Introduction When used in a gearbox the lubricant provides two primary two benefits: to lubricate the teeth and

to remove heat generated from the gear operation. The lubricant is also often used for lubricating the various bearing found in the gearbox. If the correct lubricant is selected for use in a gear system it will provide slip-free power transmission at high mechanical efficiency, with good reliability, low maintenance, and long life. Surface fatigue occurs when the lubricant film on the gear wheel teeth is insufficient to protect the surfaces from the stress, resulting in pitting forming in the contact region. Scuffing can result if the lubricant film is not maintained, with the consequent increase in temperature causing distress and wear of the material surface. The lowest practical viscosity oil should be selected to minimise friction losses and churning. However for low speed units with high tooth loading higher viscosity oils may be necessary The oil should be selected is thus a compromise. Gear oil generally includes additives to improve its load bearing properties (Extreme pressure additives), it viscosity (Viscosity Index improvers), corrosion inhibiters etc etc> Selection of viscosity grade - ref to viscosity notes Viscosity Selection of lubrication oils for gearbox application should only be done with guidance from the specialist suppliers. The following notes are intended as background guidance. For high speed gears at lower temperatures -10 to 16 C is low viscosity oil should be selected e.g ISO VG 46. For medium speed at lower centre distances (less than 200mm) a viscosity grade range of ISO VG 68 - ISO VG 100 is reasonable. For medium speed at lower centre distances (more than 200mm) a viscosity grade range of ISO VG 68 - ISO VG 220 is reasonable. o For low speed gears at higher temperatures up to 52 C ISO VG 150 - ISO VG 320. For gears subject to high surface pressures and sliding then special grades of oil must be considered including EP grades, synthetics etc.
o o

Important Gearbox Lubrication properties To meet the lubrication needs of modern enclosed industrial gear drives, a gear lubricant must possess the following key performance properties:

thermal and oxidative stability thermal durability compatibility with seal materials protection against excessive gear and bearing wear high-temperature extreme pressure protection (EP gear oils) gear and bearing cleanliness emulsibility characteristics rust and corrosion protection, especially to yellow metal components antifoaming characteristics

Special types of oil applicable for gearbox lubrication Rust and Oxidation-Inhibited Gear Lubricants These lubricants are commonly referred to as R & O gear oils. They are generally petroleum base oils or synthetic blend base oils with additive systems that protect against rust and oxidation. In addition to rust and oxidation-inhibiting additives, some R & O gear oils contain minute amounts of antiwear additives. The viscosity grades for R & O corresponds to the ISO viscosity grades 32 to 320. R & O o o gear oils perform well over a wide range of gear drive sizes and speeds in a temperature range of -15 C to 121 C. Compounded Gear Lubricants Compounded gear oils are a blend of petroleum base oils with rust and oxidation inhibitors, demulsibility additives and 3 percent to 10 percent fatty or synthetic fatty oils. These gear oils are frequently used in worm gear drives to provide excellent lubricity and prevent o sliding wear. Compounded gear oils are limited to an upper operating temperature limit of 82 C. The oils are supplied in grades corresponding to ISO viscosity grades 460 to 1,000. Extreme Pressure Gear Lubricants

These lubricants are commonly referred to as EP gear oils. EP gear oils are petroleum based or synthetic blend based oils that contain special multi-purpose additive systems. The additive systems contain rust and oxidation inhibitors, EP additives, demulsifiers, antifoam agents, and in some cases solid lubricants that are collodially suspended, such as molybdenum disulfide, borates or graphite. The EP additive system, which includes sulfur-phosphorous, borates and sulfur-phosphorous-boron chemistries, provides a chemically protective film that protects against welding, scuffing and scoring of the gears during boundary lubrication conditions, which can occur at start-up, stopping and high shock loads. The EP lubricant grades correspond to ISO viscosity grades 68 to 1,500. EP gear oils o o perform well over a wide range of gear drive sizes and speeds in a temperature range of -15 C to 121 C . Synthetic Gear Lubricants Synthetic gear lubricants differ from petroleum base gear lubricants in that they are formulated using synthetic base fluids. The most common types of synthetic base fluids used in the formulation of synthetic base gear oils include: polyalphaolefins (PAO), diesters, polyol esters and polyglycols. Synthetic gear lubricants are used whenever petroleum base gear lubricants have reached their performance limit. Synthetic lubricants are conventionally reserved for equipment subjected to extreme high or low temperatures, frequent high loading and extended service intervals to avoid both equipment and oil degredation. Synthetic lubricants have a higher viscosity index (smaller viscosity changes with temperature variations), improved thermal and oxidation resistance and and better lubricity. Each type of synthetic base fluid has different characteristics and some of them may have disadvantages such as compatibility with elastomers, paints, reactions in the presence of moisture and higher price. Synthetic gear lubricants can also contain rust and corrosion inhibitors, EP additives, demulsifiers, antifoam agents and in some cases solid lubricants. They can be supplied in grades which corresponds to ISO viscosity grades 32 to 6,800. synthetic gear lubricants over o o used at temperature ranges of -46 up to 125 C

Method of Lubrication There are three primary methods of lubricating gears

Grease lubrication Splash lubrication Spray lubrication

Grease Lubrication (0 to 6 m/s tangential gear speed ) Grease lubrication is suitable for any gear system that is open or enclosed, so long as it runs at low speed. The grease should have a suitable viscosity with good fluidity especially in a enclosed gear unit. Grease is not suitable for high loads and continuous operation and there is virtually not cooling effect. The must be sufficient grease to ensure the gear teeth are lubricated but an excess can result in viscous drag and power losses. Splash Lubrication(4 to 15 m/s tangential gear speed ) Splash lubrication is the normal method for lubricating spur, helical, bevel and worm gears. The gears simply dip into a bath of oil as the rotate. Splash lubrication needs at least 3 m/s tangential speed gear speed to be effective. It is important that provisions are made to ensure the teeth are not immersed in the bath such that excessive losses result from the oil being churned up. The oil level should be monitored under static and dynamic conditions to ensure it is correct for the application Spray Lubrication (above 12 m/s tangential gear speed ) For the higher speed units (10 to 20 m/s peripheral speed) engineered spray lubrication is genally provided using shaped nozzles with oil at a circulated pressure of about 0.7 barg. At higher speeds the system for directing the oil at the teeth needs to be carefully engineering to ensure the oil actually reaches the contacting surfaces as centrifugal forces and escaping air flow will tend to deflect the oil jet.

Worm gear lubrication Worm drives are inefficient because the gears experience sliding rather than rolling contacts, leading to operating temperatures much higher than other gear types. Spur gears normally operate at 28C higher than ambient temperatures while worm gear temperatures typically rise 50C over ambient. This temperature difference is required to aid in dispersing the friction heat generated. Due to the sideway sliding motion in worm gears, it is difficult to maintain a hydrodynamic oil wedge. This results in gears operating under boundary lubrication conditions. Also, high operating temperatures that approach 88C and higher usually require oils with an ISO VG of 460 and higher. They also require good thermal and oxidative stability. The types of oils used to lubricate worm gears are compounded mineral oils, EP mineral gear oils and synthetics.

Gears Lubrication
Energy is transmitted from a power source to a terminal point, through gears that change speeds, directions, and torque. Gear lubricants are formulated and applied to prevent premature component failure, assure reliable operation, reduce operating cost, and increase service life. The important objectives accomplished by these lubricants include: reduction of friction and wear, corrosion prevention, reduction of operating noise, improvement in heat transfer, and removal of foreign or wear particles from the critical contact areas of the gear tooth surfaces. Gears vary greatly in their design and in their lubrication requirements. Proper lubrication is important to prevent premature wear of gear tooth surfaces. When selecting a lubricant for any gear application the following issues must be considered: type and materials of gear, operating conditions, including rolling or sliding speed, type of steady load and temperature, method of lubricant application, environment and type of service. Enclosed gears -- those encased in an oil-tight housing -- usually require an oil with various additives, depending on the operating conditions. Rust, oxidation, and foam inhibitors are common. Extreme pressure (EP) additives are also used when loads are severe. Worm gears are special because the action between the worm and the mating bull gear is sliding rather than the rolling action common in most gears. The sliding action allows fluid film lubrication to take place. Another significant difference is that worm gears are usually made of dissimilar materials, which reduces the chance of galling and reduces friction. EP additives usually are not required for worm gears and may actually be detrimental to a bronze worm gear. Lubrication can be improved by oiliness additives. In open gear applications, the lubricant must resist being thrown off by centrifugal force or being scraped off by the action of the gear teeth. A highly adhesive lubricant is required for most open gear applications. Most open gear lubricants are heavy oils, asphalt-based compounds, or soft greases. Depending on the service conditions, oxidation inhibitors or EP additives may be added. Caution must be exercised when using adhesive lubricants because they may attract and retain dust and dirt, which can act as abrasives. To minimize damage, gears should be periodically cleaned. Gear Wear, Failure and Lubrication The most critical function provided by lubricants is to minimize friction and wear to extend equipment service life. Gear failures can be traced to mechanical problems or lubricant failure. Lubricant-related failures are usually traced to contamination, oil film collapse, additive depletion and use of improper lubricant for the application. The most common failures are due to particle contamination of the lubricant. Dust particles are highly abrasive and can penetrate through the oil film, causing plowing wear or ridging on metal surfaces. Water contamination can cause rust on working surfaces of the gears and eventually destroy metal integrity. To prevent premature failure, gear selection requires careful consideration of the following: gear tooth geometry, tooth action, tooth pressures, construction materials and surface characteristics, lubricant characteristics and operating environment. Gear Pitting and Lubrication Pitting occurs when fatigue cracks are initiated on the tooth surface or just below the surface. Usually pits are the result of surface cracks caused by metal-to-metal contact of asperities or defects due to low lubricant film thickness. High-speed gears with smooth surfaces and good film thickness may experience pitting due to subsurface cracks. These cracks may start at inclusions in the gear materials, which act as stress concentrators, and propagate below and parallel to the tooth surface. Pits are formed when these cracks break through the tooth surface and cause material separation. When several pits join, a larger pit (or spall) is formed. Another suspected cause of pitting is hydrogen embrittlement of metal due to water contamination of the lubricant. Pitting can also be caused by foreign particle contamination of lubricant. These particles create surface stress concentration points that reduce lubricant film thickness and promote pitting. The following guidelines should be observed to minimize the onset of pitting in gear units:

Reduce contact stresses through load reduction or by optimizing gear geometry. Steel should be properly heat-treated to high hardness. Carburizing is preferable. Gear teeth should have smooth surfaces produced by grinding or honing. Use proper quantities of cool, clean and dry lubricant with the required viscosity.

