BIOLOGY

Bertujuan membantu calon STPM yang

gagal atau berprestasi lulus sebahagian
ke arah meningkatkan pencapaian agar
mencapai tahap LULUS PENUH
Digubal oleh tenaga pengajar STPM
berpengalaman di Johor Darul Takzim

PANEL PENGGUBAL:
1.

EN. ANG YAN HAI

SMK DATO BENTARA LUAR, BATU PAHAT

2.

EN. CHIONG YEW MING

SMK PADUKA TUAN, SEGAMAT

3.

PN ROSZAN BT MOHD SHAH

SMK MUNSHI SULAIMAN, BATU PAHAT

CONTENTS
1. PHOTOSYNTHESIS------------------------------------------------------------------------------2. RESPIRATION------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3. TRANSPORT--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4. HOMEOSTASIS-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------5. NERVOUS SYSTEM-----------------------------------------------------------------------------6. HORMONE /CHEMICAL COORDINATION-------------------------------------------------7. IMMUNITY----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8. REPRODUCTION---------------------------------------------------------------------------------9. DEVELOPMENT----------------------------------------------------------------------------------10. GROWTH-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------11. TRANSMISSION GENETICS-----------------------------------------------------------------12. MUTATION--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------13. GENE REGULATION AND EXPRESSION-------------------------------------------------14. MODERN GENETICS TECHNOLOGY------------------------------------------------------15. VARIATION AND THE THEORIES OF EVOLUTION-----------------------------------16. ECOSYSTEM--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Photosynthesis
1. The diagram below shows the process that occurs in photosynthesis.

(a) How do we call the cycle above?

....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 1)
(b) Name the substances indicated by

[1 mark]

Enzyme A:....................................................................
Acceptor B:...................................................................
Molecule C:..................................................................
......................................................................................
(Level 1)
[3 marks]
(c) There are four main stages in the cycle above, one of the stage is carbon dioxide
fixation. What is the process that occurs in carbon dioxide fixation?
....................................................................................................................................................
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....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 2)
[4 marks]
(d) Give other two stages which occur in the cycle.
....................................................................................................................................................
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(Level 2)
[2 marks]

2. Describe three factors that limit the rate of photosynthesis in the natural environment.
[15 marks]

Suggested answers:
1 (a). Calvin cycle / light independent reaction
(b) Enzyme RuBP carboxylase (Rubisco), Acceptor B: Ribulose bisphosphate, Molecules
C: glycerate 3-phosphate.
(c) Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere diffuses through the stomata into the intercellular
spaces of the leaf and stroma in the chloroplast of the palisade and spongy mesophyll cells.
A five carbon acceptor, ribolose bisphosphate (RuPB) combines with a molecule of carbon
dioxide to form an unstable six-carbon sugar.
The process is catalysed by the enzyme RuBP carboxylase (Rubisco).
The sis-carbon compound immediately splits into two molecules of glycerate 3-phosphate
(GP).
(d) Reduction phase / regeneration / product synthesis phase.
2. The factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis are as follows;
Light intensity or quality of light:
When light intensity is low, the rate photosynthesis is proportional to light intensity.
1
This is because the light supplies energy for photosynthesis
1
CO2 concentration increased, the rate of photosynthesis will be increased
1
Light intensity is further increased, the rate of photosynthesis will fall rapidly.
1
This is because the temperature may be too high that denatures enzymes or chlorophyll
is destroyed by photo-oxidation.
1
Temperature:
At 0oC, photosynthesis is very low because there is very little kinetic energy for any
enzymic reaction to take place.
1
Rate of photosynthesis become maximum when the temperature provides the most
suitable amount of kinetic energy for reaction.

1
Between 0oC to optimum temperature, the temperature quotient (Q10) is equal to 2.
1
When the temperature increased further, the enzymes will be denatured.
1
Carbon dioxide:
When the carbon dioxide concentration is increased from 0 to 0.1%, the rate of
photosynthesis increases proportionally.
1
0.1 % concentration of CO2 is the optimum concentration.
1
If the concentration is increased from 0.1% to 1 % the rate of photosynthesis remains
more or less the same as other factor may be limiting.
1
Further increase of CO2 concentration will result in a rapid decrease in the rate of
photosynthesis.
1
Enzymes are denatured.
1
Draw diagram for each factor. (One mark for each diagram)
Max: 15 Marks

Respiration
1. In respiration in muscle tissue, the conversion of a molecule of glucose to two
molecules of pyruvic acid can be represented as a three stage process as follows.
C6 H12O6

( glucose )

A
C6H12O6 [ P ]2 ( fructose biphosphate )
B
CH2O [ P ]
C == O
CH2OH

( triose phosphate )

C
CH3
key

C == O
COOH

( pyruvic acid )

[ P] =
PO32phosphate

a) Name the three stages in terms of the chemical processes occurring.

