (x) = x + 0 g f = h


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3
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f ( 1 ( R B . + (-
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8
9
89
819
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89
(-

lim x =
x2
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x
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x +
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x
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f
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8
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x1
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x1
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x
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x
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x1
x1
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lim
x2 3x+2
2
x1 x 4x+3
# lim
x3 4x2 +x+6
x2
x2
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x2
x3 +2x2 x2
x2 4
x3 +3x2 4
x2 4
x2

- . +
(x+1)4 x1
x1
x0
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x4+3|x|
x1
x1
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lim
x x9
2 27
x
x3 x
# lim
|4x2||x+1|
x2 1
x2 +4x+4
x2 |x+2|
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|2x+2||x+1|3
|x+3||3x1|
x1
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x1
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x1
x 3x2
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x2
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2 +4x
x4
x1
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# lim
x+33
x6
"
$
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lim f (x) = 0
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x0
x
x
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x1
x0
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x1
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x0
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lim f (x) . +

f (x) =

f (x) =

f (x) =

" f (x) =
x , x<0
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x+1 , x1
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x2 2
x>1
x+1 ,
x ,
|x| 1
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x2 , x2
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x+2 , x>2


*+ '( , '(&!

x2 +5
2
x2 x 3
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lim
x 3

(x1) 2x
2
x 1
x1
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1+x2 1
x
x0
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(x+h)4 x4
h
h0
lim
x2 3
x4 +x2 +1
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*+ (x) =

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(x)
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x4 9
x1
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x3
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x)
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1
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x8
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1
x8
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1
x8
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1
x8
x5
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x8
x9
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x8+
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1
x2+ x2
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1
x2+ 2x4
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2
x2+ x 4
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1
4
x2+ x 16
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1
3
x2+ 8x
1
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x2+
1
2 x
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x+3
"
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1
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1
x2 9
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x3+
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"
x3
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x+7
3
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3
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|x1|+x
x+3

,
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|x2 3x|+x
$
x+2
x2
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x2+
x+3+
x+4
x+2

(-

"
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x+
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x+ x+3
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x+
#

x2 9 =
$
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x+
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x+
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x+ 32x
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"
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x+
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x+
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x+
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xx

2
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x+
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x
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x
x
4
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2x +3x
x
x
x 4 +5
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x+
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x+3
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x
x+2
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f (x) = x2 x + 2

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x2

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x2
x3

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xt
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f (x) =
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p, q 0 f 0 1

f (x) =
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x 1
+.
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3x2 7x + 9
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x+
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x2 3x + 1
$
x2 +1
x+
2x+3
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x+
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x +x
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f (x)
x
x
f (x)
2x
2x
0 lim f (x) = 1

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= 13

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x + x x (x) x4 + ( + 1) x
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( )
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7 4 + 3 + 3
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) ( ) 1- 1)

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7x4 + 6x + 5 7x4 + 3x + 3
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lim
x0+
x+1
x
+ 3x
2x 3x
/ ( -+(.) f (x) +

lim f (x) = 4
x0

lim f (x)
x+ x+
f (x)
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=2
= = 0

0 f . ( ,
>
2x + 3x
x+ 2x + 3x+1
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/ 1 ' (0 R

(1)x3 +4x+1
x2 +1
x+
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x2 +1
x1
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lim
x+

x2 + 2x 3 + x

f (x) =
x + 4 ,
3x ,
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f x


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x+
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x3 1
x+|x2 +x+1|
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x+
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x
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x +
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x||
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x
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x+
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x+
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x

f x 0
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(0, h) ( h > 0


"
*+ '(&!
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1 + x2
. h (x) =
x3 ,
1,

(0
x<0
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f (x)
=0
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h(x)
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lim
x+
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/ f : (0, +) R 1 + x2 f (x) + x2 x
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x+
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d(x) P
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x2

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y+

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xy 3 + x4 x2 + 1
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x2 +1
x
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.
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lim
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lim
x1
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(x1)(x2 1)(x3 1)...(xk 1)
x+
x
x+ x
x0
lim


*+ '( , '(&!
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(x 1)2 (x 1)(x 1)+(x 1)2

2
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B 0 . + f )
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8
9

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819
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lim f 2 (x) 9 =
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=
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. +
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lim
! 0 f )

x0 = 1


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f (x) =
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# f (x) =
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3
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()
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,
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x , 0x<1
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x , 0x<1
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x ,
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x , 0x<1
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x ,
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1 ,
x=3
2x 5 , x > 3
)

# $%&' IV ! +
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4x2 9x+2
x R\ {2}
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x

/ f + ) x0 .
f (x0 ) = 18 -


",
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lim (f (x) + 13)

xx0

lim f
x+
x0 x+13
x+18
f (x0 h)
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) f . g 0 1 ( R . )
f + 3g , 3f + g 1! . 5f + 2g )
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f = 38 s 18 h( g = 18 s + 38 h

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) x0

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,
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.
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x
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)+ y = x + x2 + 2x + 3 x
+
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lim
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)$


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"
1! ( f )

lim (f ( + h) f ( h)) = 0
h0
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1! 1 1) x1 , x2 - (
-) f
f (x1 ) f (x2 )
x1 x2
x1 , x2 ). [, ] f )

# ! * 8
&*'&* 3 ! 1
(x) = x2 x1 , x = 0 . (0) = 0, ) -

+ ( . (
D -0( ( f . ( ).

Lipschitz . ( c 0
Rudolf Otto Sigismund

Lipschitz
0 1
|f (x1 ) f (x2 )| c |x1 x2 |

- x1 , x2
H
older . ( c . 0
|f (x1 ) f (x2 )| c |x1 x2 |
- x1 , x2
1! f . ( + ).
) . 1 1! ( ( .
1 ). .)
(x)
/ + x
lim (x)+
= 0 1!
lim (x) =

x
1 0 1( )+ ( ( )

*+ : R R ( ) x0 *+ .(

( f : R R 0
|f (x) f (y)| | (x) (y)| . x, y

1! f ) 81 . . #:9
-

&$ Holder ) #) f
&$! -
& &
' /))' %

%

0
! " +
# #%
% &
' $
' ))'! / )

(1 2#


Otto Ludwig H
older
1859-1937
""
" '( , '(&!

D+( 1 ) f, g (0 0 1 ( .

x0
f, g
f (x) g (x)
f (x0 ) = g (x0 )
1! . h
f (x) h(x) g(x) . x

) x0
1! h ) x0 .-

8 @9 x2 1 + 1 h (x) (x 1)2 + 1 x0 = 1
8
@9 1 |x| h (x) ex x0 = 0
*+ f ) (0 1 ( [, ] 1!=
f (x) 0 . x [, ) f () 0

*+ f : R 1!
0 , f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) - x, y . f )
0 )
0 , f (x + y) = f (x) f (y) - x, y . f )
0 )
1 , f (xy) = f (x) f (y) - x, y . f )
1 )
" 1 , f (xy) = f (x) + f (y) - x, y . f )
1 )
1! ) f , g (0 0 1 =

( . ) m (x) = min (f (x) , g (x)) . M (x) =
max (f (x) , g (x))

*+ !+ x2 + x + = 0 ( + x .

g () = (. 2
x2 + x + = 0
! g )
g f ) . g ) f )3


*+ '( , '(&!
"!
# 4!06 9*3'
f (

x2 8x + 16

f (x) = 2
2
+ ln (x 5 + e) + 2 ( + 1) e5x
, 0<x<5
,
x5

lim f (x), lim f (x)
x5
x5+

, R f ) x0 = 5
/ (0 + , +)( 8
9
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x+
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xx
0
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( M (x, f (x)) Cf ( A(x0 , f (x0 )) 1!=
f ) x0 . ( lim d (x) = 0
xx0

/
) ,'' *,*" &%, B . ( x =
( ( - . 1

x
( (
-2 ( [x] . ( 2 x - 1)
[ x ]I ( - . m ( m x

>
+ ( . [3] = 3, [3, 4] = 3, [2, 8] =
2, [2, 8] = 4
1! x 1 < [x] x < [x] + 1
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8 @9 1! f ) . 0
1 )( ..., [3, 2), [2, 1), [1, 0), [0, 1), [1, 2), ...
8
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.
81@9 . '.) f
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= (, ]
!
&'# '+
"

1! . + f 0 (

- 2 1 (

f (x) = x x, = 0, 2
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f (x) = x3 + x 3 = (0, 2)

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# f (x) = x3 1 ln x2 + 1 = (1, 2)
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*+ '( , '(&!
"1
1! !+ 17x2 19 =
1
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0 ( - -
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f (3) = 10 e3
11(0 1! ( = :
() f
/ ( ) f (0 R f (1) + f (2) = 0

0! 0 ( - 2 1 ( [1, 2]
2 f (x) = x4 7x3 + 8x2 + 28x 48
( 2, 2, 3, 4 4 ( 0 1 ( (2, 2)3
1! . + ! 0 ( - -

1 ( [0, 1]
ex =
1
x+1
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ln x = 1 x
1! !+

ln(x + 2) = 4x 1
0 ( - - 1 ( (1, e 2)
1! '.0 + )+ f (x) =
x . g (x) = x 0 0 - . (
%*- % &% 0, 2
10! !+ x4 + t2 2 x2 + (t 1) x t2 = 0 0
( - 2 (0, 2)
< $-$=% t = 0 )% =%
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( (0 , 3 , , 3 .0 (03

(- .
f (x) =
x+1
x2
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x
ln x
1
x
1
x

=
[3, 7]
[2, 5]
[4,
1]

,
6 3
[1, e2 )
(2, 3]
(0, 1]
f () =

!
% '(& (,
" >
1! . + f 0 (

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f (x) = x5 + x + 1, = (, +)
f (x) =
x3 +x+
,
x2 +1
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1
x3 3
= (, +)

f (x) = x + ln x2 + 1 , = 2 , 2
+
1
,
x3 3
= (, )
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()
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2
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8 @9 f (x) =
f ()+f ()
2


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2 [, ]
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f )

. ( c1 , c2 , ..., c . t1 < t2 < ... < t
1! !+
c2
c
c1
+
+ ... +
=0
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x t
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1 -, ( . 0 1 )( (t1 , t2 ) , ..., (t1 , t )
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1 , 2 , ..., ).
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( 0

f () = f (1 ) f (2 ) ... f ( )
! .- )

C . '-0 1( '
-
C
1(. 10(
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f 2 (x) + f (x) = x2 + x + 1

f .-
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k = 1 1! kf () =
2 [, ]

1 f ()
k
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% '(& (,
*+ f : (1 , 2 ) R ) 1!

lim f (x) = .
x1
lim f (x) = +
x2
f 0 - ( R
D+( 1 ) (0 1 (
1! '.0 1 0 . ( ) Cf

+ Cg Cg + Cf
J*+ f : [, ] R ) ( f () . f () 10!

x [, ] f (x) = x
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=
2
+
2
.
1! x [0, ] f (x + ) = f (x + )
4 5-,'&* Brouwer 1! . )
Luitzen
Egbertus Jan
Brouwer
00 1""
f 0 .- 1 ( 0 0 -

( 1- 1) 0 - x 0
f (x) = x

*+ f : (0, +) R ( f (x) = x1 ? ' f (x) > 0

. x ! 1 . c 0
f (x) > c - x
*+ f : [, ] R ) 0 f (x) > 0 . x

1! . c 0 f (x) > c
- x
*+
f (x) =
(x)3 + x + 1 x < 1
x1
(x)5 + 3
1! - ( () f

)
*+ f : [, ] R ) 1! (, )

0
f () =
|| + 1 || + 1
+
/ ) f : (1, 2) R +

ln (x 1) + ln (2 x) = ln 2 + f (x)
1! f 1 (


*+ '( , '(&!
!
*+ P (x) 0 -(

( - . f , g 1 )=
( 1 ( R . + + g ) 0
f =P g
1!
C f )
!+ f (x) = P (0) 1 0 - g 1
(
D+( 1 ) f : R R, g : R R 0
. x R ( f (x), g(x) (

1! Cf , Cg 1 0 . (
1! . x0 f (x0 ) > g(x0 ) .

f (x) > g(x) - x 81 . . #"#9
*+ , 0 f () = . g () = '
1! , 1 ' 1! ( !
0
f () + g () =
"
/
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1! . , , ( < <
f () < f () . f () < f () f 1 =
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f () > f () . f () > f ()
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,

$ #
#$
' #+ ' & 3

*+ ( ) f (0 0 1 ( 0

f (x) = 0 . ( 1 )(
1! . x0 f (x0 ) = 0 x0
/ Q
1! . x0 f (x0 ) = 0
1 ( I 0 x0 . f (x) = 0 . x I
1! f (x) = 0 - x


Peter Gustav Lejeuene

Dirichlet
0 01
!,
% '(& (,
K( ( 1!

1 ) (0 0 1 (
(0 1 )(

) ,'' Dirichlet

f (x) =
1 xQ
0 x
/Q
1 )

4 ,'&* Cauchy ( ) f : R
R ( 1
f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) - x, y
81 . . #&9 ) (')
f (x) = x
"
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f (x + y) = f (x) f (y) - x, y
*+ ( ) (0 0 1 ( . 0
. + 1! f 0

0-
Augustin Louis Cauchy
!01 0!
* 5%&** '
( -(
' 2& /* ::$#

D+=
x10 + x9 + x8 + ... + x2 + x + 1
( 2 . + 1 . 1)=
. ( . (, . 1 .
( . ( 1) - .,
. 0 . ( ( .. 8B-. H .=
)9 -( . 1 0 ( .0 2 .12
. 0 - ( ( .) 2 .12 1
.1 1 . ! 1
3

4 -,'&* *,3 '&" Banach *+
f : R R . ( ). Lipschitz 81 . #:9 ( =
(. 1- 1) . ( c < 1 0

|f (x1 ) f (x2 )| c |x1 x2 |
- x1 , x2 1! f 0 .
0 (
1- 1) !+ f (x) = x 0 .
( -
Stefan Banach
01 1,


*+ '( , '(&!
,
!
"# $ %$

f (0 1 ( [, ], + !
1 ( [, x0 ) . + ' 1 ( (x0 , ] *
f (x0 ) (0 f 3
/ f

f (x) x8 x6 f (x) x4 x2 0
. x R
1! f ) :

lim f (x)
x+

lim
x+

f (x) + 1 f (x)
1
> x+
lim 2 x , lim logx 2
x+
D+( ( . 1 < 2 < ... < .
(x) = (x 1 ) (x 2 ) ... (x ) + ! 1 =
1+x2 x
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. f (0) = 0 ) . 06( ! ')
)
/ ( f : R R + . <

f ([, ]) [, ] 1! f (x) = x - x
*+ f (x) =
f f f
x+
x
( = 1
/ ( f ( 1 R f 3 (x) + f (x) x = 0

. x ' 1! . x1 = x2
|f (x1 ) f (x2 )| =
|f 2 (x
|x1 x2 |
2
1 ) + f (x1 ) f (x2 ) + f (x2 ) + 1|
1! . )
! g f 0 - ( R g 0
- ( R ? ( ;- (<

( ;1 (<3

>
lim

x2 + 1 + x

!"
- &
*+ y = f (x) =

x+
x
! x = f (y)

x
a+1
/ 0 (0 a lim 2a2
= 03
x+
C f : R R ) .

lim
xx0

f 2 (x) f 2 (x0 )
=2
f (x) f (x0 )

lim f x0 + h2 + h
h0
1! 1 06( 1.0 )
/ ()

f (x) =
13 x
, x<0
x
+ 12+x , x 0
5+x
)3
*+ )

f (x) =
x4 9x3 + 25x2 24x + 4

x3 5x2 + 8x 4

1 (

R {, +} f x
( . (
*+ ( ) f : (, ) R 7 0( x

lim f (x) =
A R . lim f (x) = B R . A = B 1! . 1 =

x
( ( . A, B 0 - ( f
1! 1 + ! -+(.)