Gear Lubricant Characteristics and Viscosity

Gear lubricant must possess the following characteristics: Good viscosity is essential to ensure cushioning and quiet operation. An oil viscosity that is too high will result in excess friction and degradation of oil properties associated with high oil operating temperature. In cold climates gear lubricants should flow easily at low temperature. Gear oils should have a minimum pour point of 5 C (9 F) lower than the lowest expected temperature. The pour point for mineral gear oil is typically -7 C (20 F). When lower pour points are required synthetic gear oils with pour points of -40 C (-40 F) may be necessary. The following equation from the provides a method for verifying the required viscosity for a specific gear based on the operating velocity: V40 = 7000 V0.5

Where: V40 V V = = lubricant pitch kinematic line viscosity velocity = at 40 (ft/min) C (105 given F) by (cSt) : 0.262nd

n is the pinion speed in rev/min and d is the pitch diameter (inches). Film strength: Good film strength helps prevent metal contact and scoring between the gear teeth. Lubricity (oiliness): Lubricity is necessary to reduce friction. Adhesion. Helps prevent loss of lubrication due to throw-off associated with gravity or centrifugal force especially at high speeds. Gear speed: The now superseded Industrial Gear Lubrication Standards, AGMA 250.04, used center distance as the primary criterion for gear lubricant selection. The new version of this standard, designated AGMA 9005-D94 Industrial Gear Lubrication, has adopted pitch line velocity as the primary selection criterion. As noted above, gear speed is a factor in the selection of proper oil viscosity. The pitch line velocity determines the contact time between gear teeth. High velocities are generally associated with light loads and very short contact times. For these applications, low-viscosity oils are usually adequate. In contrast, low speeds are associated with high loads and long contact times. These conditions require higher-viscosity oils. EP additives may be required if the loads are very high. Temperature: Ambient and operating temperatures also determine the selection of gear lubricants. Normal gear oil operating temperature ranges from 50 to 55 C (90 to 100 F) above ambient. Oils operating at high temperature require good viscosity and high resistance to oxidation and foaming. Caution should be exercised whenever abnormally high temperatures are experienced. High operating temperatures are indicative of oils that are too viscous for the application, excess oil in the housing, or an overloaded condition. All of these conditions should be investigated to determine the cause and correct the condition. Oil for gears operating at low ambient temperatures must be able to flow easily and provide adequate viscosity. Therefore these gear oils must possess high viscosity indices and low pour points. Open gears: In addition to the general requirements, lubrication for open gears must meet the following requirements: Drip resistance: Prevents loss of lubricant especially at high temperatures which reduce viscosity. Brittle resistance: Lubricant must be capable of resisting embrittlement especially at very low temperatures. Enclosed gears: In addition to the general requirements, lubrication for enclosed gears must meet the following requirements: Chemical stability and oxidation resistance: Prevents thickening and formation of varnish or sludge. This requirement is especially significant in high-speed gears because the oil is subjected to high operating oil and air temperatures. Extreme pressure protection: Provides additional galling and welding protection for heavily loaded gears when the lubricant film thickness fails. Extreme pressure lubricants are available for mild and severe (hypoid) lubricant applications.

Lubrication of Gears The purpose of lubricating gears is as follows: 1. Promote sliding between teeth to reduce the coefficient of friction. 2. Limit the temperature rise caused by rolling and sliding friction. To avoid difficulties such as tooth wear and premature failure, the correct lubricant must be chosen. Methods of Lubrication There are three gear lubrication methods in general use: 1. Grease lubrication. Grease lubrication is suitable for any gear system that is open or enclosed, so long as it runs at low speed. There are three major points regarding grease: 1.1 Choosing a lubricant with suitable viscosity. Lubricant with good fluidity is especially effective in an enclosed system. 1.2 Not suitable for use under high load and continuous operation. The cooling effect of grease is not as

good as lubricating oil. So it may become a problem with temperature rise under high load and continuous operating conditions. 1.3 Proper quantity of grease. There must be sufficient grease to do the job. However, too much grease can be harmful, particularly in an enclosed system. Excess grease will cause agitation, viscous drag and result in power loss. 2 Splash Lubrication(oil bath method) Splash lubrication is used with an enclosed system. The rotating gears splash lubricant onto the gear system and bearings. It needs at least 3 m/s tangential speed to be effective. However, splash lubrication has several problems, two of them being oil level and temperature limitation. 2.1 Oil level. There will be excessive agitation loss if the oil level is too high. On the other hand, there will not be effective lubrication or ability to cool the gears if the level is too low. Also, the oil level during operation must be monitored, as contrasted with the static level, in that the oil level will drop when the gears are in motion. This problem may be countered by raising the static level of lubricant or installing an oil pan. 2.2 Temperature limitation. The temperature of a gear system may rise because of friction loss due to gears, bearings and lubricant agitation. Rising temperature may cause one or more of the following - Lower viscosity of lubricant. - Accelerated degradation of lubricant. - Deformation of housing, gears and shafts. - Decreased backlash. New high-performance lubricants can withstand up to 80 to 90C. This temperature can be regarded as the limit. If the lubricant's temperature is expected to exceed this limit, cooling fins should be added to the gear box, or a cooling fan incorporated into the system. 3 Forced-Circulation Lubrication Forced-circulation lubrication applies lubricant to the contact portion of the teeth by means of an oil pump. There are drop, spray and oil mist methods of application. 3.1 Drop method: An oil pump is used to suck-up the lubricant and then directly drop it on the contact portion of the gears via a delivery pipe. 3.2. Spray method: An oil pump is used to spray the lubricant directly on the contact area of the gears. 3.3 Oil mist method: Lubricant is mixed with compressed air to form an oil mist that is sprayed against the contact region of the gears. It is especially suitable for high-speed gearing. Oil tank, pump, filter, piping and other devices are needed in the forced-lubrication system. Therefore, it is used only for special high-speed or large gear box applications. By filtering and cooling the circulating lubricant, the right viscosity and cleanliness can be maintained. This is considered to be the best way to lubricate gears. Properties of lubricate 1 Lubricant should maintain a proper viscosity to form a stable oil film at the specified temperature and speed of operation. 2 Lubricant should have the property to prevent the scoring failure of tooth surface while under highpressure of load. 3 A good lubricant should not oxidize easily and must perform in moist and high-temperature environment for long duration. 4 The lubricant should have the property of isolating moisture and water from lubricant. If the lubricant

foams under agitation, it will not provide a good oil film. Antifoam property is a vital requirement. Lubrication should be neutral and stable to prevent corrosion from rust that may mix into the oil. Viscosity of Lubricant The correct viscosity is the most important consideration in choosing a proper lubricant of gears. There is no single best lubricant and method. Choice depends upon tangential speed (m/s) and rotating speed (rpm). At low speed, grease lubrication is a good choice. For medium and high speeds, splash lubrication and forced circulation lubrication are more appropriate, but there are exceptions. Sometimes, for maintenance reasons, a grease lubricant is used even with high speed.
Applying Open Gear Lubricants

Print Lawrence G. Ludwig, Schaeffer Mfg. Company Tags: automatic lubrication, gear lubrication When selecting an open gear lubricant for use in a particular application, the method of application used must be considered. The typical methods of application used in open gear systems are:

Spray/atomization systems Gravity feed or drip feed Oil bath (splash and idler immersion systems) Hand, brush or pour it on Generally, if the open gear lubricant is to be applied by a drip system, force-feed lubricator or spray system, it must be sufficiently fluid to flow through the application equipment. For brush applications, the open gear lubricant must be fluid enough to be brushed evenly on the teeth. In any case, during operation, the open gear lubricant must be viscous and tacky enough to resist squeeze-out from the gear teeth. When open gears are lubricated by dripping into a splash pan or through the use of splash and idler immersion systems, the open gear lubricant must not be so heavy that it channels as the gear teeth dip into it. Finally, when open gears are lubricated, the consistency or grade and its ease of pumpability must permit easy application under the prevailing ambient conditions. Spray/Atomization Systems The most common type of spray/atomization system used in the lubrication of open gearing is the intermittent mechanical spray system. Its usage depends upon the open gear lubricant remaining on the gear teeth through several revolutions. Intermittent spray systems utilize metering valves that direct the lubricant to an air/grease nozzle that sprays the lubricant onto the open gears with the assist of air pressure. The basic components of this type of system are a pump, a controller, a metering valve, a spray manifold and spray nozzles. The operation of this type of system is very straightforward. A signal from a controller turns on the pump to supply the open gear lubricant to a positive-displacement metering valve. The metering valve can be a progressive, two-line or injector type. The metered lubricant is sent down a passage in a spray manifold, where the open gear lubricant is directed to a nozzle. A second passage of pressurized air (usually in the range of 80 to 120 pounds per square inch) is directed to the same nozzle. This pressurized air blows the open gear lubricant out of the nozzle onto the open gear. After a predetermined amount of open gear lubricant is dispensed, both the air system and the pump shut off until the next lubrication cycle. Usually there is a delay in shutting off the air so as to ensure that the open gear lubricant has cleared the nozzle. The purpose of this is to remove the open gear lubricant out of the nozzle tip, thus preventing it from drying and clogging the nozzle. The spraying time should equal the amount of time it takes for one or two revolutions to ensure complete coverage. Periodic inspections must be made to ensure that a sufficient amount of open gear lubricant is being applied to provide proper protection. Two hours is the maximum interval time permitted between applications per the AGMA 9005-D94 guidelines. The amount of open gear lubricant to use is dependent upon the application the open gear is being used in (mills, kilns, dragline, etc.) and the pitchline velocity of the gearing, the rated electrical power draw on the electric motor powering the gear (for mills and kilns), the type of gearing, and the type of open gear lubricant that is to be applied. In many applications, your lubricant supplier can recommend the starting amount to use. These application rates are expressed in grams per centimeter face width per hour. In lieu of a starting recommendation given by the lubricant supplier, the AGMA has issued lubricant quantity guidelines in the AGMA 9005-D94 standard that can be used for intermittent methods of application.

1) The spraying time should equal the time for one and preferably two revolutions of the gear to insure complete coverage. Periodic inspections should be made to insure that sufficient lubricant is being applied to give proper protection.

2) Two hours is the maximum interval permitted between applications of lubricant. More frequent application of smaller quantities is preferred. However, where diluents are used to tin lubricants for spraying, intervals must be so short as to prevent diluent evaporation.