......................................................................................
......................................................................................
......................................................................................
(Level 1)
[3 marks]
b) During which stage would you expect hydrogen transfer to NAD to occur?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 1)
[1 mark]
c) Is there a net charge in the concentrations of NAD and reduced NAD in the whole
process ?
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 1)
[1 mark]

d) i) One molecule of glucose is converted to two molecules of of pyruvic acid. What is the
net synthesis of ATP?
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 1)
[1 mark]
ii) What is the metabolic significance to the muscle of this net synthesis?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 3)
[2 marks]
iii) State two possible fates of the pyruvic acid in the muscle tissue.
....................................................................................................................................................
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....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 2)
[2 marks]
2. (a) Outline the main stages of glycolysis.

[5]

(b) Explain the role of NAD and oxygen in oxidative phosphorylation

[5]

(c) Describe how fat is used as a respiratory substrate

[5]

Suggested answers
1. a) the three stages are as follows :
Stage A - phosphorylation of glucose
Stage B - lysis
Stage C - oxidation by dehydrogenation
b) hydrogen transfer to NAD is expected to occur during stage C
c) No, there is no net change. This is due to dehydrogenation occurring during stage
C that releases hydrogen for reducing NAD and yields two reduced NAD
molecules. The hydrogen atoms that are carried by the reduced NAD will be
oxidized to water, thus remaining two NAD molecules. As a result, there is no net
change in the concentration of NAD and reduced NAD in the whole process.
d) i) the net synthesis of ATP is two molecules of ATP. Phosphorylation of glucose
during stage A requires the use of two ATP, but four molecules of ATP are
generated from both triose phosphate molecules during stage C. Therefore, the
net synthesis is two molecules of ATP.
ii) the metabolic significance to the muscle is that the net synthesis of ATP molecule
will still supply ATP energy for muscle contraction in the absence of oxygen
when there is no oxidative phosphorylation occurring to produce ATP.
iii) two possible fates of the pyruvic acid are as follows ;
1. it is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water during aerobic respiration in the
presence of oxygen
2. it combines with hydrogen to form lactic acid during anaerobic respiration
when oxygen is absent.
2. a) the three stages are as follows :
Stage A - phosphorylation of glucose
Stage B - lysis
Stage C - oxidation by dehydrogenation
b) hydrogen transfer to NAD is expected to occur during stage C

c) No, there is no net change. This is due to dehydrogenation occurring during stage
C that releases hydrogen for reducing NAD and yields two reduced NAD
molecules. The hydrogen atoms that are carried by the reduced NAD will be
oxidized to water, thus remaining two NAD molecules. As a result, there is no net
change in the concentration of NAD and reduced NAD in the whole process.
d) i) the net synthesis of ATP is two molecules of ATP. Phosphorylation of glucose
during stage A requires the use of two ATP, but four molecules of ATP are
generated from both triose phosphate molecules during stage C. Therefore, the
net synthesis is two molecules of ATP.
ii) the metabolic significance to the muscle is that the net synthesis of ATP molecule
will still supply ATP energy for muscle contraction in the absence of oxygen
when there is no oxidative phosphorylation occurring to produce ATP.
iii) two possible fates of the pyruvic acid are as follows ;
1. it is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water during aerobic respiration in the
presence of oxygen
2. it combines with hydrogen to form lactic acid during anaerobic respiration
when oxygen is absent.

Transport
1. The diagram below shows the cardiac cycle.

(a) Name the part label A, B, C and D.