(
*+ f (x) = 1 + x + x3

1! 06( . - (
R

1! . f 1 1 + + 3 =

lim
x1

x2 2x+1
|x|1

*+ '( , '(&!
!!
3
+x1
( y = x xx
2 +x2
1 (
. .) () , x =
> -
lim
x+
x2 + 1 x
= lim
x+
x

1
x2 + 1 x = 0
x2 + 1 x = 0
x
) 0 (0 . 1 ( !

- ( R
- . +

$

f : R R &#
, , , R # < ! - (f () )(f () ) < 0%
* R +
*
'
f (x) =
+ #
4
(, )!
5
!
6'#

g (x) = f (x + (1 x)) x (1 x) ,
x [0, 1]
7 g
$
[0, 1] +
g(0) = f () % g(1) = f () !
$
g (0) g (1) = (f () ) (f () ) < 0
&# Bolzano% (0, 1)

g() = 0
f ( + (1 )) = + (1 )
1-% = + (1 )% &# = + (1 ) &

4 *
'
f (x) = #
(, )%
(0, 1)!
5 1 (
C f + !

x
g (x) = f ef (1e ) 3
7 0( lim
x0
f (x)
x
= 1 > lim
x0
f (2x)
3x
7 0( < < . 1 ) f, g

(0 . (, ] , [, +) +
. x [, ] f (x) = g(x)
1!
h (x) =
f (x) , x <
g (x) , x
)


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f (0 R + ! . )
/ 1 ( a < b f 2 (a) + f 2 (b) + 13 = 4f (a) + 6f (b) >

f ([a, b])
*+

f (x) =
(x + 1) 2
0
1
+ 1
x |x|
x = 0
x=0
1! ), . ) 8 -0!9

- (0 ( ! + f (2) , f (2)
( 1

.')
.-
( (0 1 1() . 0 .

.- .

1 1 1() C
. .
1). "
1! 0 ( 1 1() ( 1
0 .
1 '0 1 1 1 '. (

( (1.) f 0 1 ( R .
f (x + y) + f (x y) = 2f (x) f (y) - x,y
1!
f (0) = 1
C f
f (2x) = 2f 2 (x) 1 - x

/ f + (0 . )
[0, 1] . f (0) = 1, f (1) = 0 5 . + (
0
. 03
7 [0, 1] 0 . x [0, 1] f () f (x)
7 [0, 1] 0 f () = 12
7 [0, 1] 0 f () = 32
" C f '
# 4 - ( f [0, 1]
$ 7 [0, 1] 0
2

lim f (x) = f 2


*+ '( , '(&!
!1

C '.)
f (x) =
x + 1
x+
10 ( A(2, 7)

f (7)

*+ f ( + ' . ) (0
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C !+ f (x) = x 0 .
( -
4 (
x = f (y)
y = f (z)
z = f (x)
0 .
( -

*+ ( f : R . x0 *+ d : R
2 . ( M (x, f (x)) Cf
( P (x0 , f (x0 )) 1!
= R lim d (x) = +
x+
C f ) x0 . ( lim d (x) = 0

xx0

*+ f (x) = x2 3x + 2 . ( g : R R 0
g(x)
x+ f (x)
- x (f g) (x) 0 1! lim
=0

# $%&' ( *+ (
f : R R ) [, ] . ( 1. ( z = 2 + if (),

w = f () + i 2 ( = 0 |w|2 + |z|2 = |w z|2 1!
!+ f (x) = 0 0 ( - 2 1 ( [, ]

L0( ( ) f 2 1 ( .
1 ) - ( 1 ( !
.- 1 ( . f () .- 1 (

- ) f : R R
(f (x))3 =

x 2
x + 7xf (x) + 16 f (x)2
12
- x

*+ f : [, ] R ( 7 0( f .
() .
1 '0 - 1) . x1 [, ] .
0
x2 [, ] 0 f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) 1! f 1 (
)


0
- &
1! . .) 81 . &9 )=

*+ f : [0, 1] R ( ) 7 0(

1
+ f (0) = 0
f (1) + 4f
2
1! f 0 ( - 2 (0, 1)
K( ( ( 10!

!+
4x3 + 3x2 + 2x = + +

0 ( - - (0, 1)
*+ f : R R ( ! 0 - x

f (f (x)) = kx3
k ( . (

1! k = 0 f + !

( - ( + 1
k = 0, k > 0
1! 1 ( + 1
k < 0
D+( 1 ) f, g (0 1 ( 0=

f (x) = g (x) . x
1!
) f (x) > g (x) - x
f (x) < g (x) - x
*+ h : R ) 0
(h (x) f (x)) (h (x) g (x)) = 0

- x
8 @9 1! Ch 0( Cf , Cg ( ( ((0
x1 , x2
i x1 = x2
-) & #

# * #
&#
Rolle


*+ '( , '(&!
0
ii C !+ h (x) = f (x)+g(x)

0 ( - 2
2
. 1 ( ( . x1 , x2
8
@9 1!
) h (x) = f (x) - x
h (x) = g (x) - x
) "1' Kepler *+ , ( . ( ( = 0,

|| < 1
Johannes Kepler
1! . x !+
! "
y = x + y
0 .
( - y
1! 0
f (x) = x + f (x)
2 ( f : R R
/ f (0 +)( 89
8 @9 1! =
8
@9
'
8@9 1! . x0 , x
|f (x) f (x0 )|
k
|x x0 |
1 ||
81@9 1! f )

8@9 1! f (0) = 0
8G@9 1!
lim f (x) = ,
x+
lim f (x) = 81
- ( (: lim f (x)

x
82@9 1! - ( f R
*+ f ( ( 1 ( R

|f (x1 ) f (x2 )| = |x1 x2 |
- x1 , x2
1! 1 0 x ) f (x) = f (0) + x
f (x) = f (0) x
1! x1 , x2 f (x1 ) = f (0)+x1 . f (x2 ) =
f (0) x2 . x1 , x2 :


- &
1!
6 f (x) = f (0) + x - x
" f (x) = f (0) x - x
' 9%;' *'&*6 2& /*#
*+
f : [0, 1] R
f (0) = f (1)
|f (x) f (y)| < |x y| - x = y
1! - x, y |f (x) f (y)| <
1
2
* '&" Berkeley#

1 f : R R ) . . x = y
|f (x)) f (y)| > |x y| ()

- ( f R

2-)
f $ - %* ()
% h (x) =
f (x) f (0) $ - &' $

= )
= # - &-)
h ' % +
R .
% %* () x, 0 &- ' $$'&
$ * /-%
Ch ' % 2-)
h - 2-) '
& *' m $ -
h $ )$ m - $ -

D+( f, g 1 ) ( 1 ( 1 (

[, ]
1! - x
f (x) < g (x)

. ( c 0 - x
f (x) + c < g (x)

1! f, g 0 1 (0 ()
0 - x0 [, ] 0 f (x0 ) = g (x0 )
* '&" Berkeley#

*+ f, g : [, ] R 1 ) 0 1 (0
() 1! t [, ]
f 2 (t) + 3f (t) = g2 (t) + 3g (t)


*+ '( , '(&!
0

/*01&
Harvard-MIT# ..- 0
1 (0 ( d . 1 . d A(d) (

-2( (
1
..- ( (. . ( 0 1
..- > lim A(d)

d2
d+
*+ f : R R ( ) ( lim f (x) = lim f (x) =

x
+ D+( .( )

(x) =
x
,
1 |x|
x (1, 1)
x
,
1 + |x|
(x) =
x+
xR
1! , 06( . ( '

--
1! + !
*+ : [1, 1] R (

1
,
(x) =
(f ( (x))) ,
x = 1
1 < x < 1
8 @9 1! )

8
@9 1! 0 (0 ()
.
(x) = 1 x = 1
8@9 1! 0 - () 0+ m . m =
(f ( (x0 ))) . x0 (1, 1)
81@9 1! x0 (0 +)( f ( (x))
f ( (x0 )) . x0 (1, 1)
" 1! f 0 - ()
"
*+ f : R R ( ) 0

f (x)f (f (x)) = 1
. x R .( f (0) = 2

> f (f (0))
! a f (a) = 1
> f (1)
- + $

+ $

#!
" # # & $ '
#&
,
#
# &'$#

$
'!


0,
- &
*+ f (x) = x2 D+( g 2 .
( . ( t (0 () 1 ( [t, t + 1]
> g . ! )
/ f +

lim [f (x0 + h) f (x0 h)] = 0
h0
5. ) -' f ) x0 3
/ f + . t, x, y

f ((1 t) x + ty) = (1 t) f (x) + tf (y)
! )
*+ f : R ) . + ! , g : R )

. + ' ( f () g () 4 !+ f (x) = g (x) 0
.
( -



( '#

- f (x0 ) . +

f (x) =
x
x+1 ,
" f (x) =
x0 = 1
f (x) = x + x,
f (x) = x ln x,
x0 =
x + x2 , x0 = 1
# f (x) = xx ,
x0 = e2
x0 = 1
$ f (x) = xex ,
x0 = 0

+ + )+
f (x) =
f (x) =
f (x) =
x2 1
x2 +1
xex
1+x ln x
ex ex
ex +ex
" f (x) = ln x+1

x1

+ + )+
f (x) = x3 + x2 + x +
f (x) = x2
f (x) =
x2 2
" f (x) = (x ) (x ) (x )

+ + )+
f (x) =

g (x) = x + x2 x
xex
1+x ln x
!

"# )=
f (x), g(x) 0 . 1 ( R . +2

*-0 g(x) = 0 . x D+(
(x)
(x) = fg(x)
1 (p) = 0
(p) =
f (p)
g (p)
&#
0"
" )! (&!
<* *,/0&* Euler. 1!

f (x) = ee

Leonhard Euler
1707-1783
ex
ex
f (x) = ee ee ex
x
7 0( f, g 1 +( ) (0

0 1 ( -

f 2 (x) g (x) = 2f (x) f (x) g (x) + f 2 (x) g (x)

2

f 2 (x)+1
2(x)g (x)g (x) , g(x) = 0

= f (x)f (x)g(x)f
g(x)
2
g (x)
(f (x)+1)

f 2 (x + 1) g 2 (x + 1) = 2f (x + 1) f (x + 1) 2g (x + 1) g (x + 1)

3f (ln x)g (x3 )x3 +f (ln x)g(x3 )
" f (ln x) g x3
=
x

g (x)
# f (x) ef (x) + ln g (x) = f (x) ef (x) f (x) + ef (x) f (x) + g(x) ,
g (x) > 0

$ (f (x))g(x) = (g (x) f (x) ln f (x) + f (x) g (x)) (f (x))g(x)1 ,
f (x) > 0
D+( ) f, g 1 '0 +( !

(f (g (x))) = f (g (x)) (g )2 (x) + f (g (x)) g (x)
B )( .2 '.) ( f .

' (0 Cf ( A(2, 4)
f (2)
) f , g (0 R, +( .

f 2 (x) + g2 (x) = x2 + 2x + 4
- x 1!
f (x) f (x) + g (x) g (x) = x + 1


" . /
0!

!+ ' (0 Cf ( M (x0 , f (x0 ))
.-
f (x) = x + ex , x0 = 1
f (x) =
f (x) = x2 + ln x, x0 = 1
x+1
x1 ,
x0 = 2
" f (x) = x + x, x0 =
/ +( ) f : R R, g : R R
f (x) g (x) = x '.) . f . g 10

) + !+3
B ( '.) f (x) =
' (0 ( 2 ( ! xx + 45 M
x3
3
5x2 + 7x 4

!+ ' (0 Cf 10
( M .-
f (x) = x2 , M (1, 1)
f (x) = x2 , M (1, 1)
f (x) = x + x1 , M (1, 1)
" f (x) = x + x, M (1, 2)
-
C f (x) = x + 2x + 3x . f (x) + f (x) + x = 0
C f (x) =
1
2
ln2 x + ln x + 1 . f (x) x + f (x) x2 = 1
C f (x) = x+x+ex . f (x)+f (x)+f (x)+f (x) =

0
" C f (x) = 2ex .
f (x)
f (x)
f (x)
f (x)
= 2
) f, g, h, s +( 0 1 ( 1!

f (x) g (x)

h (x) s (x)

= f (x) g (x)
h (x) s (x)

f (x) g (x)
+
h (x) s (x)

/ 0 (0 + ,

f (x) =
x3
, x<1
x + , x 1
+( 3
/ 0 (0 .- '.) f (x) =
( A (0, 1) ( 12

x+
x+

00
" )! (&!
<* *,/0&* Newton *+ , 0 .

+( ) x (t) , y (t) , z (t) 10 ( 0
x3 (t) x (t) y 2 (t) + 2 z (t) 3 = 0

1!
3x (t) x2 (t) x (t) y 2 (t) 2x (t) y (t) y (t) + 2 z (t) = 0
1! y = px + q ' (0 '.) =
f (x) = x2 + x + ( ( ((0 s . (

p = 2s + , q = s2 +
Sir Isaac Newton
1643-1727

.) ' (0 +
+ + )=
'.
+ f (x) = 3
4
x2
. g (x) =
1
9
x3 6x2 + 9x 9
+Leibniz# . *+ y (x) = u (x) v (x) u, v '0

+( 1!
y = u v + 2u v + uv
y = u v + 3u v + 3u v + uv

, 0 y = x+3 ' '.)
Gottfried Wilhelm von

Leibniz
1646-1716
f (x) = x2 + 2x + 3 ( ( ((0

x0 = 1

- '.0 + )+ f (x) =
x2 . g (x) = x2 2x + 1 0 0 ( . ( . ' (0
( .
1!
f (x) = 1 x

x
f (x)

1
f (x)
C f (0 R, 1 '0 +( .

f (1) = f (1) = 1 *+ g (x) = f (ex )
g (0)
*+ f (x) = ex + x f (1) = 2, f (1) = 3
f (1)
*+ f (x) = x2 x 2 *+ A, B ( ')
+ ' (0+ Cf 10 ( M (1, 3)

!+ AB


" . /
01

!+ ' (0 '.)

f (x) =
3x2 + 1
, x<1
2
4x 2x + 2 , x 1
( ( ((0
*+ f (x) = (ln x) 1!

x2 f (x) + xf (x) + f (x) = 0
*+ f (x) =
0

px+1
1+ex

() p f (1)+f (0) =
>

*+ f (x) = x2 3x + 2 ! +
f
B x0 = 1
B x0 = 1
/ f : R R +

x + x f (x) x + x + x2 ex

+ 0

&*'&* /*01& Harvard-MIT# *+
f +( 7 0( f (x) f (2x) 0 + #

x = 1 . + % x = 2 > + f (x) f (4x)
x = 1
B )( .- (' 2 1 ( !+ '.)
+ )+ f (x) = x, g (x) = x (0 x ( !
: . ,# C ( x 8 + .=
' 2 rad9 ( C 1 ( x
( + x ( 1 0 ) 1 '.0 N
f (1) = 1 = 0, 84 f (1) = 1 = 0, 01745


1
" )! (&!
1! g (x) =
x
180

+ g (x)

, ( f (x) = x2 + x f (1) = 2, f (1) = 2
B . x ( ( M (x, y) 2x + 3y = 1 (
((0 x *+ d(x) M ) + !+
+ d(x)
/ ( f : R R f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) -
x, y 1! f +2 0 x0 +2

. x0

# $%&' IV

f (x) = 2 (x), x R
()

f (x) + 42 f (x) = 2 . x R
2
f (x) = ex . g (x) = ex 1 2x 1!
(f (x) g (x)) = f (x) g (x)
*+ f (x) = 6x5 20x3 1! ( Cf 0
2 ' (0 .
*+ -( f (x) = x + + 1 x + 0 1!