Table 1. Lubricant Quantity Guidelines for Intermittent Methods of Application (ref. 1)

To ensure that a correct amount of open gear lubricant is being applied and operation reliability is being maintained, it is important that you maintain a perfect spray pattern without any gaps. Distribute the open gear lubricant evenly over the entire height and width of the tooth flank on the loaded side of the gear. The number of spray nozzles to use for a given application is determined by the gear width. Typically, four to six spray nozzles are required; they must be properly spaced to provide adequate lubricant coverage across the entire face of the gear teeth. As a guideline, for slow-speed open gearing operating up to 2,000 feet per minute (10 meters per second), the end nozzles should be placed 2 to 2.5 inches (50 to 65 millimeters) from the gear face edge with the remaining nozzles spaced 5 to 7 inches (130 to 180 millimeters) from center. Nozzle location is also a function of the spray pattern. Spray nozzles are generally positioned to direct the open gear lubricant at the loaded profiles of the gear teeth (not the pinion) at a maximum distance of 6 to 8 inches (150 to 200 millimeters) from the gear teeth.2 The correct spray pattern on the tooth flanks and an illustration of the correct spacing of spray nozzles are illustrated in Figures 1 and 2.

Figure 1. Correct Lubricant Spray Patterns on Tooth Flanks.

Figure 2. Placement of Spray Nozzles. Example of three-nozzle spray bar with spray nozzle spaced apart at 150 mm.

Figure 3. Inadequate Spray Pattern on the Tooth Flank. Inadequate spray patterns normally lead to scuffing in these highlighted areas. Additional spray nozzles correctly spaced and higher air pressure is required to improve the lubrication film.
The air pressure to the spray bar also must be properly set; otherwise, the open gear lubricant will not be atomized correctly. Too low of air pressure will result in a splattering, lumpy or stringy appearance (as illustrated in Figure 3), while too high of air pressure will tend to blow the open gear lubricant off of the gear. For most open gear lubricants, the air pressure seating must not be set lower than 75 psi (35 kilopascals or 5 bar) and not higher than 90 psi (42 kpa or 6 bar). Even if the spray nozzles are monitored using control flow mechanisms, periodic checks of the spray pattern are recommended as part of maintaining adequate and even coverage of the open gearing on the gear face. Spray bars have many different designs, and many of the older spray systems do not allow easy access to check the spray pattern while the open gearing is operational. If the spray bar does not swing out or open outward with the door, the safest way to check the spray pattern is when the machine is shut down. A recommended procedure for inspecting spray patterns is as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. Ensure isolation procedures are adhered to, then open the inspection door and place a clean piece of cardboard or paper on the gear set, where the spray nozzle atomizes the open gear lubricant onto the gear set. Operate the lube system and check the lubricant coverage on the cardboard or paper. The coverage should overlap from one spray nozzle to the next, and there should not be any gaps within the appropriate height and width to cover the load-carrying gear teeth. If gaps are found, the air pressure, spray angle and spray cap need to be adjusted to obtain the appropriate coverage. Once the adjustments have been made, repeat the process until the perfect spray pattern (as depicted in Figure 1) is achieved. If the spray bar requires changing, the spray bar design should be altered so that spray pattern can be checked during equipment operation (as shown in Figure 4).

Figure 4. Recommended Spray Bar Design to Allow Easy Checking of Spray Pattern

Figure 5. Spray Bars Can be Located at Four Different Directions of Rotation

The spray bar should be set at a 30-degree angle to spray the open gear lubricant onto the drive or loaded side of the pinion or girth gear. Setting the spray angle at 30 (as shown in Figures 5.) will achieve a very good distribution of the lubricant in an upward or downward direction, always to the load-carrying tooth flank. The spray nozzle distance set back from the gear is approximately 8 inches plus or minus 2 inches (200 millimeters plus or minus 50 mm), depending on the air pressure and tooth height. The width of the gear tooth will determine the amount of spray nozzles required to adequately lubricate the gear drive. To further ensure that the proper amount of lubricant is being applied once the spray bar nozzles and patterns are set, it is recommended that the amount of lubricant being expelled from each injector be weighed. Over time, injector spray nozzles do not deliver the appropriate amount of lubricant per cycle that they are designed to deliver. Too much open gear lubricant being applied can cause waste, while under-lubrication can lead to increased wear and eventual component failure. The amount of lubricant that needs to be expelled from each injector can be obtained from the manufacturer of the automatic lubrication system. For example, a Lincoln SL-1 style injector typically expels 0.046 ounces (1.31 grams) per cycle of lubricant. The timer settings on the automatic lubrication system should eventually be set to the shortest frequency depending upon the type of open gear lubricant used. For asphaltic and high-viscosity synthetic high-viscosity base fluids, the typical time-setting interval is 10 to 20 minutes, while for semi-fluid greases and gel/polymer-thickened type open gear lubricants, the typical time-setting interval is 15 to 30 minutes. A strobe light can be used to check the appearance of the gears during operation. The strobe light should be set at the same speed that the gear is turning. A well-lubricated gear will have a dark color to semi-transparent appearance depending upon the type of open gear lubricant being used, and strings of lubricant will appear as the gear and pinion teeth separate. An over-lubricated gear will be black with excess lubricant dripping, flinging off or built up on the teeth and root zones of the gear. Taking temperature readings across the gear face using a non-contact thermometer can be additionally done to check if the open gearing is being properly lubricated. An even temperature across the gear tooth indicates that the gear is being properly lubricated. In addition to being used to check for proper lubrication, strobe lighting and temperature reading can be used to check for misalignment. Any misalignment results in less contact across the meshing gears, resulting in increased wear. Roughly a 30 degree Fahrenheit difference across the gear tooth and darker to lighter areas of lubricant across the contact film indicates misalignment. Gravity-Feed or Drip-Feed Systems Gravity-feed or drip-feed systems are found on mills, kilns, shovels, draglines and excavators. These systems consist of one or more oilers, cascade pans, pressurized feed lines or applicator wheels. They allow the open lubricant to drip into the gear mesh at a set rate. This method of application is limited to open gearing with pitchline velocities of 1,500 feet per minute (7.5 meters per second) or less. For these types of systems, asphaltic, high-viscosity synthetic oil open gear lubricants are generally used. If pressured feed lines or applicator wheels are used in these systems, a semi-fluid grease or gel/polymer-thickened type of open gear lubricant can be used. Oil Bath (Splash and Idler Immersion) System Oil bath systems are the simplest method of lubricating open gears. The gear or an idler in mesh with the gear is allowed to dip into the open gear lubricant, carrying it around to the mesh. Idler immersion systems are generally limited to open gear systems with pitchline velocities below 300 feet per minute (1.5 meters per second). Some systems will also contain recirculating pumps and filtration systems. Splash and idler immersion system can be found on mill and kiln applications. As a general recommendation, asphaltic, high-viscosity synthetic oil, semi-fluid grease type and gel/polymer type open gear lubricant can be used in these systems. If a semi-fluid grease type of gel/polymer is used, the open gear lubricant must be semi-fluid to fluid in consistency. If the open gear lubricant is an asphaltic or high-viscosity synthetic base fluid type, the viscosity of the fluid should be a minimum of 1,000 centistokes (cSt) at 40 degrees Celsius.

Hand, Brush or Pour it On This method of application is one of the oldest and most dangerous methods used to apply open gear lubricants. It has been used to apply open gear lubricants on mills, kilns, shovels, draglines and excavators. Generally, asphaltic type and high-viscosity synthetic type open gear lubricants are applied by this method. It can result in not only the improper amount of open gear lubricant being applied, but also can result in the introduction of contaminants into the gearing. Further application by this method while the open gearing is operational can result in safety considerations that can result in injury or even death to the person applying the open gear lube. Lubricating Film Thickness and Selection Criteria The primary lubrication regime required to lubricate open gearing is elastrohydrodynamic (EHD) lubrication. According to the EHD theory, the critical factor is the open gear lubricants film thickness. The open gear lubricants film thickness is dependent upon the dynamic viscosity of the open gear lubricant at operating temperatures, average surface velocity of the gear temperature, the loads and geometry of the gearing, etc. It has been established that the lubrication condition which exists in most gears is predominately elastrohydrodynamic. Gear teeth are subject to enormous contact pressures over relatively small areas (possibly as great as 435,000 psi), and yet they are successfully lubricated with very thin films of lubricant. There are two reasons for this:

The high pressure causes the surfaces to deform elastically and spread the load over a wider area. The viscosity of the lubricant increases considerably with pressure, thus increasing the lubricants load-carrying capacity. Once the film thickness is determined, another important parameter which must be calculated is the Lambda ratio. This ratio is defined as the ration of EHD film thickness of the lubricant to the composite surface roughness of the contacting metal surfaces. As the Lambda ratio approaches 1 (i.e. the film thickness is of the same order as the surface roughness), it can be expected that there will be increased contact between the two contacting gears. It should be noted that this calculation is based on the base oil viscosity of the open gear lubricant only. It does not take into account any film thickness contribution that may be made by the open gear lubricants thickener system or its solid lubricants. In addition, some types of open gear lubricants such as grease-like and gel/polymer-thickened types may contain light-viscosity base fluids. These light-viscosity base fluids are used as a cutback of the heavy-viscosity base fluids present in the formulation in order to enhance the pumpability of the product during low-ambient-temperature conditions. The light-viscosity base fluids are volatile and dissipate under operating conditions. Subsequently, the base viscosity of these open gear lubricants increases, generating a tacky, durable lubricant film that adheres to the gearing.

Figure 6. Properly Lubricated Open Gear

Figure 7. Over-lubricated Open Gear

Besides taking into consideration the lubricant film thickness provided by the open gear lubricant being selected, other considerations that must be taken into consideration when recommending the proper type, grade and amount to be applied are: 1. 2. 3. 4. The OEM requirements. The type of open gear application mills, kilns, shovels, draglines, etc. The ambient temperature encountered in the area in which the machine operates. The climate condition in which the machine operates ice, snow, wet, dusty.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

How the lubricant is being applied. If applied by a spray or automatic lubrication system, the type of lube system that is installed Farval, Lincoln, Worner, Droppsa, etc. The type and ratio of the pump utilized on the automatic lube system. The width of the pinion gear. Whether the gearing is a double or single pinion The power rating on the electric motor. The position and number of spray nozzles. Once all of these conditions are known, the proper open gear lubricant for the given application can be selected based upon the different topics, methods of application and characteristics discussed in this paper. Finally, when switching open gear lubricants or applying open gear lubricants on new equipment where no prior lubricant was used, the following procedures should be followed: Procedure to follow on new equipment:

Clean all coating and debris from the gears. Coat the gear and pinion with a light film of open gear lubricant by some sort of spray method. Start-up procedure:

Run equipment slowly under no load to verify that there is lubricant throughout the entire load zone. Gradually increase speed and load while turning on the automatic lube system. Monitor continuously until a proper coating is maintained. For spray systems:

Prior to startup, purge the lube lines and check spray patterns for complete coverage. Adjust the air pressure and volume as needed. For drip systems:

Most open gear lubricants are designed to adhere where they are applied. Drip tubes should be spaced no farther than 2 inches apart. Procedure to follow when switching from one type of open gear lube to another: Although it is best to completely clean the gear, pinion and gear guards, conversion of one type of open gear lubricant to another can be made by applying the open gear lubricant to be used directly over most existing applications. Procedure:

Purge the lube lines thoroughly. Start the timing settings 50 percent higher than the operational settings to ensure all of the lines are purged and flushed and have built up a sufficient lubricant coverage film before reducing the lubricant consumption rate to the operational settings. Readjust the timer to maintain an adequate lubricant film. The lubricant quantity should not be reduced abruptly but at five-minute intervals of 150 to 200 hours for mills and 100 to 150 hours for shovels, draglines and excavators. Product performance should be monitored. When reducing consumption quantity to the control unit of the spray system, it should be set to ensure the intervals between spray cycles are as short as possible. Short and frequent spray cycles ensure the lubricant is supplied evenly to the component; this increases functional reliability. Adjust the air pressure and volume as needed. Inspections of the lubricating systems, tooth flank conditions and the spray pattern are required to ensure reliable operation. The spray system should be maintained thoroughly in accordance with the manufacturers instructions.