A:...............................................................................................
B:...............................................................................................
C:...............................................................................................
D:...............................................................................................(Level 1)

[2 marks]

(b) Explain the processes that occur in (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v).
(i) ................................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 2)
[2 marks]
(ii)................................................................................................................................................
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(Level 2)
[2 marks]
(iii)..............................................................................................................................................
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....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 2)
[2 marks]
(iv)...............................................................................................................................................
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....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 2)
[1 mark]
(v)................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 1)
[1 mark]
2. Explain the four hypotheses for the mechanism of phloem translocation below:(i) Mass flow
[5 marks]
(ii) Electron-osmosis
[4 marks]
(iii) Cytoplasmic streaming
[3 marks]
(iv) Peristaltic waves
[3 marks]

Suggested answers
1. (a) A: Semilunar valve open, B: Semilunar valve closes, C: AV valve closes, D: AV
valve opens.
(b) (i) A normal ECG. It begins with a P wave, atrial depolarization and the spread of
impulse throughout the atria. The QRS complex indicates ventricular depolarization. The T
wave represents ventricular repolarisation.
(ii) Pressure changes that occur in the left side of the heart during a cardiac cycle. The
pattern is similar on the right side although pressure are lower.
(iii) Heart sounds are caused by closure of the valves. The first sound lub is caused by the
closure of the cuspid valves. The second sound dup is caused by the closure of the
semilunar valves.
(iv) Changes in the volume of blood in the left ventricle during the cardiac cycle.
(v) The systole and diastole of the atria and ventricles related to time.

2. (i) Mass flow hypotheses:

In the leaves, sugar is actively loaded into the sieve tubes within them
1
This loading at the source is by an indirect proton pump
1
The proton pump actively pump H+ out from sieve tubes and sugar follows the H+ back
passively into the tubes from mesophyll cells through the plasmodesmata
1
As the sugar loaded, it creates low water potential in the sieve tubes of the leaves and water
goes in through osmosis
1
Hydrostatic pressure is generated in the sieve tubes and forces the sugar out of the leaves
into those of the stem and roots as they are inter-connected
1
In the root, sugar is unloaded because of passive transport and used in respiration
1
Water move out as the water potential increases in the sieve tubes of the root into the
xylem
1
Max:
5
Electron-osmosis hypothesis:
The sieve plate always found to be negative inside the sieve tubes
1
Positive ions easily pass from the upper cell to the lower one through the sieve plate
1

Negative ions tend to accumulate in the upper side of the sieve plates
1
When the concentrations of the negative ions reach a certain critical value
1
Potassium ions are transported actively from neighbouring cells suddenly into the sieve
tube
1
This result in the movement of negative ions across the sieve plate into the cell
1
Potassium ions are transported back into the neighbouring cells and the process is repeated
1
Max:
4
Cytoplasmic streaming hypothesis:
Cytoplasm is observed to stream within one cell and from one sieve to the other on the
upper or lower ends through the sieve plates
1
Due to diffusion, turgor changes and active transport from neighbouring cells
1
Cytoplasmic streaming carries proteins, amino acids, sugar and mineral ions together at the
same speed
1
This explain the both way flow of substances even at the same time that can occur
1
Max:
3
Peristaltic wave hypothesis:
The sieve tube of certain plants, proteins in the protoplasm are arranged in cylindrical layer
1
Such layers of protein seem to contract and relax like waves of peristalsis as that of the
intestine
1
This waves help to push substances in the centre and move solutes along in the sieve tubes
1
Energy is required
1
Max:
3

Homeostasis
1. The diagram below shows the effect of a hormone on water reabsorption from the
collecting duct.

(a) (i)Name the hormone that involved in the reabsoption of water from the collecting duct
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 1)
[1 mark]
(ii) Describe the hormone that you have mention in (a)(i).
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 2)
[2 marks]
(b) What is the function of the hormone in human kidney?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 2)
[1 mark]
(c) Explain the processes that occur in to .
:................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 2)
[1 mark]
:................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 2)
[1 mark]
:................................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 2)
[1 mark]

:................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 2)
[1 mark]
:................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 2)
[1 mark]
:................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 2)
[1 mark]
2.Give an account of the variety of functions performed by the liver of a mammals.
[15 marks]