' (0 Cf ( ( ((0 : y = 1 x + 0
f, g 1 ) -0( '.0
Cf , Cg $ 0 . ( 0 .) ' (0
1! (
f (x) = ln x,
g (x) =
x2
2e
Cf , Cg '

+

f (x) =
x2 x1 + x2
0
x = 0
x=0
1 0 1( ( ( 1 ( R

+2 - x0 . 0
+2 - x0 . 1
+2 - x0 .


" . /
1

# $%&' ( B !
. 0 1 . .- 0(
g
R , ,
g (x + y) = ey g (x) + ex g (y) + xy + x, y R

i) g (0) =
ii) g (x) = g (x) + g (0) ex + x x R
( ( ( 879 0

0 x = y = 0 879 1! g(0) =
+ 879 ( ' + x . ( ' + y
1! - x, y
g (x + y) = ey g (x) + ex g (y) + y
g (x + y) = ex g (y) + ey g (x) + x

ey g (x) g (x) ex g (y) g (y) + (y x) = 0
8 9
89
89
K( ( 1!
g(0) = 0
8"9
g (x) = g (x) + g (0) ex + x
8#9
. - x, y
C1 ( ! --+ 0 1! 2 0(

) + 89, 8#9 1!
ey x ex y + y x = 0
8$9
" 1! ( 1 '0 0(
1 O

-
-0 y = x2 + x + '
y = 3x + 2 ( A(1, 5)
*+ f (x) = ex , A ( Cf . B () ' (0
Cf A ( xx 1

-) AB xx 0
1 (
1 0 1( 1 )+ 1 +2

x0 -- ( +2 x0


" )! (&!

, 'F , .) ' (0 + '. +
+ f (x) = x3 8x 19, g (x) = x3 + x 1
*+ f : R 1!

0 , f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) - x, y . f
+( 0 +(
0 , f (x + y) = f (x) f (y) - x, y . f =
+( 0 +(
1 , f (xy) = f (x) f (y) - x, y . f +(
1 +(
" 1 , f (xy) = f (x) + f (y) - x, y . f =
+( 1 +(
( -0 %

& -+( P (x) -=
( S(x) 0
P (x) = (x )2 S (x) ,
S () = 0
1! 0 -( P (x) ( ( . -0 0

R 1-) 2 . (
P () = P () = 0, P () = 0
*
# $%&' (
*+ ( . ( A(x), B(x) -( ( ( .
-0 B() = 0 . A(x) 0
( ( - )
1! -( f (x) 0
A (x) B (x) = (x )2 f (x), . ( A () = A () = 0
*+ .0 ( - )
(0 +
, -( Q (x) = x x3 + x2 + x + 8 0
(x 2)2

( '.) f (x) = 2x22 x,
x [0, 2] ' (0 --- ! x x
/ f : R R + ) .

f (x)
=5
x0 2x
lim
> f (0)


" . /
1
1! ) f

f (x)
=tR
x (x )2
lim
g (x) = |f (x)| +2 x0 =

!+ ' (0 '.)

f (x) =
, x<1
3x2 + 1
2
4x 2x + 2 , x 1
( ( ((0
*+

f (x) = 2x + x + x

, , 0
f () = f () = f

2
=1
/ ) f , g + (0 R, =

+( = .
f 2 (x) + g2 (x) = x6 + 2x3 + 1

- x

f (1) , g (1)
f (x)
,
x1 x+1
1! f (1) = lim
g (1) = lim
g(x)
x1 x+1
1! (f (1))2 + (g (1))2 = 9
1! f : R +(

x0 . ( R 0

f (x)f (x0 )
, x , x = x0
xx0
g (x) =
,
x = x0
) x0
) *,*6,'' 9*,*/1,6 1! (

f +( x0 f 0
C f ) x0


7=%- 7* &=

0! 1
1,
" )! (&!
/ - x f (x) = f (x0 ) + f (x) (x x0 )

f(x0 ) = f (x0 )
1 . 1! '
1! ( '.)
f (x) = 6x5 20x3 1 + (12 =
.
*+ f (x) = x

-) 1 +
' (0 Cf 0 ( (0 &

5+ 0 -0!( ' (0 '.) =
f (x) = x3 + 2x2 x + 1 ( A(, f ()) 10

( M (2, 9)3
1! ' (0 '.) y =
( () ( y = x ---
* y = 2x + 3 ' (0 '.)

y = x3
&*'&* /*01& Harvard-MIT# *+
f (x) = x3 + ax + b, ( a = b, 0( ' (

'.) ( ( ((0 x = a . x = b
--- > f (1)
( -) 1 + 0( '.)

f (x) = x2 + x + 1 ( ( ((0 x1 , x2 1!

(x )
2

= f (x1 )+f
2
*+ ( f (0 0 1 ( , .0
(0 . +( a 10!
f (a)
ln f (x) ln f (a)
=
x
xa
f (a)
lim
*+ f ( (0 0 1 ( . x0 0 (

1 )( lim
xx
0
f (x)f (x0 )
xx0
. =
( . ( f -0 x0 . ()

f x0 - 2 0 1!
+(
1! f . 1! +( x0
+( x0 . ( ) . 1!
+ f


" . /
1
1! f . 1! +( x0

) x0
*+

f (x) =
x2 x1
0
, x = 0
, x=0
1! f +( (

2x x1 x1 , x = 0

f (x) =
0
, x=0
(-) + 0 f
# 56 9*3'
. .- ' 1

01! '( ) ! 1- (( .
f +( x0 , f )
x0
f ) x0 , f +( x0
f 0 1 + x0 , f ) x0
*+ 0 1 ( . x0 *+ f : R (

) x0 . > 1 1!

|x x0 | f (x) , x , x = x0
g (x) =
0
,
x = x0
+( x0
! .( -0 f +( . (
. + x0 . > 2 g 1 '0 +( x0

*+ f : R R ( +(
x0 1! f +( x0 . f (x0 ) =

f (x0 ) B - 1! +2( f =
+( - R3 1 . 1! -
)

*+ ( f (0 0 1 ( . x0 *+

f (x0 + h) f (x0 h)
8%9
f (x0 ) = lim
h0
2h
. ( . ( ( ( 2
Riemann f x0


1"
" )! (&!
1! f +( x0

+ Riemann f x0 . f (x0 ) = f (x0 )
*+ f (x) = |x| 1! . f 1
+( x0 f (0) = 0
7 0( + Riemann + f, g x0
1! h = f + g .
(x0 ) = f (x0 ) + g (x0 )
h
Georg Friedrich Bernhard
Riemann
1826-1866

*+ f (0 0 1 (
'0 +( / x 1 (12 f 2
f (x) 3
f (x) =
f (x)
2
f (x)
f (x)
2
( 2 Schwarz f

f f (x) = ex

f f (x) = x2 + 1 . = (0, +)
1! g f (x) g (x) = 1 .
x f (x) = g (x)
Hermann Amandus
Schwarz
1843-1921

*+ . (- C ( !+ x+ y = . : xp + yq = 1
/ + ' (0 C - (
p + q

/ -- 0 8 $&9
01! .- (0 1 ! (

-)=
A( ( ( -) -1 1 . ' ,> . ( )=
( 8 9 -- 2 (). . 0 )!
0( 1 '.0
-0


" . /
1!
#: ( 0 1-' Bernoulli, Jacob Bernoulli

).
.
) ( ( .) 0.' -1 . (-
y=
cx + cx
, c > 0, c = 1
2
1! + !+ 1 ( !+

-)
- 1) 1! 1
-) y = x2 + x + 0

cx + cx
x2 + x + =
2
. x R

/ ( f : R R
Galileo Galilei
f (x + y) f (x) = x2 y + xy 2 + y 3
1564-1642
. x, y 8, , 09 1! +(

D+( 1 ) f, g +( ( g () =
f (x)f ()
x g(x)g()
0 1! lim
f ()
g ()

10! xf (x) 0 + x0 = 0 .
f ) x0 f +( x0

5 () f ) x0 3 * )
3

# $%&' IV
g (0 R, 1 '0 +( .

g (1) = 7 f ( (
f (x) = 3 (x 2)2 g (2x 5)
1! f 1 '0 +( R . -
f (2)

( A (x0 , y0 ) ' (0 AB, A
'.) f (x) = x2 50 ). 0
. x0 , y0 AB = A3

f (x) = x2 |x|
!+ ' (0 Cf ( ( ((0 =3
C + f +)

2

5 + f x + f 2 x 3


Jacob (Jacques) Bernoulli

1654-1705
10
" + ( 0&
* + x = 1

1 + x + x2 + ... + x =
x+1 1
x1
> - (
1 + 2x + 3x2 + ... + x1
1! ' (0 0--6

M (x0 , y0 ), y0 > 0
x0 x
2
y0 y
2
= 1
x2
2
y2
2
= 1 (
> ' (0 '.) y = ekx 10
) + !+
/ 0 (0 + , , '.0 + )+

f (x) = x2 + x +
g (x) = x3 + x
0 .) ' (0 ( A(1, 3)3
1! ' (0 + '. + + )=

+ f (x) =
.
1
2x ,
g (x) = log2 x ( A (0, 1), B (1, 0) 0(
/
*+ f ( '0 +( 0 1 =
( . + .0 (0 *+ u (x) =

1
1
(f (x)) 2 . v (x) = f (x) (f (x)) 2 1!
1
1
u (x)
v (x) = 0
u (x)
v (x)
*+ f (x) =
f
()
x+
x+
1! =) +

1
(x) =
(1) ! x +
2

* ' -$#

( (
-) y + x


" . /
11
2x + 3y = 4
" ex + ey = 1
xy = 3
# ln x + ln y = 1

$ x2 + 1 y 2 + 1 = 2, y > 0
x2 + y 2 = 4, y > 0

4 ( A, B . . ( ! Ox, Oy . 0
. .) () t A (x (t) , 0) , B (0, y (t))

*+ x (t) = 3t, y (t) = 4t

( (
-)
(). d (t) = AB . (
1 E (t) = (OAB)
. 1 -( . 1- 1) 1 !0 )=
x (t), y (t) 8B -. 0-( x (t), y (t) .
+ x (t), y (t)9
C 0 . 1 (

M (x (t) , y (t))
x (t) , y (t) +( ) 5 0 10
x (t) , y (t) , x (t) , y (t)
4 . . ..-
x2 + y 2 = 10
4 . . x + y = 10
4 . . . (- ( !+
ex + ey = 10



"" # !& Fermat Rolle Lagrange
>

0 10 .) .
(-.(0 . .) () 1 0 s

* -. ( . ! xx 0 . .)
() t 0
s (t) =
k2 t2 + c2
k, c .0 0 1! (t)

* (. k
4 k t +

# $%&' ( ) +

. (( ()( AB (). 10m . A, B
xOy
- + -0 Oy . Ox + 4 ( B .
( ) v = 2m/ sec . 0 + ! Ox 1
s (t) = vt, t [0, 5] t 8 1- 9

(
1 E (t) AOB +
5 ( (
-) (
1 E(t) () .
(). ()( OA 6 m3

# $%&' ( * + 0

x ( 1 - ( ( .) . --0 . --0 g(x) ( 1
( P g (x) = M0 + M (1 ex ) M0 , M .
.0 0 .' ( (
-) (
P + g 5 ( M0 3

# Fermat Rolle Lagrange

B ( )( ' '.) + )+

f , g > ( (12 + .
. .


" . /

/ . + ) 6 0 . - 0+

. + ('+ ( ( Fermat
f (x) = 12 x2 x
" f (x) = 12 x2 4x + 6 ln (x + 1)
f (x) = 13 x3 x
# f (x) = 12 e2x 3ex + 2x
f (x) = 14 x4 23 x3 12 x2 + 2x
$ f (x) = ln x x + ln (x + 1)
' -0! ( , f . 0=
+)( Rolle
(12 f
f : [2, 2] R, f (x) = x2 + 1
f : [3, 0] R, f (x) = x3 + 3x2 + 1

2
f : 12 , 2 R, f (x) = x x+x+1
2 +1
" f : [0, ln 2] R, f (x) = e2x 3ex + 2,
# f : [0, 1] R, f (x) = x x

0
x=0
$ f : [0, 1] R, f (x) =
x ln x 0 < x 1
' -0! ( , f . =
0 +)( (0 () Lagrange

()
f () = f ()f
f : [1, 4] R, f (x) = 2x2 + 1

f : [1, 4] R, f (x) = 2x3 + x2 + 1
f : [1, 4] R, f (x) =
2x+3
x+2
" f : [1, 4] R, f (x) =
1
x
# f : [1, 4] R, f (x) = 2x + 1



$ f : [1, 4] R, f (x) =
x2 + 5x 4

Mathematical Tripos, Cambridge, 1935.

+)(
() f (x) =
(0

x (x 1) (x 2) 1 ( 0, 12
>

f (x) =
x
1 + |x|
1! +( .

+
' ( ( (0 () 1 ( [1, 1]
1! 1 ) . 0
+)( Rolle 1 ( [, ] . 1 0 --- ' =

(0 0 - ( .) ' (0
B )( '.) + (+ M (x, y)

. 0
(y + 1)3 = x2
(1)
C 0 8 9 2 ( y = f (x)

x0 +2 f
B . . 1 )( (') [, ] f (0
* 1 0 ' (0 --- xx 8 -0!
( ! 2 f (12 9 * +
( ( Rolle3
*+ f, g 1 +( ) ( 1 ( [0, 1]

0
f (0) = g(1) = 0
f (x) = 0, g(x) = 0 . x (0, 1)


" . /

1! (0, 1) 0
f () g ()
+
=0
f ()
g ()
* '&" $!"#

1! 1 k 0 !+ x3 12x + k = 0

0 1 1 ' 2 (0, 1)
1!
1
n1
0
+
+ ... +
+ n = 0,
n+1
n
2
!+
0 xn + 1 xn1 + ... + n1 x + n = 0
0 ( - 2
*+ f (x) = x ln x . ( , ( 0 < < 1!