A variety of materials has been and will be used for the manufacture of special gears and thus a blanket recommendation cannot be made for the lubrication of all nonmetallic gears. While the concern here is lubrication, it is of interest that these materials tend to have less mass per unit volume than the ferrous metals and thus the resulting gearing has less inertia of rotating parts. Further, injection molded gears are about as low in cost as any gears. AGMA 250.02, Dec. 1955, makes the following statement:

The gears should be lightly loaded if lubrication is not permissible. Certain small gears, particularly if made from Teflon or Nylon, are run without lubrication. However, Carlyon^9, when considering plastics for bearings, found that: Even small amounts of oil present during typical manufacturing processes often will improve friction and PV ratings. It was also shown that the continuous presence of oil raises the PV values of Nylon and Delrin. Graphite is sometimes used as filler in plastics and may thus aid in lubrication.

Medium sized nonmetallic gears are generally used in mesh with metal gears. Thus, Bakelite spur gears, which are made by impregnating fabric with Bakelite resin and then applying pressure and heat, are used with metal gears. Laminates may also be made of paper impregnated with phenolic resins. Heavy oil or lubricating grease is used as the lubricant on such pairs and the amount and frequency of application depends upon the severity of service.

Rawhide pinions disintegrate when in contact with mineral oil and therefore, a mixture of tallow and graphite can be used for lubrication of such gears in mesh with metal gearing. Such pinions furnish noiseless, resilient service with little vibration and prolong the life of the metal mate.

Pinions can be made from most materials which can be molded or cast, often in conjunction with other material. Thus, Fabroil pinions are stated to be made of pressed cotton held under compression by steel shrouds. The manufacturer of nonmetallic gears should be in position to recommend suitable lubricants for the same.

Plastic gears are sometimes used in small gear pumps, and here the material being handled, such as water, petroleum products or solvents, may serve as a lubricant.

Undoubtedly the use of gears made from plastics will increase both as to number and types. While it is not the function here to treat of their characteristics, some of the qualities should be recognized in applying lubricants. The fact that these synthetic materials have lower specific gravities and consequently less inertia than metals indicates less impact when gear teeth mesh. Also plastic gears tend to have greater elasticity than metal; therefore, they should conform to a mating gear without the necessity of a thick lubricating film. Since some of the non-metallic gears are thermoplastic they will not be used under conditions of elevated temperatures; consequently, high temperature lubricants will not be required.

The solubility characteristics of plastics will vary with the type and a lot of gears made from such materials can advise as to any restrictions in fluids to be used with specific plastics. Bueche and Flom^7 who investigated Surface Friction and Dynamic Mechanical properties of Polymers found that water solutions of sodium stearate were satisfactory lubricants for either Neoprene or branched or unbranched polyethylene when in contact with steel. While Delrin can be operated in a bone-dry state, pretreatment with lubricating oil has been found to reduce its erratic operations and improve the abrasion resistance. The recommended pretreatment consists of complete immersion in a low viscosity oil for one hour at 250 degree (F) after which the part is wiped dry. Gears of this materials have been

operated in contact with both oil and lubricating grease with no deformation or wear. Since the variety of types of plastics used in gears will increase, the safest procedure in lubricating such parts is to consult the supplier.

Solids as Gear Lubricants

Posted byGear lubricants, at9:22 PM

Dry solids, such as graphite or molybdenum disulfide, have had very limited use as lubricants for gears. More often such solids are used in conjunction with fluids for gear lubrication. Such use is not general and data as to their value is meager.

A large gear on a radar installation was said to be difficult to move until molybdenum disulfide was mixed with the oil used. Vago^50 cites gears operating in excess of 200 degree (F) where both automotive gear oil and a molybdenum disulfide fortified lubricant were tested. After three years, inspection of the gear teeth indicated no advantage of the latter lubricant over the chemically fortified gear oils. If solids are included in gear oils, the particle size of the additives is of importance and should preferably be of colloidal size. Thus, Kyropoulos^28 in citing claims for a 20 per cent increase in efficiency with a worm gear unit after adding colloidal graphite, also stated that powdered graphite was not effective. While settling of the solid occurred in this case there was said to be no clogging of oil ducts. No mention is made of the proportion of solids desirable, but one per cent of a colloidal suspension, which in turn contains 10 per cent of solids, is a normal dosage. This holds true for either graphite or molybdenum disulfide. The latter material has been recommended where there is impact loading, or oscillating or reversing motion

Prevention of Contamination of Gear Lubricants

Posted byGear lubricants, at9:21 PM

Gear sets operate under such varied conditions that it is difficult to give general suggestions for prevention of contamination of the gear lubricant. The two contaminants most often encountered are water and dust. In the latter are included large particles such as scale in steel mills. Less trouble is encountered where a circulating system provides the lubricant rather than a splash system, since the former can be supplied with settling tanks or filters. Even here regular inspection is necessary and accumulated water should be drawn off whenever noted. Such accumulations may be quite large in the case of gear oils for ship propellers or in oils servicing paper mill machinery or steel mill gears. Where gear cases are vented, the location of the vent or a pipe connection to the same should be so located that the least dirt possible can enter. One automobile manufacturer reduced contamination in differential cases by extending a line from the vent and securing it forward under the car frame with the opening toward the side of the vehicle. Prevention of contamination of lubricants by chemicals must have individual consideration. In extreme cases it may be necessary to provide pressure on gear cases to prevent entry of contaminants. Fog or Mist Application of Gear Oils
Posted byGear lubricants, at9:19 PM

Airborne oil mist or fog is being used to advantage in the lubrication of gear sets. The fog, consisting of oil atomized by compressed air into particles in the order of 2 microns in size, can be carried in pipes for long distances. At the point of application these will have to be reclassified to larger particles so that they will wet a metal surface. The air carrier must be vented from the lubricated part and is said to carry away heat. However, perhaps the heat dissipated will not be as great as in cases where gear oils splash or flow over gear sets. The oil is used on a once through basis; consequently, clean, unoxidized oil is applied continuously. The amount of lubricant used is quite low, and the gears expend no energy in overcoming fluid friction of gear oils. With such a system, gear boxes are under some pressure; hence, no contaminants, such as dust, will enter. Fog lubrication is only practical where sufficient points for lubrication justify a centralized system or where compressed air is available for use with a few points. The latter reason, therefore, probably rules out such systems in the case of aircraft and vehicles. If properly adjusted, definite amounts of oil can be applied by fog, and the system requires little attention, provided there are no air failures.

Nonferrous Gears and Their Lubrication

Posted byGear lubricants, at9:18 PM

While the tendency is to think only of gears made of ferrous metals, we find in Dudley^16 the statement: A wide variety of bronzes, aluminum alloys, zinc alloys, and nonmetallic plastics and laminates are used to make gears. Fortunately, well refined mineral oils have little action on most of the combinations. We say combinations because in many cases the nonferrous gear is driven by a steel pinion, but when the loads are light and the gears are small, both members may be of the nonferrous material. Nonreactive oils should be used with nonferrous gears unless specific recommendations state otherwise. This is illustrated in the case of worm gears where the gear is normally made of bronze. The general recommendation for such units is a mineral oil containing tallow, although often such oils contain lead soaps and occasionally certain EP agents. Synthetic fluids, both diesters and Ucon fluids, have been used as lubricants with nonferrous or ferrous and nonferrous combinations of gears. Where a problem of lubricating an unusual combination of gear materials is encountered, the manufacturer of the gear set should be able to make a safe recommendation. However, lacking a suggestion, a well refined lubricating oil with no reactive additives present can generally be used with safety in the case of nonferrous gear sets.

Application of Lubricating Greases to Gearing

Posted byGear lubricants, at8:39 AM

Methods of application of lubricating greases to gearing will vary with the specific mechanism. As a rule, such products are not used on fast moving gears or on those where considerable cooling is necessary. Lubricating greases do have a place when gears are used infrequently and receive scant attention, as in home washing machines, kitchen mixers, etc. Here the lubricant may be applied during assembly.

Thinking on the application of lubricating greases to gears may change if the results reported by Gesdorf^21 can be repeated. As, a trial, all points on a steel mill table were lubricated by spraying a lithium base grease once an hour. The points covered were 38 table roll and line shaft bearings and 27 on open gearing. Previous to the test, 40 pounds of gear lubricant and 2 gallons of bearing oil were used on each 8 hour shift. After installation of the new spray system, 1.6 pounds of lubricating grease were used per eight hour operating turn. Further, it was found that bearing life was increased 40 per cent and it was estimated that gear life was increased 75 per cent. Rather than make general recommendations, suggestions for applying lubricating greases will be given when lubrication of specific equipment is discussed.

Spray or Jet Application of Gear Oils

Posted byGear lubricants, at2:23 AM

Fluid lubricants can be applied to gear sets by sprays, which are air borne, or by jets of the liquid alone. Such methods of application are employed when the peripheral speed exceeds the limits for splash lubrication or when the gears are not adapted to the dip method. The size and shape of spray patterns can be controlled by the use of different type of nozzles, the distance from the nozzle to the target, or the pressure and temperature of the lubricant. If the gearing has a wide face, two or more jets can be used on one gear set. Since one function of the gear oil is to cool as well as lubricate, a fan shaped spray or jet should spread the oil across the entire gear face. Adjustments of such sprays are a matter of experience, and firms supplying such equipment can give the best advice. For any cases, except exceedingly high speed, most authorities prefer to apply the oil spray on the incoming side of the gears so that the oil will be spread across the entire gear face.