+)( (0 () f 1 ( [, ] (
1
=
*+ f (x) = x (x 1) (x 2) (x 3) 1! +

f 0 .
2 ). 1 ( (0, 3)
1! !+ ex 1 = (e 1) x2 0 .

+ 2
1 ' . .( ( 1 ( (2, 3)

1! + ( (0 0
1 ( 1 0 2 =

# $%&' ( C f (0
. ) .- 1 ( [, ] 0 + . 1 (
(, ) . f () = f () = 0 1
F (x) =
0 F (c0 ) = 0
f (x)
xc ,
c
/ [, ] c0 (, )
c
/ [, ], c0 (, ) ' (0 (
(c0 , f (c0 )) (() ( !+ y = f (x) 10 (
(c, 0)
B ( Rolle + 1

-
1! .- .


,
*+ ( (0 . +( 1 ( (, )

8, R9 0
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = L
x+
L R ) L = 4 (, ) 0 f () = 0

B 0
B.' + ( 1 ( Rolle
+ 1

- !. + .
B.' + ( ( . (-
( .
1 )( . .
*+

f (x) = (x ) (x )
( , . . . x [, ]
1! . x ( , )

+
f (x) = f (x)
x x
' - f . 0 +)(
Rolle 1! (12 f
+
+
*+ +(

1 ( -
2 f0

2 1! f (x)
0 - 2 1 2

# $%&' ( D+(

f (
x3
+
f (x) =
3
+ x2 + ( ) x +
2
, , , ( . ( . 3 + 2 + = 0

1! (0, 1) 0 ' (0 '.)
f ( (, f ()) --- !
x x

# $%&' (
1 ( f (0 R 0 1
f = f . ( f (x) = cex , c ( .)


" . /

g (0 1 ( 2 , 2 , .
0 g (x) x + g (x) x = g (x) x . g (0) = 1992

# $%&' ( ( .0
) f, g 0 1 ( - R f . g 0

. 10 ( ! ( 0
f = g,
g = f
1! ) f . g .

1! .( 0
f + f = g + g = 0
. h = f 2 + g 2 )
4 -,'&* &%' &6 Cauchy *+ f , g 1 )=
(0 1 ( [, ] . 0 +)=
( (0 () *-0 0( + g 1 (12
. g () = g () 1! 0 - (, )
0
f ()
f () f ()
=
g () g ()
g ()
/ +( f (0 [, ] f () =

f () = 0, 1! (, ) f () = f ()

*+ f , g (0 . +(
f (x) g (x) = f (x) g (x)
- x 1! ( ! 1 +1) 2 f
2 g
*+ f (0 [, ] . 0

+)( (0 () 1! , . +,
[, ] 0
f () e f () e = ( ) (f () + f ())

f ()
f ()
f (x) = 0 (, )

.
% *+ '% % f (x) ex
.
% *+ Rolle % f (x) (x ) (x )
*+ f : R R ( +( 1!

f . f ) f )



1789-1857
"
* '&" $!"#

! f +( [, ] . +

) [, ] . +( (, ) (, )
0
f () = f () + ( ) f () +
1
( )2 f ()
2
/
7 0( c1 , c2 , ..., c 1 ' : . (

t1 , f2 , ..., t 1 1 ' 1! !+
c1 xt1 + c2 xt2 + ... + c xt = 0
0 - 2 1 ( (0, +)
Brook Taylor
"0 !
4 -,'&* Taylor *+ ( f (0

1 ( = [x0 h, x0 + h] n '0 +(
D+(
F (t) = f (x0 + h)
n1

i=0
1 (i)
f (t) (x0 + h t)i , t
i!
1
F (t) =
f (n) (t)
(x0 + h t)n1
(n 1)!
D+(
G (t) = F (t)
x0 + h t
h
n
F (x0 )
1
G (x0 + h) = G (x0 ) = 0
1 (x0 h, x0 + h) 0
f (x0 + h) = f (x0 )+
1 (1)
1
1
f (x0 ) h+...+
f (n1) (x0 ) hn1 + f (n) () hn
1!
(n 1)!
n!
84 Taylor9

" ' ( ( 1 ( !
: . x = 0 0
ex = 1 +
1
1
1
1
1
x + x2 + x3 + .... +
xn1 + xn e
1!
2!
3!
(n 1)!
n!


" . /
!
!
* $

'
"

1! . + ) + !

f (x) = 2x3 + 3x2 + 6x + 1
f (x) =
1 x
ln 2 2
+x1
f (x) = 2x3 + 6ex + e

" f (x) = 3ex ex x2 2xex

1 )( . + ) =
+ !
f (x) = 3x4 12x2 + 1

f (x) = e2x 10ex + 8x + 1
f (x) = 2x3 + 3x2 + 6x + 12 ln |x 1| 1
" f (x) =
x8 1
4x4

(0 . - () f (x) = x8 + x2
( 1 ( 1 ( [1, 6]

(0 . - () f (x) =
x5 x3 + x + 2 1 ( [1, 1]

(0 . - () f (x) =

x2 5x + 6 1 ( [0, 2]
*+ f : [2, 4] R ( f (x) = x2 + 3x + 1

1! f + !

- ( f
' (-) + (

f (x) = 2x3 9x2 + 12x + 1,
x [1, 3]

- (
1! f (x) =

3
2

x2 +x+1
x2 +1

1
2
f (x)

3
x2
1! . x 4 , 2 1 2x1 3 43

3

0
"% +

(
5 - ( f (x) =

x1
3
x2 3x+3
10! . x 0, 2 xx 2 2 3 4

x2
f (x) = xx, x 0, 2 - f (x) = 32x
?- -
1
%% f
1! - ( .0 (0 x

x
1
1

2
2
1+x
2

(0 ()
f (x) = 10 + 4x ln 9 3x1 33x

( . ( , y = x3 +
x2 6x + 1 10 . . ( x = 1 . x = 2
(- ( + , ' . =
, ( (0

- () f (x) = 2x 1 + 2x22+2
2
" >
/ ( f : R R + +( .
f (x) > 0 - x 1! f 1 0 (0

() ? ( (0 ( R 0( 0 .
1 ( * .-3

( '.) y = x2 0
( A(0, 1) -
. ( 0 ( + ( #: 5
( (03
*+ ( +( f : R 0
. 1 ( *+ A 0 ( 01 1! 0

( B Cf 0 A - ' (0
Cf B . AB
)

f (x) = x2 1
g (x) = px


" . /
1
1! . () p '.0

0( 1 ( A, B
.' AB + p

() p AB -
( . 1 ')( P+ .
+-) + P+ 0' . ..(0

. . 1) .)
() t 0 -
4 () ( 1 ')( +- #:: ( 1
P (0 : (0 +-) 0 :: ( 1
5 +-) ( : (0M
- ( + . .+ ( - ! +

( (
t

5
5 10
1
ln
0
10 4
4
0 - ( - . .) () t = 0 B
- ( e0 3
C . -1

- 0 0
A(=. (
1 S
=!
+=A +
5+ 0 - 1 -1 0 0 - =
1 (
13
D+( . ( x, y ( ( k . m, n . .0
1! (0 () xm y n (
mm nn k m+n

(m+n)m+n

(-) + ( f (x) = (1 + x)n +
(1 xn ), n . .0

# $%&' ( 1!
x < 2x, x > 0

x > x
x3
3
,x>0
1! . x > 0

ln (1 + x) < x

x2 x3
+
2
3


"% +

(
B ( x, y . ( . (

--
0 . ( 0 Q ! 0(
+ x, y 2 (0 ) -
B ).
x+y =
xy =
x+y =
x2 + y 2 =
x2 + y 2 =
1
1
x + y =
5
xy
x+y
x2 + y 2
x+y
1
1
x + y
x+y
+( f 0 1 ( R, 0 )

+ . 1 0 . 1! (
B )( .2 ( ) -( )( +
xx
xx
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
xx
xx
xx
xx
* -) ( .-() ( 1 . 0! (

2 . ( . A B 5+ 0 -
1 1() AP B - 3
*+
g (x) = (1 + x)x
. 1 ( Dg

(-) g + (
10! . x Dg
(1 + x)x 1
* '&" Berkeley#

1! .) t 1 (
ex > xt - x > 0 t < e
5 ( . (- y = x2 + 7x + 2 -0

y = 3x 33


" . /

(0 + , R
f (x) = (ln x + x) + 2x2 + 3x + 1
2 . . x1 = 1, x2 = 2 . 1 +
. +

1! . (1, +), n [1, +)
Bernoulli
(1 + )n 1 + n
# 56 9*3' C

f +( .- 1 ( [0, 1], . f (x) > 0 .
x (0, 1) f (0) = 2 . f (1) = 4, 1!
y = 3 0( '.) f F .
(
( ((0 x0 (0, 1)
x1 (0, 1), 0
f (x1 ) =
f (1 / 5) + f (2 / 5) + f (3 / 5) + f (4 / 5)
4
x2 (0, 1), ' (0 '.) f

( M (x2 , f (x2 )) --- y = 2x + 2000
/ f : R R 0 + '0 =

+( .

2f (x) = x 1 + f (x)
- x 1! f ) 850! 1 0+

() x = 09 -0 f (1) = 2
f

# $%&' IV *+ f
+( [0, +),
x2 x3
4
+
+ 182
[f (x)]5 + 2 [f (x)]3 + 3f (x) = (x + 1) ln (x + 1) x
5
2
3
. x [0, +) 1! f + !
x [0, +)



"% +

(
# 56 9*3' 4
.) () t = 0 F ) 0 ' ( . C .0+

' ( . ( 1
f (t) =
1+
t
2 ,
t
t0
. . ( . ( . t (

C (0 () .0+ ( # ( 1 .
$ ( ) ' ( .

(0 + .
11(0 1 ' ( . -( .),
() .0+ - ( ( 1,

. 1 ( ' ( . 1 -( .
- !+

9x + 3x = 5x + 7x

# $%&' ( f

+( 1 ( [1, e] ( 0 < f (x) < 1 . f (x) 0 .
x [1, e], 1! 0 ( ( x0 (1, e) 0

f (x0 ) + x0 ln x0 = x0
-
-( %%" + -( 0 )(
..- . . A, B 1 (.
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xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx

xxx
xxx
xxxx
xxxx
xxxx
xxxx

5 - 0 !+ x3 7x2 + 14x 7 = 0 3

5 2 0 -( f (x) = x4 + 4x + 13

1! !+
x3 3x + 1 = 0
1 ( (0, 1) 0 .
( 2


" . /

*+

f (x) = x2 ex 2
1!
f (x) = f (x) + 2xex + 2

lim f (x) = +
x+
lim f (x) = 2
" C f 0 1 ( 2

# C f 0 R ( ( 2

*+
f (x) = x e2x
( > 0
1! (0 () f
(e)
5+ 0 .- 0 (0 () f
- 1 )3

*+
3
f (x) = ex x2
(- f + ( .
- (

-) + 2 !+
3
ex x2 = 0

-) + 2 !+
1
1
=
x3 x

1! +( ) f : R R 0
1
f + f = 0
.
) (')
f (x) = cex
c R


,
"% +

(

# $%&' IV *+ ( .)
y ( .) (
-) x ( y = x + x4

1 ( . - ( y
! y + ( . 0 1 )(
(0, 2] . [2, +)

*+ f : [, ] R +( 0 f 0 1 ( 2
x1 , x2 ( < x1 < x2 <
1! . 0 1 )(
[, x1 ] , [x1 , x2 ] , [x2 , ]
f 0 ) ( 2
1! x1 2 f f 1 0 2
[, x1 ) (x1 , x2 ] 8( x2 2 f f 1 0 2
[x1 , x2 ) (x2 , ]9
1! 2 f f 1 0 2
(, x1 ] 8( 2 f f 1 0 2 [x2 , )
9
" 1! f 0 2 (, x1 ) . (
f ()f (x1 ) < 0

2 f (x) = x3 6x2 +9x10 ).
1 ( [2, 3]

1! . 2 ( 1. ( , . .
* r > 1
| + |r 2r1 (||r + ||r )

)% =% ' $-$=%

$ = 0 = 0(
=
r

r
= %
- $ &-)
2r1
+ 1
+1

0 %*-
%% f (x) = 2r1 (xr + 1) (x + 1)r ( x 0
* 1 1 ( ( 1 -

8( )=
1!9 !+
2x5 5x4 + 5 = 0
(E)
1 - 81- 1) 1 1

( 0
2 ( ) + + !+ . ! +) 29 1!
(E) 0 ( .0 2


" . /

-) + 2 !+ x = x

-) + 2 !+ ln x = x 1
1!
x2 x > x ln x > x 1
x2 1 > 2x ln x > 2 (x 1) ,
x>1

# $%&' IV 1!

ln (x + 1) > x
x2 1
2
5
. x [1, +)
1!
f (x) = x4 + 2x2 6x + 2
0 - 1 ( .0 2
) f (x) = ex +ln x+x2001 +5, g (x) = x2 +2x+3

(0 () f g
- !+

lim 2e
x y1
xy
=1
1! > 1

(x) =
ex
+ 2
x2
+ !
/*01& Putnam#

5 (0 ()
z 3 z + 2 z ( 1. ( ( |z| = 13

* .(( )( + --- (( 0 1=
< .( 0 + - x 8
-0
)( 9 . . . 2( 0 . . + 5+ 0 -
x . 0 (0 1 ) +. 3


"
"% +

(
2x
2x
2x
2x
x
) *,!6 Fermat * . ( . (0 M1
( 1 . (0 M2 ( 2 4 1 (0 1 +2

1! . A B . 1 1() ASB

. - ' ( S - 0
1
x
=
y
2
Pierre Fermat
" ""
*+ R .

f (x) = x3 + x2 + (1 3) x + 2 2
1! ! '.) =
f (x) 10 1 ( . =
1
(-) + ( . . f (x)
1 ' (0 R


" . /
!
* '&" Berkeley#

*
*+ f : R R +( 7 0( f (x) > f (x)
. f (x0 ) = 0 ! f (x) > f (x0 ) - x > x0

%*- %% g (x) =
f (x)

ex
, (0 .- 1 ( , (12 .
. 1 '0 +( 1!

( .) () 0+. ( 1 )(
1 + .)
<* ,'&* Johann Bernoulli 4 (..- )=

( 0 1 ( . M (
- (
x
(
1 + OMNT (0
((4# (/"*#
..- x2 + y 2 = 1
0( x= ! P, Q

* -- ..- ( .0 Q . (
-) . , 0(
..-, + x= ! R . (( ()( PQ S
(0 (
1 QSR
* '&" Berkeley#

1! !+
ex = 1 + x +

x2
2

Johann Bernoulli
""!
!,0
0
"% +

(
. 0 .
( ( .)
2

% f (x) = ex 1 + x +
x2
2
@ $-$=%
$ 1 -
&
f - %-= ) % @ $-$=%
$ 0 < < 1 *' $ %
$-$=% f ' & -> 2- ' $- f ' ->
&*'&* /*01& Harvard-MIT# *+

f +( 0
f (x) + f (x) 1
- x R ( f (0) = 0 5 ( - 1 ) () f (1)3
871! +) ex f (x)9
" /
Jean Gaston Darboux
0, 1!
4 5-,'&* Darboux *+ f : R ( +(
1! + f f 0 1 +

1 (0+ (, 1- 1) . ( y ( ! 1 ( y1 = f (x1 ),
y2 = f (x2 ) () f

%*- $-$=% $ x1 < x2 (
y1 < y < y2 9A $

$ $$+%
=$-> : 5%= g (x) = f (x) y (x x1 ) $ &-)

g - %
% [x1 , x2 ] $ '= ' % % $ x0 [x1 , x2 ] 2-)

x0 *
$'$ - %=
&% [x1 , x2 ] %' % $ -% *+
Fermat %$
* - f (x0 ) = y

) *'* Cauchy 1! 1 , 2 , ...,
( . (
1 + 2 + ... +
1 2 ...

3% $ -% $= % B$ *'%

$ & ' %
$ &-)
% + 1 %*- %% f (x) =
+1
Edmund Landau
0!! 1
1 +2 +...+ +x
+1
1 2 ... x
) *'* Landau *+ f : [1, 1] R ( 1 '0

+( - x
|f (x)| A
|f (x)| B
1 - x
|f (x)| A + B
*+ > 0 ( = 1 / f : R R

|f (x) f (y)| |x y|
- x, y 1 !+ f (x) = x 0 ( -
-
7 * &
)'4 #


" . /
1
,
* $ .

'
#

1! . + f 0'

. . + - 1 (
f (x) = x2
" f (x) = 12x2 + 12x + 12
# f (x) = x x
$ f (x) = 1 x2
f (x) = ex
f (x) = log 1 x
2
B . ( . +

1 )(
f .) ) .-
f (x) = 16 x3 x2 + 1
" f (x) = x +
1
x
f (x) = x4 6x3 + 12x2 12
# f (x) = x
f (x) = 12 x2 x ln x + x
$ f (x) = x ln x x
1 4
12 x

( . () + . + )+
f (x) = x3 3x2 + 18
f (x) = 2x2 ln x 5x2 + 1
f (x) = x4 6x2 + 3
" f (x) = 12x2 ex 84xex + 168ex x4 + 6x3 12x2 + 1
# f (x) = 3x5 10x4 + 10x3 + 3
$ f (x) = exx
#
>
/ 0 (0 )

f (x) = x4 4x3 + 8x2 + 20
0' .- + - R3
4 ( A(1, 3) ( . ()

f (x) = x3 + x2
> ,



"- + 1

(
+ ,* - Agnesi *+ ..- ( 1 (
) + !+ . A (0, ) , > 0 B . ( T (x, )

y = ( ( () 4 ( ..- *+
y (0 2 ( y = f (x)

f

( . () f
Maria Gaetana Agnesi
1718 - 1799

# $%&' I f
( f (x) = x2 (x 3)+ 4, x R ( 2( x1 , x2 (

f 2 . . . x3 ( 2 . ()
1 ( 01 (x1 , f (x1 )), (x2 , f (x2 )), (x3 , f (x3 ))
.

# $%&' I
f (0 . 1 '0 +( 1 =
( ( (0 (0, +) 1 g ( g (x) =
ln f (x) 0' .- + . ( f (x) f (x)
(f (x))2

(0 1 ( , g ( g (x) =
ln x2 + 2 0' .- +
1!

f (x) =
x+1
x2 + 1
0 . ( . ()

versiera vertere
# 8
+'9! :

versiera $
#
+* avversiera
# 8#)
9! - + #

&
-)) & ' witch +

+#
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f 1- 1) '.) (. )

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1

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.- 1
-) 1 + ' (0 Cf ( M (x0 , f (x0 ))
x20
1!

x2 + k dx =

1 2
x x + k + k ln x + x2 + k + c
2

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,
1! f : R R

f (x) =
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0
x = 0
x=0
. ) : 0 F : R R (

2 1
x x x = 0
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x=0
g : R R (

g(x) =
x
x+1
x<0
x0
) : 1 0

+( ( 1 ( R
f (0) = 0 . f (x) = 2e2xf (x) - x
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. . -- 0 - ( R
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x
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,,
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+ x dx
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ttdt
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p
p+q

t
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p
p+q
t
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x + e3 + x dx

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13u6 +18
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,"
% +&!5 #,

1
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x

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2 +5
dx
dx
>
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1 ( , , 0 . x 1 ' + x1 , x2 , x3

1
=
+
+
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2
x 7x + 6x
x x1 x x2 x x3
. - -.-)+(

1
dx
3
x 7x2 + 6x
*+ f (x) =
1

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( A, B, , , E 0 f (x) =
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E

(x2)3
- -.-)+(

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B
x1 + (x1)2 + x2 +
f (x) dx
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- -.-)+(
- -.-)+(

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x+ dx
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f ( 1 ( (1, + ) 0
f (x) x 1 = 1
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3y 3x + 5 = 0
2
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dx
5
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x dx

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x

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I =

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1
x 1 x +
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( -
J =

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3

f (1) = 2 .
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1

> 0 ln 1 + x2 dx
0

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( x)
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1
x
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,0
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1 ( .' ) + + +1 )=
+
+ 1! . -.-)+(

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4 - (0- ') ! - (
P (t) . 0( ( (

-) -
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. 2 . ). B ( 0 + +(
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=
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1!
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dt =
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kdt
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P (t)
dt =
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du
7-2 -.-)+( u(Lu)
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LeL(kt+c)
1 + eL(kt+c)
c
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P0 + (L P0 ) eLkt
P0 = P (0)


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3 f (x) dx

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0
.

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f (x) dx + 5
g (x) dx = 7

f (x) dx
0
.
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0
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lim
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tdt > 4 , 2 , 4 , 2

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t

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(F (x) + G (x)) = ex x2 1

x
x 2
x
(F (x) G (x)) = ex 3
t + 1 dt x2 2 et dt 2 et dt

x 2
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x et +t2
> x
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%% 7 ( F (x) =
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f (x)
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(12 . - x = .
x
f (t) (t + 1) dt = f 2 (x)
0

f
1!

(x)
f (t)dt
(x)

(x) f ( (x))

=
(x) f ( (x))
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ex
f (x) =
2
ln t
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t

# $%&' IV G (x) =

f (t) =
3t
1
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. x > 0, t > 0

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lim
x0+
xG (x) 3
x+11
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g (x) =

x2
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t dt
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tx dt
x

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f (t) dt = 0 .
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(x0 , g (x0 )) --- ! x x
g (x0 ) = 2 + f (x0 )
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1 (

1 )( .)=.-
*+
f (x) =
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- - () f
*+ f : R R ( )

)

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) f : R R - x

x
0
et f (x t) dt = x
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1

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dx
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+
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(x) =
0
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+( f +

f (t) dt = f (x) ex
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f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) - x, y 1! . > 0
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) f (0 1 ( 0, 2

f (t) dt = 2x 1

0, 2 B 0
()
*+
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F (x) =
x+
x f
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% + /

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x2
f (t) dt = x (x)
0

g (x) = f x2
&*'&* /*01& Harvard-MIT# 7=

0( f . g +( ) 0
xg (f (x)) f (g (x)) g (x) = f (g (x)) g (f (x)) f (x)
- x *-0, f ( . . g .) .( .

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x
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lim g (x)
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+

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f (x) =
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&*'&* /*01& Harvard-MIT# /
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1 x1
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dx
x
32
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)
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x
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0

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.) [, ]

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f (x) =
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1

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x

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0
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1
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3

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t 2
t 2
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- x R >
1
1 f
(x) dx
&*'&* /*01& Harvard-MIT#
) ( .) f .
f (2x) = 3f (x)
- x

1
0
f (x) dx = 1

2
0
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x
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dx
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1
1
1
x
e
dx = 2
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1
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0

kx
dx
k=1
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1! I = I1 e
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*+ I = 0 xdx
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+1
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1

ln x
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x

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f (x) + f (1 x) = 2 (( ) x + )
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dx
+
n =
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2 (n 1) (1 + x )
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x + x dx = 1

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dx =
f (x) + f ( x)
f ( x)
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f (x) + f ( x)
1! -.-)+(

0
f ( x)
dx
f (x) + f ( x)
! f


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1
0
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dx
x4 + (1 x)4

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2
0
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1
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u
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x2 2 = u x =

2
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x 2 dx
x
F (x) = 2 t2 1dt - - F
*+

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)
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2
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x dx

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x + 2 dx = + 3

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0
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f ( x) dx =
f (x) dx
0
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f, g
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c 0 - x [0, ] g(x) +
g( x) = c


% + /
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0
c
f (x) g (x) dx =
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f (x) dx
0
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dx
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0 1 + x

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2 dy dx
[0, 1] .

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e f (x)
1

f ) *+ f (e) = f (e) = f (1) = 1 .

e
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x2
dx = 2

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2 x 2 x
dx
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f : R R ( )

f (x) dx = 0 (f (x) + f (x)) dx
&*'&* /*01& Harvard-MIT

# *=

1
+ f : R R ( +( ( 0 f (x) f (x) dx = 0 .

1 2

(x) dx = 18 5 1 f 4 (x) f (x) dx3
f
(x)
f
0
0

( , , 0 . ( x = 0
x +
1
= + 2
+ 1)
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?-% 21 + 22 = 122 + 4 + 1
+
' '% =
2-) $+

1
6
4
3

A2 = 2 r12 + r22 + z12 z22
@ % - 2r1 $

z1 = r1 ( z2 = r2 @ '% -

2 r12 + r22 $
- z1 = r1 ( z2 = r2 i

1, 12

2
4

% |z|8 z = 0 '% |z|8

@ *- )-%=% Re(z0 )x Im(z0 )y =
<<1

3+ 10
2
z =
1+i
23+8 10

4
# ( z 8 @ *- )-%=% x y = 1 #

( w 8A

1
2
)-%=% x2 + y 2 + x y = 0 9 ' K 1
,

-
:
$ -
' )*-
2 2
2
= )
=
Az=
1
2
12 i C w & $ &

% '
9:8 y = x 2( 8 w = 3 + i( w = 4 + i

1 + i( 1 i A ' K(4, 3) - R = 2

A =

$ =
= = w - - ' K(0, 3) -
R = 1

- f (7) = f (3) = 22
"

= 2, = 3, = 2

9,:

Df = [1, 3]
Dg = (9, +)

Df = R
D = R {1, 3} = (, 1) (1, 3) (3, +)
Dg = (, 1] [3, +)
, Dh = (, 1) (3, +)
D = (, 1) (3, +)
" D = (, 2

2) 2 2, 1 3, 2 + 2 (2 + 2, +)
Df = (, 1] (2, +) ( Dg = (2, +)

< A(
C t = 2
=5
f (7) = 43
11

A . ' $%% -8

A (1, 2) , B (3, 10)

y = 4x 2

94: y =

9: y = x + 1( 9/: y =

2 + x2 ( 944: y =
9: f (x) =
1x ,
x ,
1
x
2
x2 2x + 22 9444: y =
+1
1x ,
x0
1 ,
( 9/: f (x) =
x>0
x ,
x0
0<x<1
1x
2 x ,
x 2
9: f (x) =
4 x2 , 2 < x < 2
x2 ,
2x

2x 1 , x < 1
9/: f (x) =
x+1 ,
x>1
(IV) y = 2x

9: d =
=2
C = 3

E (0, 2)( A (3, 0)( B (1, 0)( (4, 0)( Z 2, 53 ( H (0, 1)
x4 7x2 + 16 ( 9/: d =
1
x
x4 + 1

9 x2 + x2 3x + 2
@ f g ' $&- % -& f + g (f g) (x) = 9 x2 x2 3x + 2 <' $&-

9x2
% fg - D f = [3, 1) (2, 3] fg (x) =

@ f + g ' $&- % Df +g = [3, 1] [2, 3] (f + g) (x) =
x2 3x+2

@ = $&-= % -

%

11
4
x=5

f (x) = 2x 1

f 1 (x) = ln x(g 1 (x) =

1
(
x
h1 (x) =
Dgf = (, 1] [ 21 , 0) (0, +)( (g f ) (x) =

Dgf = (, 12
1
2
21] [ 21 + 12 21, +)( (g f ) (x) = x2 + x 5 + x2 + x 2

Dgf = (1, 1) (2, +)( (g f ) (x) = ln x3 2x2 x + 2

5A( 5A(

f
g
h
'%
#4
#4
A34

B$ '
%- M (1, 1)

[1, 5]

5A

D = [1, 1]( D = (, ln 2) (ln 3, +)

k=0

f (x) = xex

9:

<0>1

f (x) = 2x 1

f (x) = e
x1
2
2x+1
x+1
x+1
2
M ( 3 a, 3 a)
"
%
#4
#4
#4

9:

- 9,: 4% = 1 $ &$

d = d (x) =

9: f 1 (x) = 1

9:( 9,:( (6)

9: g 1 (x) = ln x +

1
2
3

2x 6x2 x 2
5
5
1
3
6 + 3x 9 : g 1 (x) =
ln(x1)+1
ln(x1)1
9: h1 (x) = ln 12 +
1
2
1 + 4x

x2 + 1

5A

f 1 (x) =

7* = 0

5A

# - %% f - $ & $- & T = 0

* - x = x + T f (x) =
2+1
x
2+1
x
x<0
x0
f (x + T ) $ '= f & $ - - %-=

9: ( 9 : ( 9:

9 :5 $&- % (, 3) (3, 1) (1, +) - (f 2f ) (x) =
f (x) = 2x 1( f 1 (x) =

# g .*- % g f * $ %-> '% % x0 @ w ' % %

C = 1 f 1 (x) =

- f 1 (x) = x3 x f - %-= .*- %

5A

5A
g 1 () = f 1
1
x
2
x
x1
1 ,
1
2
x =
x=
3x+1

x+3
1+2
#
5
6
f (x) =
f (x) = x + 2
1
f (x) = x2
x = 2, 3

x2 x
x2 +1
@ %% $ % - % = 2 +

2 + 2 x + 1
2 && f2+2 (x) = x2 +
5A f $ % % ' < 2 2 <

x=2

x=1

9:f 1 (x) =

f (0) = 1( f (1) = 6

9,:f 1 (x) =

t=1

g (x) = x 2

x
1|x|
x2 1
4x
5A
( ( (
, ( ( (
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( ( ( D
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2

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,
+

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+
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+
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0

+

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+
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9E: 0
9>E: 0
9E:
9/E: 0
9E:
7
108
9&E:
3
152
9*E: +
9E:
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9E:
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9FE: 0
9/E:
2
3

" y 2 + 3y + 4
2
8
! 22
8
0 22
, 14
1 y 2 + 5y + 8
14
4
p = 3, q = 72

C
&

+

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0
, +
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= 0( =

4
3
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4
4
+
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1
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0 +
, 1
1 +
1
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+
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+
2
5
! 0
1
2