For moderate speeds the application should not be directly at the point of mesh, due to air turbulence. However, Dern^15 suggests that, for pitch line velocities above 16,000 to 18,000 feet per minute, the most satisfactory results are obtained by spraying a solid stream of oil radially into the teeth of both gears at a points as close as possible to the mesh. Further, in speaking of gears operating at pitch line velocities of 20,000 to 25,000 feet per minute, Dern^15 agrees that such gears should be lubricated on the leaving side of the mesh where the oil will do the most good as a coolant and not contribute to high dynamic loads. In high speed operation of gears, lubricated by jets of oil, scavenging of the lubricant is sometimes a problem. Special baffles or even a change in gear case design may be necessary in order to remove considerable volumes of oil rapidly enough so that interference with gear operation does not result. Automatic spray application is used on open gears where a controlled amount of lubricant is sprayed over the gears at desired intervals. By heating the oil, high viscosity lubricants can be used or better still, cut back oils are applied. Gesdorf^21 offers details of such applications and the problems involved in the development and use of the same. For high speed worm gears, which tend to throw oil rather than carry it to the mesh, a high velocity jet stream of gear oil is more satisfactory than a spray. In fact two jets can be used, one striking the worm wheel teeth in a direction parallel to the axis and the other in a direction perpendicular to the axis.

Venting Gear Housings

Posted byGear lubricants, at11:10 AM

While Forbes et al.^20 mention that gear housings should be vented so that oil vapors may escape, such openings may tend to permit entrance of humid air. In fact water has been drawn off from gear cases which could only have arisen from condensation. If such conditions generally prevail, the gear oil should contain a rust preventive additive. Cartridges or filters containing dehydrating agents and attached to the vent of gear cases are not too practical because of the necessity of frequent renewal. Removal of condensed water from circulating systems is simpler than where the gears are bath lubricated. Entrance of contaminants other than water through gear housing vents is possible and often problem. The location and atmosphere surrounding the gear set will determine such possibilities and also what corrective measures need be taken. Thus, gear cases of large tractors, such as are used on road and construction work, have a breather with an air filter which should be renewed at 250 hours operation intervals. One manufacturer reports some trouble with dirt in gear cases probably due to the filter not being changed at the required interval. Farm tractors also have the same problem and a proper air filter and frequent renewal is desirable on vents from gear cases. Automobile and truck gear cases are subjected to similar contamination. Thus, a large car manufacturer mentioned in a service bulletin that two major contributing factors to a considerable number of ring and pinion

failures in axles was moisture and foreign materials entering the axle and contaminating the lubricant. The corrective action was to install a new vent system. The vent was fitted with a hose and hose clamp. The hose, 19 inches long , goes up under the frame and body of the car and is clamped so that the open end faces toward the side of the vehicle. Industrial gear set installations may require similar filters or extensions of gear case vent opening to points where the concentration of contaminants is at a minimum.

Viscosity Temperature Characteristics of Gear Lubricants

Posted byGear lubricants, at8:00 AM

Since gear and transmission oils are subjected to widely varying temperatures, particularly in vehicles, it is desirable that such lubricants have as little change in viscosity with temperature changes as is possible. In other words, high V.I. oils are desirable in many gear oil applications and absolutely necessary in certain cases. An illustration of the latter is automatic transmission fluid. Base oils with V.I. values of 90 to 95 are readily available when needed. Where it is desired to increase the V.I. of oil, additives, known as V.I. improvers, are sometimes used. These agents are generally polymers which act by either coiling up or becoming less soluble at low temperatures but reverse this action as temperatures increase, so as to contribute increasing body at higher temperatures. In normal gear operation the shearing effect tends to break down such polymers into those of lower molecular weight which are less effective as V.I. improvers. However, these agents do have a place in services such as ATF where they maintain their effectiveness. Certain high molecular weight petroleum resins have been found to improve the V.I. of some lubricating oils and not have the defect of breakdown with shear.

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Dripfeed Gear Lubrication

Posted byGear lubricants, at10:54 PM

Dripfeed application of gear oils may be considered semi-automatic in that it is adjustable to a certain degree. The feed for the oil in this case may be by gravity or even by circulation if the stream in the latter instance can

be throttled down sufficiently. In the first case a container can be filled by hand or even a small drum can be connected with piping ending in a valve or cock to permit adjustment of the feed. Here, as the amount of oil in the container becomes less, the feed will decrease. Where such a feed is partly mechanical, the oil will come either from a storage tank to which a pump has delivered it or directly from a circulating line. In either case the amount of used can be calibrated. While dripfeed can be applied to enclosed gearing it is more often used on open gearing. Here it is applicable to softer types of gear oils including cut back types. This is more desirable method of lubricating open gears than the methods previously mentioned. Also, in case cut back gear oil is used, any vapor from the same will escape slowly and hence will be less of a hazard than if the mixture were sprayed on. Further, there are fewer tendencies to over lubricate by a drip method than with other methods of hand application. Therefore, there is a consequent reduction in waste and poor housekeeping.

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Air-Oil Devices for Lubricating Gears

Posted byGear lubricants, at11:32 PM

By injecting or pumping oil drop-by drop into an air stream the air will carry the lubricant to the points of application, such as gears. A similar mixture can be obtained by the aspiratory action of compressed air. With such systems, provision can be made to start the oil flow with the start of the machine and stop it when the gears stop. The delivery is positive and there is little chance for contamination because the gear box is under some pressure which prevents entry of dust. Also,rate of oil feed can be regulated.

On the negative side, it is necessary to provide compressed air and a considerable flow of air escapes through the vent of the gear case. While this

air will have some cooling value, it may carry some oil mist. The oil is used on a once through basis and provision has to be made to drain the sump of the gear case at time.
Bath or Splash Application of Gear Lubricants
Posted byGear lubricants, at1:18 AM

Enclosed gear sets are often lubricated by bath or splash application. For this purpose, the gear oil is much more fluid than that used for open gears and hence not only lends itself to such methods of application but also acts as a coolant. Such systems are cleaner and more economical than many methods of application since only a tight housing is required. These methods of lubrication are automatic since the oil feed starts with the start of the gears and ceases when they are shut down. These systems are efficient and reliable if the oil is kept at the correct level. Further, a minimum of attention is required. Experience and location of the gear sets dictate the size of the gear case. Where the cases are small compared to the size of the gears, as is the case in most vehicles, the amount of oil is also restricted with a consequent restriction in cooling effect. In addition, close fitting gear casings can cause excessive oil drag which in turn will increase heating. Satisfactory lubrication is obtained by bath or splash methods of gearing up to peripheral speeds of 2500 to 3000 feet per minute and occasionally at higher speeds where the operating time is comparatively short. The amount of oil carried to the point of mesh will depend upon the gear size, the speed, and the viscosity of the lubricants and to some extent upon the construction of the gear case. As speeds increase, a point will be reached where centrifugal force will overcome surface tension and viscosity and most of the oil will be thrown off. This may finally reach a point where little lubricants will adhere to gear teeth at the point of mesh. In case an excessive amount of oil does reach the engaging teeth operating at high speeds, the lubricants will be displaced at considerable velocity and cause noise. According to Merritt^37 this condition is likely to occur with double helical gears with continuous teeth operating with the apex trailing. Such methods of application may include the following: (1) By bath where the fluid is placed in a sump or bath in the bottom of the enclosed gear case. One of the gears dips into the bath and as this gear rotates it transfers the lubricant to the contacting teeth. Any excess is thrown against the housing and is guided, by means of troughs, either into the bearings or back to the sump. It is important that the gear case should not be too full and that the oil level be determined, if possible, when the gears are idle. Excess lubricant leads to foaming and causes excessive drag and heating. It is suggested that in

industrial gearing the oil level should be such that the bottom gear dips into the oil about three times the depth of the tooth spaces. Automotive vehicles generally provide a filler opening and the gear oil should be up to the bottom of this opening; or, if a filler neck is used, the oil should be at the top of this filler neck. It is important that vehicle gear cases be filler when gears are stationary and also that the car or truck is on a level floor. (2) By splash, using either one of the gears or an auxiliary flinger which dips into the bath of gear oil and throws the lubricant toward the top of the gear case so that it drops back into both gearing and bearings. Merritt^37 states: All dip lubricated gears produce different oil levels at different points of running, and the running levels indicated by an oil level gauge may be either higher or lower than the standing level. This again shows the necessity of still filling gear cases. (3) By idler gear. In some instances, particularly on slow moving gear sets, an idler gear dips into a sump and transfers oil to the contacting gears. While mention is made of bearing lubrication, in bath lubrication the gear oil may or may not also serve the bearings. It is important to recognize this in determining what viscosity or grade of oil to use since bearings normally require lighter oils than do gears. A compromise as to viscosity may therefore be necessary if the lubricant serves more than one function. The lower teeth of exposed gears are sometimes encased so as to permit bath lubrication. Such application is only practical when speeds are relatively slow, otherwise considerable oil would be thrown out of the gears

Forced Feed Application of Gear Oils

Posted byGear lubricants, at2:35 AM

Forced feed application of gear oils may take the form of circulating systems which deliver the lubricant as a stream running over the gearing or to jets or sprays of some type. Such methods not only provide lubrication but also utilize the gear oil as a cooling medium. Brewer^5 mentions three types of circulating systems, namely: (1) Wet sump, in which the oil is pumped under pressure directly from the sump to the lubricating points. Failure of the pump on such a system will cause almost immediate starved condition of lubrication. (2) Dry sump, where a scavenging pump draws the excess oil from a sump and delivers it to a reservoir located above the gearing. A circulating pump then draws oil from this reservoir and delivers it to the point requiring lubrication. Since the scavenging pump has greater capacity than the circulating pump, the sump remains practically dry. A pump failure on such a system does not result in as rapid starvation as in the wet system since some oil can feed by gravity from the reservoir through an idle pump.

(3) Gravity feed which the sump pump delivers the oil, dripping from the gearing, to a reservoir set high enough to give the desired pressure. From this tank which may be thirty feet above the gear sets, gravity feed through regulating valves and perhaps sight glasses provides the lubrication. Any of the above systems may also include oil filters, coolers, and even alarm devices to warm against malfunction of pumps. Gear oils used in paper mills, steel mills, and other locations are frequently contaminated with water, mill scale etc. Such lubricants may have to be reclaimed by settling, filtering and centrifuging before reuse. The oils used in forced feed applications are generally those which are quite fluid at ambient temperature and not of the residual type. However, if warmed, the latter type of lubricant can be handled in circulating systems. Barring a pump or line failure, circulating oil systems provide a reliable flow of clean oil to gears. If necessary, this oil can serve additional functions, such as a hydraulic fluid in addition to lubricating practically any mechanism necessary. Such methods flush contaminants continually out of the lubricating areas and in most cases sufficient oil is in the system so that a portion can be withdrawn for a purification step during the cycle. Most of the heat absorbed by the oil passing through the operating area is released in the storage or by coolers before the return cycle. The lower the viscosity of a gear oil, the more satisfactory it will be for removal of heat from gear sets. In circulating systems, Dudley^16 considers that about a gallon of oil per minute will remove the heat developed when 400 hp are transmitted through a gear set. With larger installations considerably less than this ratio circulating oil to power is required.