0
,
1 +
1
0

2a

= 3, = 1

x=1

9
2

f (x) = 2x 4, = 2, = 2

1
3

(1)x +4x+1
lim
x2 +1
x+
=
0
,
,
,
,
<0
0<1
=1
>1
H
1
2
17( = 3
+4
+1
= 1
= 1
,

1
,
lim
x2 + 2x 3 + x =
x+
+ ,
(1)x3 +4x+1
x2 +1
x1
lim

,
,
< 1
= 1
> 1
9E: 15
9/E: 18
9E: +
9&E: +

9E:
9FE:
9>E:
9E: 2 $

9/E: = 2 =
10
7

lim

9: 1 9 :

x2
+
0
+ 1 + x =
<1
=1
>1
1
2
Df = (, ] [, +)

9E:
9/E:
9E:
9&E:
9E:
9FE:
+
2
+

lim f (x) =
x||
2 ( + ) + ,
<0
0
9>E: +
9E: 12 | + |

lim f (x) = 0
x0

&%
* &%
(0, h) h > 0 $'

.
1
1
1
1
1
1
,
,
,
,
,
N $+ &%
2 (2+1)
(2+1) (2+2)
(2+2) (2+3)
f $- * ' '( % & ' % - * ' 5# & -

# $% G = 1H )% .*- @ $% - G& $ H

9 : 5A C $& f (x) = x 1 = 2 ( 2 =
- 2 = +

t=1t=2
= 1( = 12
:
- lim d (x) = + =-

x2

(+1)(+2)...(+k1)
123...k

2 + 2
2 ++ 2

% $-$=% 9:

5

6
" 3
0
! 7
, 6
0 5

3
4
31
6
9

, 5A

"
= 2
= 6
2 $
, 2 $
5A

%
%

0

= 4, =

5
3
= 3
2 - % &

- % % x0 = 0 @ . $%% -8

5A # %

* - $ %$'%8 lim

&
| (x)| = x2 x1 = x2 x1 x2 $ '= x2 (x) x2

f (x)
xx0 g(x)
f (x0 )
s
R
x 5#( $
$/ ' lim (x) = 0 = (0)
x0

f (x) =

5A C $& $ %% g (x) = 0 f (x) =
1
1
x<0
g (x) =
x0
3
1
x<0
x0

lim f (x) = 1( lim f (x) = 2 + 2 + 2 + 2
x5
x5+
= 1, = 0

lim f (x) = +
x+

5A

A . ' $%% = f, g -8

< % + g - {0} [1, 2) [4, 6)

@ f % (2, 2) -

5A 5A 5A

[4, 8]( [4, 25]( [1, 16](

1
, 23 (
2
[0, 2)( [ 31 , 12 )([1, +)

x1
x+1
x<0
x0

95: 9/5: 5A

f (x) = 12 +
1
2
-
4x2 + 4x + 5 f (x) = 12
4x2 + 4x + 5
2 + 12 4x2 + 4x + 5
f (x) =
c
1
2 12 4x2 + 4x + 5
x<0
x=0
x>0
2 12 4x2 + 4x + 5
f (x) =
c
1
2 + 12 4x2 + 4x + 5
x<0
x=0
x>0

f (x) =

f (x) =

1
2
21
1
2
4x2 + 4x + 5
c
x = 0
x=0
21 +
1
2
4x2 + 4x + 5
c
x = 0
x=0
9,: @ %* f (x) = 0( %* f (x) = 1 * ' f (x) = x , a > 0, = 1

@ $% - # % % - # ? $+ & $-
% -= A # * % ? '%% &&
& ' ?
# ; $'$ & %$=* %%' $ % %
$ )
, %%' $ % %
) # & - % $ $ -
&% ? % -
A ? $ - . -% +% $+ % %+
% $%

%%' ) $ - #
* ' % $ '% , -%
# ' $ - %$=% & %%' = $ -=
!&
'
* - $ ) 2 + 1
# $ $

$ + ' & .=*- = )8 f (x) = g(x) + x +
x2+1
$ g(x) - $ + $ $-> $
%%' $ '
& %$=*-
? - &+% ' % %% x +%
$ $') A %% x2+1 %8

pf (t1 ) + qf (t2 )
$ * p, q, t1 , t2 p, q - * <

$ + f (x) *
' - % ->
# & $= $ - - $ 8 ; - f (x) = g (x) + x + x2+1
? *' pf (t1 ) + qf (t2 ) = 0 && 9 $):
=

2+1
pg (t1 ) + qg (t2 ) + pt2+1
+ qt2
1
pt1 + qt2
'$ /'/ - pt

1 + qt2 = 0 '$
) $

9$ ? -: C
$'$ - pt12+1 + qt22+1 = 0 6->
$
$'$ ? $') * p, q, t1 , t2 , +%8
9E: p, q > 0
9/E: pt
1 + qt2 = 0
9E: pt12+1 + qt22+1 = 0

1 )+qg(t2 )
9&E: = pg(t
pt +qt
1

A $ ' = p, q, t1 , t2 $ - $

$ 9/' :
/'/ $ -

5A 5

9 : + 9:

- Df = R {} Df f $ - $
x = $ - - f (x) =
x = ,
(1+)
1
9A & ' ' %$-$ = 0 - (f f ) (x) =
< Df f f $ - $
x = ,
x = ,
(1+) ( +21)
,

1
2 +1
(1+)
1
$ - (f f ) (x) = && $
9@ - $ ) &&
$ $
$
= 0: - & (f f f ) (x) =

(2 +21)
%$-$
2 +1
(1+22 )x++3

(1+2 )x+22 3
5A

lim
+
0
x2 + 1 + x =
<1
=1
>1

a < 1 3 < a

=0

9: Df = (, 1) (1, 2) (2, +) 9 : C (, 1) (1, +)

+
&- % 8 (, 2)(2, 1)(1, +) -
( $ '=
%% %
(1+)x+2
(1)x++2

- %-= .*- %

2
3

[2, 3]
A ( ( "
f (7) = 43
11
x3 x2 +x1
x2 +x2
& $
< * /-% % %- $ . lim
2 $ *%

lim
x2+
x+
"
1
x
= +
lim
x2
x3 x2 +x1
x2 +x2

x2 + 1 x = 0
x2 + 1 x

*'% f (x) = y )-%=% $ $ $ * /-

x * -
y = 31 x y = 12 x 7
$( ) $ + %' f &-)
f (x) = 12 x
x -
f (x) = 13 x x
9 : f (x) = 0( f (x) =
f (f (0)) =

g (t) =

5A C $& x0 = 0 %% f (x) =
1
(
2
kx3
f (1) = 1
t2
(t + 1)2
,
,
t < 12
t 12
( %

&
% x0 = 0 - %

1
4
f (1) =
f

4
=1+
1
2
f e2 = 3
, f (1) =
3 2
4
f (1) = 1
" f (0) = 1

f (x) =
f (x) =
f (x) =
, f (x) =
2x
(x2 +1)
x2 1
(ex ln x+1)(1x)
(1+x ln x)2
4e2x
(e2x +1)2
2
(x+1)(1+x)
f (x) = 3x2 + 2x +
f (x) =
f (x) =
x2
x2 2
, f (x) = 3x2 2 ( + + ) x + + +
f (x) =
g (x) = 1 + 2
(ex ln x+1)(x1)
(1+x ln x)2
|x2 x|
x2 x
|x2 x|
x2 x
( x = 0, 1

y = (1 + e) x
#
|x|
1
,
,
x = 0
x=0
'
y = 3x 2
y = 2x + 7
, y = x +
+1

5A

M 2, 83 ( N 3, 72

y = 2 2 2 x 3 + 2 2(

y = 2 2 2 x 3 2 2

y = 3 + 2 2 x + 4 2 2(

y = 3 2 2 x + 4 + 2 2
y = 3x + 4
, y =
3
x
2
1
2

= 3, = 2

=2

y = x1

= 12 , =
4
3

f (1) = 2

y = x2

y = 6x 2

p=

& $ $ - f (1) = 5

f (0) = 2

1

g (x) =

e2 +6e+1
2e2 +4e+6
4
,
3
x
180
180
2
3
$

d (x) =

= 1

@ )-%=% f (x) = g (x) ' % x =
13x2
13x2 4x+1
.$ ' y =

f (x) =

x
e
12
2x x1 x1 + 2x
0
e %- P
1
e, 2 Cf , Cg '
x = 0
x=0
@ f (x) = |x| $=-> $

$
x0 = 0
@ g (x) = |x| + |x 1| $=-> $
$
x0 = 0, 1
@ h (x) = |x| $=-> $

$
x0 = , Z

B$ $ $/ ' $ - . f (x) = x2 2x + 1 + 3x + 2

$

f (x) = |x| g (x) = 2 |x|

B$ - .$ ' y = 4x 3 $ .$ % Cf % %- '
% Cg % %- '

9 : = 4 + 2( = 4 8

%- A

f (0) = 10

y = 6x 2

= 0, = 1, = 1

9: f (1) = g (1) = 0

325

=1=
5A

9 :2 - % %

( (
9: 12 ( 9 : 2x32
1
2
,
8
1
2

2 1 (B 5
, 2 1 ( 9
, 2 1 ( 13
, 2 1
8
8
8
21 =
1
2
1
2
21
%

f (2) = 42
x0 = 0, y0 0
y = 3x 4
2

f x f 2 x 2x
x+1 x x +1
(x1)2

y = kex

= 3, = 1, = 2

dy
dx
= 32
dy
dx
= x32

dy
dx
= x
,
dy
dx

dy
dx
= xe2
"
dy
dx
4x2
ex
ex 1
2x
(x2 +1) (x2 +1)(1x2 )
d (t) = 5( E (t) = 12t

d (t) =
x (t)x(t)+y (t)y(t)
x2 (t)+y 2 (t)
( E (t) =
1
2
(x (t) y (t) + x (t) y (t))
x (t)x(t) + y (t) y (t) = 0

x (t) + y (t) = 0
x (t)ex(t) + y (t) ey(t) = 0
# 1 , 2 - ' % -=

9: E (t) = 2t 25 t2 ( 9 : E (4) = 14

3

g (x) = (g (x) M0 M ) @ %* M0 - % &

& % $ *-
2
1
h2 +s2
s
-$%

@ f &-> % ( ( @ f $ %>

% ( 9 $
'% $
'% % -=: @ g &-> %
( ( ( ( @ g $ %>
%
9 $
% ( $
'% ( $
% % -=:

&
( (
(
( (
, (
0, ln 2
"

1
2
5 + 12 ,
1
2
1
2
= 0
= 2
= 1
, = ln 3 ln 2
=
1
4
" =
1
e
=
5
2
= 61 +
1
6
283
= 2 + 3 2
, = 2
* (1, 4)
" =
5
2
21
=1

9: f (x) =

1
6
1
(1+|x|)2
f (x) =
9 : < ) *= '% - =
2 1( = 1 2
3 2
x 1
x0 = 0
5A &
f & $=-> %
x0 (, )

9 : #$
9: /-%

= 0 = $ '

=
$
$ - $ $ $ & '

g (x) = 1992ex x

2, 0 , [ 2, +)
(, 0], [ln 4, +)
(, 1) , (1, +)
, (0, +)

'% 8 f (1) =
17
(
8
% 8 f (4) = 1
H
+
+

'% 8 f (1) = 3( % 8 f (1) = 1

'% 8 f (0) = 6( % 8 f (2) = 0

9 : [f (2) , f (4)] = [11, 29]

@ f - %-= ) % [1, 1]( %-= .*- % % [1, 2] %-= ) % % [2, 3]
< % + f - [f (1) , f (1)] [f (2) , f (1)] [f (2) , f (3)] = [22, 6] [5, 6] [5, 10] =
[22, 10]

1
3,1

f (3) = 12 ln 9

9: = 1, =
3
2
9 : - %-= ) % % (, 2]( %-= .*- % % [2, 1]
%-= ) % % [1, +)

f (0) =

C
%

B$ & %- M 12 2,

A - -%

9 : d (p) =

A $=%
t * - (t) = 500

- (t) =
2
3
1
2
(N

1
2
2,
1
2

(p2 + 4) (1 + p2 ) 95: C p = 0 - d (0) = 2
5
4
1 t
10
3
5
t
20
(30) = 60 15 = 232, 38
0 )-%=% (t) = e0 /-% t =
10
ln 52 ln 2
44. 8

4+2 S
2
@ E(x) $ %> % x =

E

4 + 2 S
= 4 + 4 S + S
2

$ - -
- f (x) = n (1 + x)n1 xn1 $ '= n - f - %-=
) % # n - $

f - %-= .*- % % &% (, 12 ]
%-= ) % % &% [ 21 , +)

x2
5A x + y = $%% xy $ %> '% x = y =

y2
$ %> % $-%

x = y =
$ %> % x = y =
2

2
'% x = y =
x3
x2
x2 (x2 )
x2
2

2
@ $%%
C
+ $%%
5A xy = $%% x + y
5A x2 + y 2 = $%% x + y $ %>
$ '= k (x) > 0 x
% x = y =

2
1
x
1
y
1
x
1
y
. k (x) =
1
x
1
k (x) =
x2
2
&& '
2
x2 > 0 2x2 > x >
= x + y $ %> %

x = y =
:
2

A

$ $- && AP B - t (x) =
0 x $ '=
t (x) =
x2 +2
1
x
2

x2 1 x2 + 2
1 2 x2 + 2
-

t (x) > 0 x > 1
1
22 12
2 - & $$+%8

1
1 2
1+
2 < % & 2 > 1
2 1
1
1 2 2
2
<
%
'
x =
4% 2 1
1+
<
t - %-= .*- % % $&- % %

'
x =

Dg = (1, +)
C%-= .*- % % (1, 0] %-= ) % % [0, +)

<
%- M (x, y) $ $' $
*- $
%% d (x) =
$ - - % x = 2 < > %- - P (2, 8)
x2 +4x+5
10

3
- = 65 , = 20
< $
% % x = 1 $
'% % x = 2
f (x) = x2 + x

= 5, = 6 f (t) 12 3 t 12

x = 0( x = 1

OB = 2x $ '= AP = 2x

$ $-
- P
+ 2x
>
% $ I$
*%
v1 < v2 -
&& AP B - t (x) = 2x
# - 2 <
2 1
t (x) =
2
1
1
1 > x
x t (x) > 0
# x0 - &
*

2
2
&% [0, 2 ] $ - % x0 = 1

t - %-= ) % % &%
2
[0, x0 ] %-= .*- % % &% [x0 , 2 ] 5# % t $ %> %

$ '=
0( 2 &% [0, 2 ] - t (0) = 2 t 2 =
2
1
&& $-$ 2 < 1, 571

% + && - AB

* .*
% B $+J
# - 2 >

) AB
2 1
* * .*%

% B '
$-$=% $ 2 =

-& % %
$ *
2 1
$% * AB ')
)
AB

<

- f (x) = e2x x1 ( x) /-%

% (0, ] f - %-=
) % % [, +) - %-= .*- % $ '= ' 9

: '% f () =
e = (e) 5%= + g () = (e) > 0 - g () = e (2 + ln ) $ '=
g () > 0 2 + ln > 0 ln > 2 > e2 5# g $ %> % =