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Method of application
Posted byGear lubricants, at7:41 AM

The best lubricant in the world will fail to accomplish its purpose if it fails to be present on the moving surfaces when required and in the proper amount. Therefore, it should be kept in mind that method of application is as important as the product used. Lubricants may be applied to gearsets and auxiliary mechanisms either manually or mechanically. Hand application is seldom practiced except in the case of exposed gears. Minor exceptions to this rule will be found in the case of small mechanisms, couplings, etc; where most often lubricating greases are added by hand, either upon installation of the equipment or at very infrequent intervals.

Mechanical application may take the form of bath, drip, splash, or forced feed. The latter method may simply involve a stream of oil but most often will be in the form of jets or spray, fog or mist. Normally one thinks of gear lubrication in terms of fluids but an occasional situation will permit or require either a lubricating grease or a solid.

The manufacturer of equipment will generally provide a method for application of gear lubricants, but sometimes the user of a machine will consider a change in lubrication methods. Therefore, enough detail of each method of application will follow to permit selection of the most desirable.

The most important factor in a lubricating system is reliability because failure to supply lubricant will cause damage to machinery . This then points to automatic gear lubrication which is more certain than hand lubrication. Another factor to consider is cost. Circulating oil systems entail a high first cost as they are usually complex. Hand application devices cost little but there is a possibility that use of this method of application may lead to higher maintenance charges than if the lubrication were automatic. Where an oil is used on a oncethrough basis, as in hand application, a less expensive oil may be used than in bath, splash, or circulating lubrication. Cleanliness, which carries with it less fire hazard, greater safety, and reduced possibility of damage to material being processed, is best obtained by enclosed systems of gear lubrication. While automatic methods of gear lubrication are the most efficient and reliable of the systems mentioned, such devices require some attention to see that a proper supply of uncontaminated oil is available and that the feed is properly adjusted.

Further, installation of a particular type of a lubricating system does not necessarily mean that this will function as desired. While some problems which may be encountered will be mentioned, either when different methods of application are described or in a future chapter devoted to problems, there is often greater possibility that the trouble is mechanical rather than due to the means of application. Therefore, a correction of a gear lubrication problem may be a step- by step process, such as that described by Gesdorf^21 when an automatic spray system was developed for open gears. When and if unsatisfactory lubrication of gears occurs and an automatic system is involved, the best procedure is to bring in both the oil supplier and the manufacturer of the lubricating equipment.

Basics of Lubrication
Basics of Lubrication

Introduction to Lubrication

Fluids and Viscosity Lubrication Regimes Stribeck Curve Hydrodynamic Lubrication Hydrodynamic Lift Hydrodynamic Bearings Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication Rolling Element Bearings Boundary Lubrication Mixed Lubrication Grease Summary Special Thanks

Introduction to Lubrication From practical experience, we know that adding a lubricant to a solid-solid contact will significantly reduce friction. The reduced friction leads to less wear, heat generation and energy loss all of which reduce operation costs and downtime. How lubricants provide these benefits will be explored in this course. The primary function of a lubricant is to provide protection for moving parts thereby reducing friction and wear of the machine. Cooling and debris removal are the other important benefits provided by a fluid lubricant.

Automobile Engine Piston Lubrication is used in almost every mechanical device, such as the automobile engine, including the pistons (above) and gears (below).

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Fluids and Viscosity Simply put, a fluid is a material that is either a liquid or gas, and fluids include air, water and oil. Most lubrication is the result of a fluid film that is in between two solid surfaces that move relative to each other. The fluid film in the lubricated area can have a thickness ranging from a few nanometers (billionths of a meter) to hundreds of microns (millionths of a meter) thick. As a point of reference, a human hair will have a diameter between 50 and 150 microns. The most important property of a lubricant is the viscosity. Loosely defined, the viscosity is the fluids ability to resist motion. A high viscosity means that a fluid is thicker and does not flow as easily. For example, molasses has a much higher viscosity than water, which has a much higher viscosity than air. The viscosity of oil is usually between that of water and molasses. A higher viscosity fluid will typically make a thicker film between the moving surfaces and support greater loads. Of course, viscosity is not a constant property. Like most fluid properties, it depends on the temperature and pressure, especially temperature. The oil in your cars engine has a high viscosity on a cold morning before the engine is started and a low viscosity after the engine heats up. High viscosity does not guarantee a good lubricant, though. How often have you seen molasses used as a lubricant? Chemistry of the fluid and conditions at the interface also determine the proper lubricant. These effects will be covered in a later course. For this course, we will consider only oils.

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Lubrication Regimes The thickness of the fluid film determines the lubrication regime, or the type of lubrication. The basic regimes of fluid film lubrication are: 1. Hydrodynamic lubrication two surfaces are separated by a fluid film, 2. Elastohydrodynamic lubrication two surfaces are separated by a very thin fluid film, 3. Mixed lubrication two surfaces are partly separated, partly in contact, and, 4. Boundary lubrication two surfaces mostly are in contact with each other even though a fluid is present. In addition to fluid film lubrication, there is solid film lubrication, in which a thin solid film separates two surfaces.

Lubrication Regimes

The fluid viscosity, the load that is carried by the two surfaces and the speed that the two surfaces move relative to each other combine to determine the thickness of the fluid film. This, in turn determines the lubrication regime. How these factors all affect the friction losses and how they correspond to the different regimes is shown on the Stribeck curve. Engineers to evaluate lubricants, to design bearings and to understand lubrication regimes, use the Stribeck Curve.

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Stribeck Curve

Sribeck Curve The Stribeck Curve is a plot of the friction as it relates to viscosity, speed and load. On the vertical axis is the friction coefficient. The horizontal axis shows a parameter that combines the other variables: mN/P. In this formula, m is the fluid viscosity, N is the relative speed of the surfaces, and P is the load on the interface per unit bearing width. Basically, as you move to the right on the horizontal axis, the effects of increased speed, increased viscosity or reduced load are seen. The zero point on the horizontal axis corresponds to static friction. The combination of low speed, low viscosity and high load will produce boundary lubrication. Boundary lubrication is characterized by little fluid in the interface and large surface contact. We can see on the Stribeck curve that this results in very high friction. As the speed and viscosity increase, or the load decreases, the surfaces will begin to separate, and a fluid film begins to form. The film is still very thin, but acts to support more and more of the load. Mixed lubrication is the result, and is easily seen on the Stribeck curve as a sharp drop in friction coefficient. The drop in friction is a result of decreasing surface contact and more fluid lubrication. The surfaces will continue to separate as the speed or viscosity increase until there is a full fluid film and no surface contact. The friction coefficient will reach its minimum and there is a transition to hydrodynamic lubrication. At this point, the load on the interface is entirely supported by the fluid film. There is low friction and no wear in hydrodynamic lubrication since there is a full fluid film and no solid-solid contact. You might notice that the Stribeck curve shows the friction increasing in the hydrodynamic region. This is due to fluid drag (friction produced by the fluid) - higher speed may result in thicker fluid film, but it also increases the fluid drag on the moving surfaces. For example, think about how much harder it is to run in a pool of water than it is to walk. Likewise, a higher viscosity will increase the fluid film thickness, but it will also increase the drag. Again, think about the difference between walking in air and walking in a pool of water. Machinery will see boundary lubrication at start-up and shutdown (low speeds and thin film), before transition to hydrodynamic lubrication at normal operating conditions (high speeds and thick film). Inspection of the Stribeck curve will show us that a machine will see the most friction and wear during start-up and shutdown.

Note: The Stribeck curve above is plotted in log-log format, so each tick represents a 10X increase over the previous interval.

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Hydrodynamic Lubrication We saw in the discussion of the Stribeck curve that the presence of a full fluid film and no surface contact indicates hydrodynamic lubrication. Hydrodynamic lubrication gets its name because the fluid film is produced by relative motion of the solid surfaces and the fluid pressure increase that results.

Hydrodynmic Lubrication Fluid Film To understand hydrodynamic lubrication, we first should look at the figure above. We know that a surface will have tiny asperities or peaks that will contact if two plates are placed together. If one of the plates were to slide over the other, then friction would increase, the asperities would break and the surfaces would wear. In hydrodynamic lubrication, a fluid film separates the surfaces, prevents wear and reduces friction. The hydrodynamic film is formed when the geometry, surface motion and fluid viscosity combine to increase the fluid pressure enough to support the load. The increased pressure forces the surfaces apart and prevents surface contact. Therefore, in hydrodynamic lubrication, one surface floats over the other surface. The increase in fluid pressure that forces the surfaces apart is hydrodynamic lift.

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Hydrodynamic Lift Consider two parallel plates with relative motion: if one surface is angled where the entrance area is slightly larger than the exit area, then a wedge shaped gap is created. This is a converging gap, and is the geometry necessary to produce hydrodynamic lift. Be careful though - the difference between the inlet and outlet is extremely small (a few microns at most), so the surfaces will look parallel to the naked eye. Any figures in this course or any other source will be greatly exaggerated to illustrate the concept. Surfaces that are this closely matched create a conformal contact.

Hydrodynamic Lift Whenever a surface moves over a fluid, or a fluid flows over a surface, then the fluid immediately next to the surface will move at the same speed as the surface. So, if two surfaces move relative to each other and a fluid is present, then it will be dragged into the interface. A fluid that enters a converging gap in this manner will see a pressure increase as the gap converges, which creates hydrodynamic lift, and forces the surfaces apart like a wedge. Hydrostatic lift is present when a higher-pressure fluid is forced between two surfaces. In this case, the surface separation is caused by the static fluid pressure, and can occur without surface motion. The mathematical equation that describes the fluid pressure as it relates to surface motion, film thickness and viscosity, the Reynolds equation, was developed by Osborne Reynolds over 115 years ago. In its full form, the Reynolds equation is very complicated and difficult to solve; however, the equation can be simplified to solve many problems in lubrication. The Reynolds equation itself is beyond the scope of this course.

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Hydrodynamic Bearings A bearing is a machine component that supports or bears a load on a moving interface. You may be familiar with ball bearings, thrust bearings or journal bearings, all of which are common examples of fluid film bearings. Fluid film bearings are divided between hydrodynamic, hydrostatic and elastohydrodynamic bearings. Hydrodynamic bearings get load support by hydrodynamic lift. The most recognizable hydrodynamic bearings are slider bearings and journal bearings. A simple description of a slider bearing is that of a block moving over a stationary surface on a thin fluid film. In a slider bearing, the moving surface will slide over the stationary surface hence the name. This configuration is used to provide load support for a number of machines.

Journal Bearing Now imagine that the converging gap is rolled up - the result would be a journal bearing (above). A journal bearing consists of a shaft (the journal) and a ring (the bearing). A journal bearing is used to support the load on a rotating shaft. The load causes the journal and bearing to be slightly offset so that a converging gap is created. As lubricating oil is fed into the bearing and is dragged by the shaft into the converging gap, the fluid pressure increases and a hydrodynamic lift is created. After the fluid flows through the narrowest part of the gap, the fluid pressure decreases, and vapor pockets may form in the film (an adverse condition known as cavitation). The fluid added in the inlet replaces the oil that leaks out the ends of the journal bearing.

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Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication A thick fluid film, low friction and no wear are the defining characteristics of hydrodynamic lubrication, which generally occurs at conformal contacts. A lubricated nonconformal contact will experience elastohydrodynamic

lubrication (EHD).

Nonconformal Contact

The classical description of a nonconformal contact is the ball-on-flat, as seen above. The ball-on-flat is known as a Hertzian contact, which is a point contact with extremely high pressure. As an example, a 19mm (3/4) diameter steel ball on a flat steel surface has a maximum contact pressure of 950 MPa (138,000 psi) for a 30 N (6.7 lb.) load. That is over 9,300 times greater than atmospheric pressure, which is a mere 14.7 psi! We can see that the nonconformal contact can produce pressures that are large enough to temporarily deform the solid steel surface. The enormous pressure produced in a nonconformal contact causes some interesting behavior in oil. While the pressure is high enough to deform the solids, it will also affect the fluid viscosity. Remember from the earlier discussion that viscosity depends on temperature and pressure. Under moderate conditions, the effect of pressure is hardly noticeable, but the EHD pressures are high enough to have a significant effect on the fluid viscosity. In fact, the oil in an EHD contact can become semi solid, similar to cheese. This allows a very thin oil film to form and supports the load. The science that studies the properties of fluids at these extremely high pressures is known as rheology.

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Rolling Element Bearings Rolling element bearings include many types of ball bearings and roller bearings, and provide load support through elastohydrodynamic lubrication.

Roller Element Bearing As the name suggests, roller element bearings have rolling elements that carry the load. The elements can take many shapes like balls or cylinders, or shapes in between, but will always have nonconformal contacts and elastohydrodynamic lubrication. The nonconformal contact is usually not a ball-on-flat since the rolling element may ride on a curved surface (the race). But, the curvature of the race is considerably less than the ball so that the contact is still nonconformal. The rolling elements and race of a rolling element bearing are made from hardened steel that is able to withstand the extreme pressures of the nonconformal contact. The bearing materials and increase in fluid viscosity allow rolling element bearings to smoothly and reliably support loads in a wide range of applications where a rotating shaft is present, including automobiles, pumps, compressors and turbines. The next page features a visual illustration of the concepts in hydrodynamic lubrication presented above. The video shows a narrated demonstration of the actual contact area of a ball on disk under conditions of hydrodynamic lubrication at various speeds and loads. You will need QuickTime (or similar viewing software) to view this clip. Click

on the QuickTime link below to download this free software if you need it. This video contains about 6 megabytes. It may take as much as 30 minutes to download on phone connections as slow as 24,000 bps, or about 2 minutes on a DSL line. For best results, download completely before starting. It will take about 7 minutes to play.

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Boundary of Lubrication Boundary lubrication occurs when the lubricating film is about same thickness as the surface roughness such that the high points (asperities) on the solid surfaces contact. This is generally an undesirable operating regime for a hydrostatic or hydrodynamic bearing, since it leads to increased friction, energy loss, wear and material damage. But, most machines will see boundary lubrication during their operating lives, especially during start-up, shutdown and low speed operation. Special lubricants and additives have been developed to decrease the negative effects of boundary lubrication.

Boundary Lubrication Boundary lubricants generally have long, straight, polar molecules, which will readily attach themselves to the metal surfaces. The lubricant molecules will form a thick protective layer that resembles a molecular shag carpet (below).

The thin layers keep the metal surfaces from contacting, but the boundary lubricant layers will contact each other causing wear. The sacrificial wear of the lubricant layer will reduce metal wear and prolong the life of the machine.

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Mixed Lubrication Mixed lubrication occurs between boundary and hydrodynamic lubrication, as the name would suggest. The fluid film thickness is slightly greater than the surface roughness, so that there is very little asperity (high point) contact, but the surfaces are still close enough together to affect each other. In a mixed lubrication system, the surface asperities

themselves can form miniature nonconformal contacts. As we saw previously, nonconformal contacts lead to EHD. But since we are dealing with asperities, not ball bearings, the effect is localized. This phenomenon is termed microelastohydrodynamic lubrication.

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Grease

Greases consists of a solid soap such as calcium or lithium soap or in some cases a fine clay that forms a matrix in which a liquid lubricant is dispersed. The matrix does not aid lubrication but is a reservoir that releases lubricant to the contact area. The liquid lubricant can contain boundary and EP additives, as well as solid lubricants such as graphite and molybdenum disulfide. Grease Gelling Agents - Soap and soap complex

Lithium -- Most common, easy to manufacture, easy to store, good pumpability, resists dust and coal, flowability permits dirt to flow out Calcium -- Requires less regreasing, good water resistance, calcium soap aids lubrication Aluminum -- Highest resistance to water, chemicals, acids, (edible) Barium -- High water resistance, somewhat toxic Sodium -- Fibrous, water-soluble

Thickeners, while not contributing much toward lubrication, impart unique properties to the grease affecting its applicability in certain applications or environments. Of these the lithium and so-called lithium complex thickened greases are the most common.

Nonsoap Greases

Clays and Silica -- Insoluble powders, silica or platelets of clay. Chemically modified structures and surfaces are made usable as gelling agents for grease. These greases further increase the maximum usable temperature. Polyurea -- Polyurea greases are called high performance greases due to their broad range of performance attributes.

Another class of thickeners are the nonsoap thickeners. These are usually used in applications where the temperatures are high causing the other types of thickeners to soften excessively. This can allow the grease not to stay in place or can even cause it to lose its thickness permanently.

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Summary Congratulations! You have completed the materials for Fundamentals of Lubrication and Tribology III - Lubrication. We hope that you have achieved the learning objectives listed on the Overview page of this module such that you are able to:

Understand the fundamental concepts of lubrication; Define the three types of lubrication: hydrodynamic, elasto-hydrodynamic, and boundary; Develop an understanding of their interconnection; Begin to learn about the types of lubricants used; and, Recognize the implications of lubrication, friction and wear in different engineering scenarios.

If you would like additonal information, there is some very good literature (books, journals and papers) that illustrates the application of lubrication principles. Any good introductory tribology or lubrication book will have a section on lubrication fundamentals.

Lubrication regimes
Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich Sliding friction is significantly reduced by an addition of a lubricant between the rubbing surfaces. Engine bearings are lubricated by Engine oils constantly supplied in sufficient amounts to the bearings surfaces. Lubricated friction is characterized by the presence of a thin film of the pressurized lubricant (squeeze film) between the surfaces of the bearing and the journal. The ratio of the squeeze film (oil film) thickness h to the surface roughness Ra determines the type of the lubrication regime:

Boundary lubrication (h<Ra).

A constant contact between the friction surfaces at high surface points (microasperities) occurs at boundary lubrication. This regime is the most undesirable since it is characterized by high coefficient of friction (energy loss), increased wear, possibility of seizure between the bearing and journal materials , non-uniform distribution of

the bearing load (localized pressure peaks). Very severe engine bearing failures are caused by boundary lubrication. Conditions for boundary lubrication are realized mainly at low speed friction (engine start and shutdown) and high loads. Extreme pressure (EP) additives in the lubricant prevent seizure conditions caused by direct metal-to-metal contact between the parts in the boundary lubrication regime.

Mixed lubrication (h~Ra).

An intermittent contact between the friction surfaces at few high surface points (microasperities) occurs at mixed lubrication. Mixed lubrication is the intermediate regime between boundary lubrication and hydrodynamic friction.

Hydrodynamic lubrication (hRa).

High rotation speed at relatively low bearing loads results in hydrodynamic friction, which is characterized by stable squeeze film (oil film) between the rubbing surfaces. No contact between the surfaces occurs in hydrodynamic lubrication. The squeeze film keeps the surfaces of the bearing and the shaft apart due to the force called hydrodynamic lift generated by the lubricant squeezed through the convergent gap between the eccentric journal and bearing. Bearings working under the conditions of hydrodynamic lubrication are called hydrodynamic journal bearings.

The three lubrication regimes are clearly distinguished in the Striebeck curve (see the figure above), which demonstrates the relationship between the coefficient of friction and the bearing parameter *N/pav ( dynamic viscosity of the lubricant, N - rotation speed, pav - average bearing pressure). Stability of different lubrication regimes may be explained by means of the Striebeck curve: Temperature increase due to heat generated by friction causes drop of the lubricant viscosity and the bearing parameter. According to the Striebeck curve decrease of the bearing parameter in mixed regime causes increase of the coefficient of friction followed by further temperature rise and consequent increase of the coefficient of friction. Thus mixed lubrication is unstable. Increase of the bearing parameter due to temperature rise (lower viscosity) in hydrodynamic regime of lubrication causes the coefficient of friction to drop with consequent decrease of the temperature. The system corrects itself. Thus hydrodynamic lubrication is stable.

Gear Systems - A Tribological Review

By Bruck Bogale, Metallurgical Engineer, Analyst, Bently Tribology Services

Fundamentals of Gear Lubrication

Introduction
Gear teeth may operate in three conditions of lubrication: boundary, mixed and full film. Boundary lubrication occurs when gear sets start or stop. If gear sets were operated under condition of boundary lubrication for extended period of time, wear would be rapid and severe. With increased relative motion the gearing moves in to mixed lubrication mode. With further increase in motion full film lubrication mode is attained. Considering contacting condition of two gear teeth in mesh, the contact starts at high relative sliding and some rolling. The sliding decrease toward the pitch line. At the pitch line the only motion is rolling. After the pitch line, sliding again takes place and increase until the gear leave mesh. Viscosity of the lubricant does not remain constant through the meshing cycle, but increase rapidly with pressure. At the high-pressure hertzian region the lubricant is virtually a rigid solid.