2
5# % '% f $
= e12 - f e12 = ee

1

e2
@ f - % % R ( $=-> %

x0
0 -
2
f (x) =
ex |x| 3 3x + 2
3
x
$ '= f - %-= ) % % (, 23 ]( %-= .*- % % [ 23 , 0] %-=

) % % [0, +)
$&
lim f (x) = 0( f (0) = 0(
f - [0, +) @ )-%=%
lim f (x) = + f (x) 0

x( % +
x+
3
ex x2
= 0 % &- f (x) = $* =
>+ ) $

C < 0 )-%=% & ' - -> # = 0 ' /+
- 0 < = f 23 =
1 3 12
3
e2
' /+ - -> C = f 23 ' /+ &

> f 23 ' /+ - ->

# n() - $* = >+ )-%=%

n () = 2

2 3
9
|| = 2 9 3
< || < 2 9 3
|| >
=0
&- % 8 (, 0) (0, +)( +8 (, 4] [4, +)

C%-= .*- %( C%-= ) %

- f (x) = 3 (x 1) (x 3) $ '= - f % &% [2, 3] '
= )8 [2, 1] - %-= ) % % [1, 3] - %-= .*- % [2, 1] f
$ %> '% % x = 1 - f (1) = 6 < 0 $ '= f & &-> % [2, 3]
5%= f (x) = x x * ' $

&% 2 + 2k,
3
2

+ 2k ( k Z f
- %-= .*- % $ '= - %-= .*- % % R 5# )-%=% ' $ -
-> 5A= f (0) = 1 f

2
= 2 5# $
*+ Bolzano f ' - %
-> 5# f 9 )-%=%: ' /+ - ->
5 /+ - -> x = 1

f (4)
y=0
2
z = x + yi - z 3 z + 2 = y 6 + 3x2 + 2 y 4 + 3x4 12x + 1 y 2 + x6 2x4 +
A
* -
2

4x3 + x2 4x + 4 . x2 + y 2 = 1 - z 3 z + 2 = 16x3 4x2 16x + 8 <
'% - 13 $ $ z = 12 i 23
V (x) = x( 2x)( 2x)
$& $'$ 2x < 2x < %$-

* - x <
$ '= %% V (x) * ' $&- % &% (0,
x <
)
2

2
=-> V (x)
/-%
V (x) = 12x2 4x 4x +
-%=% V (x) > 0 /-%

$*
x<
1
6

+ 2 + 2 x >
1
6

+ + 2 + 2
2$%+

1
6

+ 2 + 2 <

1
6

+ + 2 + 2 >

2
$ '= V (x) - %-= ) % % &%

0,
1
6

+ 2 + 2
%-= .*- % % &%

[ 61 + 2 + 2 ,
)
2
5# $ %> 9

: '% x =
1
6

+ 2 + 2
- A (2, 0) (B (1, 0)

C = 0 %% - %-= .*- % % (, 21 ] %-= ) %
% [ 12 , +)
1 92 3+1
C = 0 $= f ' -> 1 =
2 =
3
1+ 92 3+1
# - > 0 - 1 < 2 f - %-= ) % %
3
(, 1 ]( %-= .*- % % [1 , 2 ] %-= ) % % [2 , +)
1 , 2 $ %> % -= $
'% $
%
%$% & * < 0
3 3
16
'%
< /&
- E (r) =
e1
e

x =
3
4
1 2
r
4
4 r 2 '% -
(, 2]8 -( [2, +)8

(, 1]8 ( [1, 2]8 -( [2, +)8
(0, 1]8 -( [1, +)8

, (, 0)8 -( (0, +)8

4
9
3 r =
2
3
6
[2k, (2k + 1) ]8 -( [(2k + 1) , 2(k + 1)]8 9k Z:

" (0, 1]8 ( [1, +)8 -

A (1, 16)

A e, 1 3e2
A (1, 2)( B (1, 2)

, A (0, 169)( B (1, 96e 6)( 2, 48e2 15

< A (0, 3) B (1, 6)
" A
1 2
1
,
4e (
2

B

233
2 3
3

= 32 , =
9
2

f (x) =

A
3 3
, 4
3

2, 2
-
1+ 2
1
,
4e
2
3
x2 +2
(B
3 3
, 4
3
f (x) =

2 (x 1) x2 + 4x + 1
(x2 + 1)3

%- $ - A (1, f (1))( B 2 + 3, f 2 + 3 (

2 3, f 2 3 C $ &-)
- %* $ $ %

%' &*%= -8 AB = A =

; $'$ f
3
2
1
4
$ '= A, B, - %*
= 0 && $'$ = 1 C = 1 '

f (x) =
1 3 3 2
x x 10x + 7
3
2
f (x) = x2 3x 10 = (x + 2) (x 5)
f (x) = 2x 3
@ f (x) > $
% '=* x0 =
% x0 =

3

2
3
2
$ '= $ f $ %> $
9: @ f - %-= .*- % 9 : = 1, = 2

1

2
"
0
! 0
, 1
0
"

+
1
+
" 2
1
,
! 0
2
2

0

1
2
1
2
1
0
" 0
1
! 1
, 1
0 e

1
2

9 : =3
9 : A a( b
5 lim
lim
x+
ln(
1+
x
1
x
x+
=( 0 )
0
1+
lim

x
x
x+
lim
x+
x(x+)
12
eln(1+ x )
x
= $ '=
lim ex ln(1+ x ) -
x+

lim 1 +
x+

x
x

lim x ln 1 +
x+
= lim ey = e
y
C = 1

x = 1
, x = 1, x = 1
x = 1, x = 2
x = 1, x = 1
x = 1
" D
, y =
y = x 1
y=x
y = x +
y = 2x 1
1
x
2
1
2
" y = x + 1
x = 1( y = x 6( y = x 6
9: - x = 1( x = 2( x = 3 9 : @ .$ ' % A - y = 11x 6

%%

y = 11x 6
y = f (x)
/-%
.$ ' $' C % %- B (6, 60)
#
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. %$+ x = 1( x = 1( x = 2
+ x + & ' %$=

9: x = 0 y = 1 9 : 5A

9:

5A

5A &
& $ x0 R +% lim f (x) =

9 : = 2
xx0
A=
1 +
2 + ... +
( B =
1
2 1
2
2 2
+ ... +
@ %% ' $&- % R 2' ' %$+ (, 32 ] - %-=
.*- % % [ 23 , +) - %-= ) % 5 $
% % 32 14 $ -
-
@ . $%% - %
R - 8
@ %% ' $&- % R 2' ' %$+ (,
= .*- %( %

26 , 0

- %-= ) %( % 0,
6
2
6
]
2
- %-
- %-= .*- %( %
6
14 ( $
'% %
2
6
1
$
% % 2 4 < $ % - - %

(, 22 ]( - % 22 , 22 % 22 , 22 < A 22 , 34 ( B 22 , 34 -

%- $ < % + - [ 41 , +) @ . $%% - 8
6
, +)
2
- %-= ) % 5 $

% %

x2 + x 2 x < 0

x2 x 2 x 0

2x + 1 x < 0
=-> $
$= - f (x) =
- %-=
2x 1 x > 0

1
1
.*- % % (, 2 ]( %-= ) % % 2 , 0 (%-= .*- %
% [0, 12 ] %-= ) % % [ 21 , +) 12 $ %> $
%
$ -
94 $ %> $
'% < % + -
[ 94 , +) 2' ' %$+ @ . $%% - 8

@ %% ' $&- % R C. f (x) =

$

@ %% ' $&- % R 2' ' %$+ -

f (x) =
3 2
12
18
3
x
x+
=
(x 2) (x 6)
10
5
5
10

f (x) =
3
12
3
x
= (x 4)
5
5
5
A $- / f -

* 8

. $%%

- Df = (, 1) (1, 1) (1, +) @ Cf '

. %$+ x =
1, x = 1 9. lim f (x) = ( lim f (x) = +( lim f (x) = ( lim f (x) = +
x1
x1+
: %$= x y = x 9.
x1
f (x)
=
x x
lim
x4 4x2 1
(
(x2 1)2
x1+
1
lim (f (x) 1 x) =
f (x) = 4x x2 +3 3 5 f (x) > 0

x
(x 1)

x4 4x2 1 > 0 x4 4x2 1 > 0 x < 2 + 5, x > 2 + 5 $-% f (x) > 0

1 < x < 0 x > 1 -%
f - $ $ '= . $%% *
- % = $ = )
= A $- / f -
0: -
lim f (x) = f (x) =

2 + 5 f 2 + 5 = 12 1 + 5
2+ 5 (

$
% % 2 + 5 f
2 + 5 = 21 1 + 5
2 + 5 < % +
@ %% $ %> $

'% %
- R @ . $%% ' %- $ = )
= - 8
%
#$
%'% f (x) =
ex2 1
x2

xx2
f
x2
(x) %

f - %
ex2 1
x2
$-
x /-%
f () > 0 #
$ %'

> 0 $ '=
% - f (x) > 0

C%-= .*- % % 12 6( %-= ) % % 12 6, 0 ( %-= .*- %

% 0,
1
2
6 ( %-= ) % % [ 21 6, +)
12 6( 12 6 $ %> $

% f 12 6 = f

% $ %> $
'%

1
6 = 41 $ -
2

, - Dh = (, 2] [1, 1] [ 2, +) @ h $=-> % Dh = (, 2)
x(2x
(1, 1) ( 2, +) % h (x) = 4
3)
x 3x2 +2
54
95:8 - A (1, 1)( B (0, ) , (1, 1) AB = 1( B = 1 $

AB
B = 1
C%-= ) % % (, 0] % [ 23 , +) C%-= .*- % % 0,
2
3
-

, g (x) = 3 x 2 x + 1 (3x 2) xx
< $
% x = 1 $ -
@ .$ ' Cf %
%- M (x0 , f (x0 )) -
2
y=2
eln x0
x0
ln x0 (x x0 ) + xln
0
x0
2-)
$ x0 > 0 +% $$= )-%=% $* $
> x = 0(
y = 0
+
9:
9: =
3
,
4
= 1( 9 : a : b : +
&
9: 5A C - y = x %$= % + $'$ &. f (x) x = x
x + '
$ $ & * &
= =%
x & '

x + C -&
& $ - y = x - %$= x
9,: <

%- Cf - . M (x, x + x) $
%% $
*-
|x(x+x)|
y = x -
2

2
-
1
2
|x|
2 $ - - '%
|x| = 1 @ '% $
%%
9 :
9: f (x) = ln x( f (x) = ex ( 9 :
9: < $&- % - (0, +) &% (0,
[ 1e , +)
- %-= ) %
9 : &% (0,

1
3e
3,
2
e
= 3
x = 1
40km/h
h (x) =
9: =
1 3
x
4
+ 54 x +
- %-= .*- % %
1
$ %>
% 2e
f - - % [ 1 3 , +) - - $ -

e
1
95: + - [ 2e
, +)
1
3]
e
[ 1e , +)
1 ]
e
1
2
ln ln
- % % * x R x = 1

- $=-% % * x = 1

, 5A
f (x) =
f (0) = f (1) =
5 -> ( -

) ,
ex 1
ex +1
3
2
H
f (x) =

2 x2
e
x3
A 13 6, e 2 ( B

1
3
x = 0
x=0
3
6, e 2

f (x) =
9: 0 -> < 1e ( -> = 1e (
f (x) = ax + b
f (x) = aecx

f (0) = 1

2 '
ex+1
1 2x
e
2
2ex
,
1 2x+1
e
2
2 3
x
3

12 x2 + x
ln |x| + ex

3
3 5
x
5
2 3
x
3
, x + x
F + G, F G,
F (x) =
1 2
x
2
G (x) =
x
ex

5A

9":( 9:

16N
e2
f (x) =

f (x) = 2x
F
,
G
F 3 + G4
+x+1
+ (x + 1)2 + c
$ c = 52 ln 2 ln2 2
1 3
x
3
, x = 0
x=0
-> 1e < < 0( -> 0
: C%-= .*- % % (, 0]( %-= ) % % [0, +)

12 3x2 2
x
x6

2e
0
+c
f (x) = ax
":

1 2
x
2
1
x
+c
x3 + 2 ln x + c
, 2x12
1
5x5
3
23 x + 1 + c

2
3

ln x
+x+c
12 2x + c

+c
x ln |x + 1| + c
1 3
x
3

,
1 4
x
4

+ 2x3 +
11 2
x
2

+ 6x + c
1 x2
e
2

2
3
5ex+1 4ex+1 (x + 1)+ex+1 (x + 1)2 +c
1 x
e x
2
1
x
+c
x x
3
ln 3
1
p
ln p+q
+ 12 ex x + c
p
p+q
t
1
3x
ln2 3
+c
+c
2 x +
, ex +

xe+1
e+1
1 2
x
2
1
13x
13
5 2
x
2
2 3
x
3
+c
+c
+ 14 x4 +
1 3
x
3
+ y2 x + c
,
1
x |x|
2
+c

1
2 t
2
+c
,
ex
e+1

1
p
1t
+c

p
p+q
t
1
q
1t
p
p+q
, ln |x 2| ln |x 1| + c
18x + 3x2 5 ln |x 1| + 48 ln |x 2| + c
+c
2ex+2 + ex+2 x + c
3 ln |x 2| 2 ln |x 1| + c

(x+ 1
3 )
,

+c
3
x + 1 + 23 1 x + c
ex2
xn+1
n+1
x xx + c
+c

3x + 2 + c
xm+1
m+1
,
2ex+1 + ex+1 (x + 1) + c

, y 2x ln |x y| + c
2 x3 + x2 + x + 1 + c

2
9
x + 2y ln |y x| + c
+c
x + |ln (x + )| |ln (x + )| + c
+ 32 x2 + 2x + c
ln |x + 1| x + c
+ yx + c
2 5
x
5

1 3
x
3
, x ln |x + 2| + c
x2 y + 12 y 2 + c
+c
, ex1 + c
31
13 13
x
31

1
2
2ex
+c
2 5
x
5
2 9
x
9
+c
+c
+ 8x + 9 ln |x 1| + c
, 5x 9 ln |x 1| + 27 ln |x 2| + c

"
t
+c

1 3x1
e
9
1 4
x
4

(3x 1) + c
1
x
2
1
5x
10
+c
, 13 3x + c
+ e3 x x + c
1
10
5x + 12 x + c

1
2x
ln 2
1
3x
ln 3
+c
,
5
32
+c

3
x
2
x3 ex 3x2 ex + 6ex x 6ex + c
,
1
3

1
ex+x
+
,
1
2x 32x 53x
ln 2+2 ln 3+3 ln 5

(x+)+1
(+1)
,
2
ln 4
7
2 ln |ex 1| x + c

1 x4
e
4
1
x2
1 5
x
5

52 x4 +

1 2
x
4

1
78
1
x3
37 3
x
3
+c
30x2 + 36x + c

ln 13u6 + 18 + c
ln x 18 x2 + c

f (x) dx =
x2
2
x3
3
+c
x<0
+c
x0
1

ln |x | +
ln |x | + c
ex + ln |ex 1| + c

1
3
2x 3 + c
, 2 (x 1)