Gear Lubricants
Gear lubrication requires an oil that can reduce wear, protect against corrosion and rust, resist oxidation degradation and shear down of itself, inhibit the formation of foam and separate water easily. The variety of gear systems requires that lubricants are application specific. Inhibited oil : These are mineral oils containing rust and oxidation (R&O) inhibitors and perhaps anti-foaming or anti-wear agent. Extreme Pressure (EP) oils : These are inhibited oils with added extreme pressure additives. The EP agent is a friction modifier, and there are two basic types of agents:

Chemically Active : Chemically active additive sulfur phosphorous, which reacts with gear tooth surface material under high temperature to form thin film of easily, sheared material. The second type of EP agent is solid lubricant in suspension. The solid particles (such as graphite, molybdenum disulfide, borate, etc.) get between tooth surfaces and prevent metal-to-metal contact. If bearings are to be lubricated from the same system, some caution is required. Active EP agents must be noncorrosive to bronze if any is present in the bearing. Solid lubricant additives may reduce internal clearance in low clearance, precision bearings causing high temperature, self-loading and probable failure. Compounded oil : These are usually steam cylinder stocks compounded with acid less fat as lubricity additives to reduce friction. These oils are primarily used in warm gear drives. Open Gear Compounds : These are heavily bodied lubricants for large, slow speed, heavily loaded gears. These lubricants contain some additives that enable them to adhere to gear teeth and resist being thrown off or squeezed out of mesh. Greases : These are liquid lubricants thickened with soap thickeners. The soap holds the liquid portion and releases it as necessary. Suitable only for low speed, low load application because it dose not circulate well, and relatively poor coolant. Viscosity in Gear Lubricants: In selecting gear lubricant viscosity, the higher the viscosity, the greater the protection against the various gear tooth failures. However, the viscosity must be limited to avoid excessive heat generation and power loss from churning and shearing of lubricant by high-speed gears or bearings. The operating temperature of the gear drive determines the operating viscosity of the lubricant. Application of Gear Lubricant Lubricants can be applied to gear teeth in variety of ways and the methods primarily depend on pitch line velocity. Low speed gear systems are usually lubricated by splash system while high-speed gears use pressurefed lubrication system. Splash Lubricating Systems : are simplest but they are limited to pitch line velocity of ~1000m/min. Lubricant is applied by allowing the gear to run partially submerged in the oil. The gear should dip into the oil bath for about twice the tooth depth to provide adequate splash. Oil picked up by the gear is then carried in the gear mesh where it is needed. Pressure-Fed Lubrication Systems : above 1500 m/min pitch line velocity, a pressure fed system lubricates most gears. In this system oil is taken from the gear case, pumped through a filter, heat exchanger, pressure relief valve, and delivered back to the unit under pressure. Oil is applied to the system by spray nozzles in a manifold.

Gear Metallurgy
Most common material used for commercial gearing systems is steel. Different hardening methods are used to achieve the desired hardness. Different carbon content determines what hardness level can be achieved, Carburizing, Nitriding of flame or induction hardening are also used. Nonferrous gear materials, bronze is most

common. Frequently used in warm gearing systems due to dissimilar metals that does not size and score under the load and high sliding contacts or acting as sacrificial gear.

Lubrication Related Failure Modes

In determining mode of failure in gear systems a distinction has to be made between primary and secondary modes of failure. For example pitting or scuffing may cause the gear teeth to deteriorate and generate a dynamic force, which in turn cause the gear teeth to fail by bending fatigue. In this case, the bending failure is secondary and not directly related to lubrication, whereas pitting or scuffing are primary failure modes. Non Lubricated Failure Modes Overload Bending Fatigue Low Cycle Fatigue Brittle Fracture <1000 cycles to failure Ductile Fracture High cycle fatigue Plastic deformation >1000 cycles to failure Cold Flow Hot Flow Indentation Bending Lubricated Failure Modes Hertian Fatigue Wear Pitting Adhesion Initial Normal Superficial Break-in Destructive Mild Spelling Moderate Severe Excessive Micropitting Frosting Gray Staining Abrasion Peeling Scoring Scratching Subsurface Fatigue Plowing Cutting Gouging Corrosion Fretting Corrosion Cavitation Polishing Pitting: Pitting is a fatigue phenomenon that occurs when a fatigue crack initiates either at the surface of a gear tooth or at a small depth below the surface. The crack usually propagates for a short distance in the direction almost parallel to the tooth surface before turning or branching to the surface after repeated cycle. When cracks are grown to the extent that they separate a piece of the surface material, pit is formed. If several pits grow together, the resulting large pit is often referred to as a spall. Contamination from water in lubricant could promote pitting through hydrogen embritlment of the metal and abrasive particles in lubricants cause pitting by indenting and scratching the tooth surface, causing stress concentrations, and disrupting the lubricant film. Pitting problem in gear systems could be avoided by taking different measures. Reducing contact stress by reducing load will minimize fatigue crack generation. The gear metallurgy and surface nature also affects pit generation. A smooth surface by careful grinding and properly heat-treated gear will reduce pitting.

Scuffing Scoring Galling Seizing Welding Smearing Initial Moderate Destructive

Micropitting : Gears that are surface hardened (carburized, nitride, induction hardened and flame hardened) pitting may occur in smaller scale, typically only 10m (400in) deep. To the naked eye the area where micropitting has occurred appear frosted, and frosting is a popular term of micropitting. Adhesion : adhesive wear is classified as mild if it is confined to the oxide layers of the gear tooth surfaces. If however, the oxide layers are disrupted and bare metal is exposed, the transition to severe adhesive wear occurs. Severe adhesive wear is termed Scuffing. Gears operating at low speed and high load are especially prone to adhesive wear because of lubricant operating in the boundary or mixed lubrication mode. For low speed gears increased lubricant viscosity will decrease significantly low speed adhesive wear. Chemically active EP additives (sulfur-phosphorous) can be detrimental in low speed and high load gears causing high wear rate. Abrasion : abrasive wear in gear sets is caused by contamination of lubricants by hard, sharp-edged particles. Contaminants in gear set can be internally generated, ingested through breathers and seals or added during maintenance. Internally generated particles are wear particles in the system. These wear particles are especially abrasive because they become work hardened when they are trapped between gear teeth. Abrasive sand and dirt particles can be ingested through breathers and seals. Abrasive wear due to foreign contaminants or wear debris is called three-body abrasion and is a common occurrence. Inspection of gear tooth surface in case of abrasive wear mode will show scratching of the surface. The use of filtration in cases where circulating-oil systems are used will greatly reduce particle contamination. The use of oil-tight seals and filtered breather vents will minimize ingested contaminants. Scuffing : Occurs in gear teeth when they operate in boundary lubrication condition. If the lubricant film is insufficient to prevent large amount of metal-to metal contact, which breaks the oxide films that usually protects the gear surface, bear metal surfaces may weld and tear. This results in catastrophic damage of the gear teeth. The solid phase welding of the gear surfaces results due to extremely high frictional heat. Inspection of gear teeth surface will show torn surfaces and metal transfer from one surface to other. Gears are most vulnerable when they are new and their surfaces are not smoothened due to running-in. Sulfur phosphorous compounds additives are used in lubricants as antiscuff additives. These additives form protective oxide layer by chemically reacting with the gear teeth surface at local point of high temperature. The film of iron sulfide and iron phosphate have a high melting points, allowing them to remain as solids on the gear tooth surface even at high contact temperatures. Scoring of a gear has a similar effect as scuffing in gearsets. Accurate gear teeth, rigid gear mounting and good alignment will reduce the chance of scuffing. Maintain lubricant temperature low by using heat exchangers in the case of circulating-oil systems will reduce scuffing. Use nitrided steel for maximum scuffing resistance. Do not use stainless steel or aluminum for gears if there is a risk of scuffing. Plastic flow : Gear tooth deformation caused by heavy loads stressing the surface material beyond its elastic limit. Usually occurring in softer metals, the surface material may be extruded out along the ends of the teeth and along the tips causing fins to form.

Wear Particle Analysis in Gear Systems

Normal Sliding In normal sliding of gear teeth surfaces the type of wear particles that are generated are rubbing wear particles Fig 1. with particle diameter less than 10m to 15m and have a laminar shape and a smooth surfaces. During the running of a new gear, the wear particles that are generated are larger than rubbing wear particles and have a different generation mechanism. All machined surfaces are rough and have asperities. When harder surface

slider over the softer surface, the softer asperities either fracture immediately or deform. In break-in wear a shear mixed layer is created in which the surface deform in super ductile behavior that produce a smooth wear track. As long as this surface is stable the surface will wear normally.

Figure 1 Normal Rubbing

Figure 2 Cutting wear

The rate at which asperities are removed by sliding process and the mechanism of removal depend on the initial surface roughness, the applied load and mechanical properties of the asperities. Cutting Wear Cutting Wear particles are generated when a harder surface penetrates a softer surface and remove a chip, much like a machine tool does. When hard abrasive particles are present in the lubrication system, some of these particles may become embedded on the surface and cuts the softer surface. Gear operating at high load and low speed will be more affected by the presence of abrasive contaminants because it operates under boundary lubrication mode. The hardness and size of the abrasive particle is important to the rate of abrasion of the gear surface and the sizes of wear particles generated. Fatigue Wear Due to repeated rolling action on gear tooth at the pitch line, fatigue platelets particles that are flat and smooth surfaced with a major dimension to thickness ratio of approximately 10:1 are generated. The mechanism of wear generation is based on crack nucleation and growth. Cracks are nucleated at the subsurface of the gear tooth and propagate parallel to the surface. When these cracks finally shears to the surface at certain weak positions, long and thin wear sheets are generated. The mechanism is known as delamination wear. The thickness of the wear particle is controlled by the location of the subsurface crack growth, which is controlled by the load on the surface. Laminar platelets are also generated when wear particles are entrapped in gear mesh. These particles will frequently have holes and are between 20 and 50m in size with a thickness ratio of 30:1.

Figure 3 Fatigue Platelets

Figure 4 Black Oxide

Black Oxide Particles: During scuffing, when the lubricant film is insufficient to prevent large amount of metal to metal contact, which breaks the oxide film protecting the gear surface, bear metal surface may weld and tear. When this happens black oxide particles are generated due to the extreme heat generated during the welding and the tearing action of the surface. Red Oxides (Rust) Red oxide particles in gear system are generated when there is water or moisture in the lubricant resulting in corrosion. If red oxide particles are present during wear particle analysis it is recommended that water test is performed.

Figure 5 Severe Sliding and Black Oxide Summary:

Figure 6 Laminar Platelet

Gear systems undergo a diverse set of lubrication failure mechanisms, each with their own unique set of root causes, and unique wear debris generation. Monitoring gearboxes with lubricant analysis provides a powerful method of detecting the onset of severe wear, and with wear debris analysis, rott cause diagnostics.