1
6
1 3
4

3 3
2
,
1 4x2 +5
e
8

1
x1
+c
ln6 x + c
(x3 1)4 + c

1+ x 4+c
1
6

ln |x|
+c
1
5
ln |x 1| +
1
30
ln |x 6| + c
A = 3, B = 1, = 3, = 2, E = 1

1
x1
3 ln |x 1|
1
2(x2)2
x x + c
x+|ln(x+)||ln(x+)|
2
1
2
f (x) =
ln |x 1| ln |x 2| +
4
3
1
2
2
x2
+ 3 ln |x 2| + c
+c
ln |x 3| + c
3
x1 x+1
"
2x 12 xx + c
(x 2)3 +
|x| ln (1 + |x|) + c

1 + 4x8 + c
4 t
7
1
3
(x 3)3 + c
+c
+c
+c
+c

1
3

2
5

ln |1 + x| ln |x| + c
ln3 x + c

1 + x5 + c
x2 2x + 3 + c

ex+ x + c
ln 2 2 +
2
3()
1
1
3(1)(x3 + )
1
,
ln 2
7 ln2 21
3 ln2 2

3
3
x x
+c
1
2
1 + x4 + c
3x2 + 2x + 1 + c
3
23 x2 3x + 2 + c

23 (x x) 2 + c

1
1+x
+c
ln (xx + x) + c
12 2 x1 + c
2x + c
In = exn1 x x+nx
+
2 +n2 2
175
4
f (x) dx =
2
(
11
g (x) dx =
n(n1) 2
I
2 +n2 2 n2
17

11
"
t = ln 4
t = 1 + ln 4
t = ln
, t =
3
1+e
3
1+e
"
b=2
xx + 12 2 x + xxx
5A * - * -
x=0
f (x) = ex
g (x) = x
h (x) = (2x + 1)
(x2 + x 1)
, s (x) = 4e4x2 ex+1

w (x) = a
x
1
et dt + axex + b
y = x + 2 y = x 3
f (x) = x xx
x3
3
2
3
% I 12 =
2
(
2
= 1(

4
2
(
2

2
= 0
+x
12
0
2t+1
t2 +5t+6
dt = ln 2 + 5 ln 5 8 ln 3 '% max (I (1) , I (1)) =
max (5 ln 3 + 8 ln 2, 13 ln 2 8 ln 3) = 13 ln 2 8 ln 3
f (x) =
- Df = R f (x) = x $ '= f - %-= .*- % % (, 0] %-=
x2
4
x
2
) % % [0, +)
9: e3 3 9 : 6 3
- Df = (, 0) (0, +) g (x) = 4x ln |x| g %-= ) % %
(, 1], (0, 1] %-= .*- % % [1, 0), [1, +)

x
x
2

2x2 1x t
dtx+ 1x t
dt
t
t
x2
9:(1, +) 9 : - %

$&- %
@ f - %-= .*- % % &% (, 1] %-= ) % % [1, +)
% x = 1
""

f (x) = x x
3x2 a3 a3
C x = 1

f (x) = ex + xex

: < $
'% x = 1( $
% x = 2 : 7$ x =

=-> * /- f (x) f (x) = ex 7

$ $ $%% ex ;
33

2
5
4
/-
f (x) = xex + ex

f (x) = x( =
f (x) =
e16

# = 1 f $ - - $ &$ % %% # = 1 * - f = 0

f (x) = ex

a=3

f (x) = x

(x)
2x
6
(x)
2
,
,
x = 0
x=0
2
3
,

ln 3
,

4 + ln 3
18 4 6

e8 1 + e6 + e2 e4

2 3
, 1
2 3
1
4

2
3
ln 2 ln 3

2 2 ln ln 1
,
1 6
p
3
13 p3
ln 7 ln 2 ln 5 3
26
3
, 1

"#
t + 13 t3 s 13 s3

0
, 1 + ln 2 ln (e + 1)

5
2
, 2
17
2
3 6
s
2
1
1 2
7
2
2
e
1
3

1
mn3
3
,
x4 1
2x2

2
0
+ 12 n3 13 m4 12 nm2
f (x) dx =

98
3

ln 2
13
2

1
2
,
3 4
e
16
ln 3
+
1
2
1
16
, 1 1
9

,
ln 2
+ ln 2
17
2
, 22
+ 2
3

43
ln s 14 s6 12 s2 ln s + 14 s2

65
81(ln 2ln 3)

13
2

x4 2x2 + x
1

1
4
1
3

4 21
31
6

= 7, = 6, = 3
x = 1( x = 2
11

1
3

"
"$
ln 2 + 14 19 3

9 ln 11 + ln 2

12

1+
: 1 e e : 6 e 3 32 e 6e 6e
1
2
ln 3 + 16 ln 3 13 ln 2 +
1
2
ln2 2
x2
11
48

k=2
k1
ln k
1
ln
12
12
64
f (x)
0 f (x)+f (x) dx
I1 = 5( I2 =
13
12
1
2
5:
1
2
ln 2

(x2 a2 ) 12 a2 ln x + (x2 a2 ) + c

ln 2 + 3 3
: I = 12 x
: F (1) =
1
2
1
2
2
= k +
:
ln
3
2
6 1 = 2 x + 2 x ; /-
2
4
25
24
1
e
4
3
3
486
5
= 1, = 1, = 0
ln x
1
2

ln x2 + 1 + c
9: 6 ln 2 9 : ii. 6 ln 2
%% u = 3 + x ln x * /- ln 3 + 2e2 ln (3 + e)
"%

I = ex 1 x
I4 = ex
4 4 x + 42 4 x + 122 2 x + 43 3 x + 16 sin x 3 x + 24xx + 24

(4 + 202 + 64)
I5 =
:
1
2
:
=1
ln 2
1 3
x
3
x + x
( 1)
+ 2
I2
2 + 2
+ 2
1
4
ln x 19 x3 + c : 19
f (x) dx =
5
2

,
4 4
9 - f (x) =
2(x)
x2 2
$ '= f - %-= ) % % [, 0] %-=
.*- % % [0, ]
2
0

1
e
9 = 0 9
9"

1
2

S=
1
12
S=
135 5
12
S=
1
3
E=
E=

'% f (2) = 2
bb
aa
1
ba
1
2
ln 2
2x+xf (x)
f
2(+1)
e
1

ln x ln2 x dx = 3 e
1
0
(2 f (x)) dx =

2
3

(x)

x (2x 1) dx =
2
3
5% f (0) = f (1) = 0
10

3
3
6
"&
< > /&

- E =

9
4

10
73
6
: C x y = 3x x 0 x = 0 : E () =
1
+1
4e 6e1

1
2

3
ln 2

p = ln 1+e
2

=1
9 95: A (2, 2)( B (3, 3) 9/5:

1
2
y = 2x +
E=
2
8
1+

2
4
1
3
1
8
2+
1
2

: t (x) = 2x2 4x( : E =

f (x) =

1
3
7* %% . f (x) = cx3 , c > 0, x 0

:
4
3
1
2
36
x+x
2
2
0
|t (x)| dx =
8
3
+1
+ 12
2(

13
27
13
8
( ( 1
27 2 2
1
2
ln

21
f (x) + c
, 0
f (x)
f () f ()
f (x)
" f (x) f ()

1
3
= 1, 2, 3
+ ln x + ln2 x +
1
3
ln3 x + c
"H
1
2
+( +
f (x) = e2 x2
9
9 (x) = ln x +

y 2 + 1 9 ln
2+1 2+1
7 - x 1( x 1
@ .$ ' ' )-%=% y = x > /&

-
: i.8 f (x) =
ef (x)
1+ef (x)
:
1
3
1 e +1
2 e 1
x = 1 x + y = x 4
27
4
f (x) = ln (x + 1)
F (x) = x ln (x + 1) + ln (x + 1) x
A (0, 0) , B (e 1, 1)
31
x=

1
3
: 1
1
e3
1
3
7( x =
1
3
1
3
+ 2 ln 2
% * x0 = 1
9E: - 2 f (x) 2
x
9/E: ?-%

x+1

f (t)dt =
x
2
3

2 ln x+1
x
2x2 + x + 23
2 3
3 x + 2 ln (x + 1)

2 ln x+1
x
@ )-%=% ' & % x = 12 ( x =
( ,(
#:
e 12 1
x < 2
1 x 0
0<x<1
x1

: y = 2x + 5

f (x) = x +

x
0
f (x) = ln (x + 1)
f (t) dt = ln (x + 1) x + ln (x + 1) x
C%-= .*- %
,

,:
25
12

f (x) =
ex ex
ex +ex
ln ex + ex + c
- $ %&

% .

: f (x) = e1x : F (x) =
%*- %% (x) =
0

0
$ '=
- lim
1
2
x1
2
1 e1x
2
x

: I () = 7 22 7 + 7 e : !

1
e
, x>1
x
0
tf 3 (t) dt
x
0
2
tf (t) dt , x 0
ln 2

ex
1

g (x) = 3x2 |z| f x3 3 z + 1z

,: +
:0
: t = 23
:0

: @ h ' '% h

: ii. 1 : (b) 2 = 3J 2I (

: +( 1 : b f (x) = xe1x (x 2)
ln
= 210
( 4 ) 4
4
3
:
#
: x2 = 2x1 ,: 2004
: I+1 = ( + 1) I 1 :/ e 2( 2e 5
: /

ln 2
8
f (x) = 2007x

/% %8

< $&- % $-> $

x > 4 0 < x < 1

49
8

1 k 2 x =
49
k
4
1 k2
C & *' k /&

-

E (k) =
49
2
(1k2 )k
fk (x) dx =

2401
(1 k 2 )k
1 k2
24
2401
- E (k) = 24 1 k 2 (1 2k) (2k + 1) $ '= E (k) - '%

k = 12 $ '= '% /&
x x %-> f 1 (x)
2

,:

- %-= ) % % R
x = 1( x = 2
@ f $ %> $ % 1, 1 .$ ' % %- $ - y = x 1 + ln 2
y = 3x 1 + ln 2
#
,
3
4

F (x) = f (x + 1) f (x) f (x)

,:

: <+8 [1, +) ,:
1
2
(e 1)
e2 3

4

: f (x) = ex (ln x x) : 0
#

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      

 

  '  ( ') + i, , R   (

 *+ z1 = 2 3i, z2 = 1 + i  -   

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4  ( . .   '  . (0   z   + x .  y

5     ( . .   '  . (0   z 73

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 z = 3 4i  -      z 2 + z + (z z)2

.  4z1 3iz2 = 17 + 9i

  )   C     

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    

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 Girolamo Cardano, 0     +     -

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  1 !  

  -   !+

       zz = 23

  !   a, b, x, y R ( a, b = 0 .   

*+ z = x + yi, x, y R .  w = x2 y 2 + x + (2xy + y) i 

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 *+    f (z) =

>    ( . .   '  . (0   z + z1

  

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 /  ( 1.

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 >   z    +  z 2 = 5 + 12i

 4 ( .   (  1 ( 1.  (    (  =

  -   !+ zz + (z z) = + i  , , , (

(1 .  ( .

 *+  z +

= 1 50 (0 (         A =

  Bombelli  .   

  -     ( 1. 2 + i   -   

  

  1 !      . .0  , , ,   i +

i + i + i = 0    i+4 + i+4 + i+4 + i+4 = 0

 *+ w1 = p3 3p2 i, w2 = pq 2 i, w3 = p2 + pqi   p, q  

1 '  ( (1 .  ( .  1 !      (

 ( . .  (  -   &3

 *+  (X + Y i)3 = x + yi  1 !  

 *+ , ,    1 1 '  ( 1.  (  1 !  

 *+  5 = 1  1   

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    

  1 !     1)   1 . . + , ,  

   ( (1 + i)2n + (1 i)2n    ( . 8n N9 5  

  1 !    w3 = 1, w = 1 .   n   .  

' (') + i, , R (

*+ z1 = 2 3i, z2 = 1 + i -

/ 0 (0 + ( . ( x, y ( 1.

4 ( . . ' . (0 z + x . y

5 ( . . ' . (0 z 73

z 6 = 117 + 44i . z 7 = 278 29i z 3

z = 3 4i - z 2 + z + (z z)2

. 4z1 3iz2 = 17 + 9i

) C

. , ( . 1! (

/ ( 1. ( z + z 2 = z 5 -

Girolamo Cardano, 0 + -

Ars Magna 8 - 409 !1 #"#, '

# $ % $ &'% % & '( $ $

!) Cardano ( 2

*+ , ( . ( . +i =

1!

- !+

zz = 23

! a, b, x, y R ( a, b = 0 .

*+ z = x + yi, x, y R . w = x2 y 2 + x + (2xy + y) i

6 (') + i ( z =

1 ' (0

*+ 0 ( ( . ( 1. ( 1! .

( 1. ( z1 = 2 3i, z2 = 4 + i . z = 2 i

( . ( , 0 z = z1 + z2

1! , , R

1! z 3 = 1 . z / R

( 1. ( z = x + yi -- - 2( ( 2 + 3i

*+ f (z) =

> ( . . ' . (0 z + z1

/ ( 1.

*+ !+ x2 2mx + m = 0 ( 2 x1 = x2

> z + z 2 = 5 + 12i

4 ( . ( 1 ( 1. ( ( =

- !+ zz + (z z) = + i , , , (

(1. ( .

*+ z +

= 1 50 (0 ( A =

Bombelli .

- ( 1. 2 + i -

1! . .0 , , , i +

i + i + i = 0 i+4 + i+4 + i+4 + i+4 = 0

*+ w1 = p3 3p2 i, w2 = pq 2 i, w3 = p2 + pqi p, q

1 ' ( (1. ( . 1! (

( . . ( - &3

*+ (X + Y i)3 = x + yi 1!

*+ , , 1 1 ' ( 1. ( 1!

*+ 5 = 1 1

1! 1) 1 . . + , ,

( (1 + i)2n + (1 i)2n ( . 8n N9 5

1! w3 = 1, w = 1 . n .

*+ z1 , z2 , z3 1 1 ' ( 1. (

( 1. ( x+yi 0 (0 (0 2y+2xi3

/ () |z| = 3

|z1 | = 2 . |z2 | = 3 (0

*+ z = 2 4i -

!

/ ( 1. ( |z|2 = z 2 3

/ z 0 + 0 (0

1! |z1 + z2 | |zz11 | + |zz22 | 2 (|z1 | + |z2 |)

- !+ 4z 2 + 8 |z|2 = 3

1! |z + i| = |z + i| . , 1 '

1! |1 z1 z2 | 1 |z1 | |z2 |

- (1 + i)34 2 |1 i|33

/ . ( 1. z . . . ( . r |rz| = r|z|

/ z1 , z2 + |z1 | 2 . |z2 | 3 1!

2- % % ,

/ ( 1. (

1! ( 1. ( z |z + 1| = |z| + 1

z ( . ( .

1! u, v ( (1. ( 1. ( u + v = 0

!

|z| = 1, (

. ' . |z| = 1

. z = i 1

' . ( . ( z ' .

1! |z z1 | = |z z2 | .

/ z |z i| + |z + 3| = 13

/ z |z 1| = |z 3| = |z i|3