Suggested answers
1(a) (i) Antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
(ii)The antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is a nine amino acid peptide produced by the neurons
in the hypothalamus and passes to the posterior pituitary gland.
(b) ADH increases the permeability of the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts to
water. / ADH also increases the permeability of the collecting tubes to urea.
(c) : ADH is transported by blood to its target organ, the kidney.
: ADH binds to receptors in the plasma membrane of epithelial cells lining the collecting
duct and distal tubule.
: It activates a series of enzyme-controlled actions. Enzyme phosphorylase becomes
activated.
: The phosphorylase causes vesicles with aquaporins (protein water channels) to move to
the plasma membranes of the epithelial cells.
: The vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane.
: Water then moves freely through the aquaporins, down its concentration gradient, from
the collecting ducts into the surrounding medulla interstitial fluid and then into the
capillaries.
2. The function of liver are:Regulates the blood and body carbohydrate level in many ways
1
Regulates blood glucose concentration
1
Converts non-glucose monosaccharides to glucose
1
Stores glucose in the form of glycogen
1
Releases glucose into the blood
1
Converts lactate into glucose by a process called Cori cycle
1
Forms glucose by gluconegenesis
1
Synthesises other substances from glucose
1

Regulates the blood and body protein including amino acids

1
Breaks down proteins from old cells and deaminates excess amino acids
1
Produces urea through ornithine cycle
1
Carries out transamination reaction
1
Produces plasma proteins albumin, globulins and protrombin.
1
It regulates body and blood lipids
1
Synthesises fats also known as lipogenesis
1
Synthesises other lipids
1
Breaks down fats
1
Breaks down other lipids including cholesterol and phospholipids
1

Aids in transport of lipids

1
Regulates body and blood vitamin concentration
1
Regulates body and blood minerals concentration
1
Breakdown haemoglobin and porphyrin to form bile pigment
1
Produces bile
1

Produces and breaks down hormones

1
Performs detoxifications
1
Regulates the breakdown of erythrocytes
1
Aids in temperature regulation
1

Nervous System
1. (a) Draw a labelled diagram of a neurone that is found in mammals.

(Level 2)
[4 marks]
(b) The graph below shows the generating and transmitting phases of an impulse along an
axon.

Explain what occurs at P and Q.

At P.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
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....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
At Q:............................................................................................................................................
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....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(level 2)
[6 marks]
2.(a) Explain the organisation of the sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous system and their relationship with the central nervous system.
[9]
(b) Using cocaine and curare as examples, explain the mechanism of
drugs on the nervous system and neuromuscular junctions.

[6]

Suggested answers
1.

(b) At P, the potential difference between the inside and the outside of the axon started
to drop from positive to become less positive. This is due to the sodium channels
of the plasma membrane of axon are closed, sodium ions stop rushing in.
Potassium gates are opened, thus the potassium ions start to rush out causing the
inside to become negative.
At Q, the potential difference has stabilised at about -70mV called resting potential.
The sodium-potassium pump is working and taking 2 potassium ions in for every 3
sodium ions taken out. There are more sodium ions on the outside of the axon and
more negative ions in the inside causing the inside to be negative.
2.(a) -

Sympathetic system composes of visceral spinal reflex i.e. autonomic

nervous system for the internal organs.
It composes of spinal nerves with motor neurones to visceral muscles or
glands.
Its ganglia are located near spinal cord away from the effectors.
Preganglionic nerves of the sympathetic system are short and
postganglionic nerves are long.
Parasympathetic system composes of branches of cranial nerves number 5,
7, 9, 10 and branches of the sciatic spinal nerve.
Its ganglia are far away from spinal cord nearer to the effectors.
Its preganglionic nerves are long and postganglionic nerves are short.
Its ganglia are not connected to form a larger ganglions called plexus.
This is the autonomic system that is part of the peripheral nervous system,
which is under the control of the central nervous system.
The centre of these two nervous systems is located in the medulla
oblongata, which is part of the hindbrain.

(b) - Cocaine is a stimulant. It stimulates the nervous system in the brain to

produce pleasure and makes the user high.

It acts on the pleasure pathway within the brain called the limbic system.
It binds to the transporter protein molecules that are supposed to remove
dopamine, which is a neurotransmitter in the brain and produces pleasure.
Thus, the dopamine is not removed and remained in the synapse to continue
to produce pleasure.
Curare is a poison that causes paralysis.
It acts on the neuromuscular junctions that cause the muscles to contract.
It binds to the receptors in the postsynaptic membrane and prevents the
neurotransmitter, acetylcholine to bind with them.
Without the acetylcholine to bind with the receptors, the sodium channels
would not open and no impulse can cross to the muscles.

Hormone and Chemical Coordination

1. The diagram A and B below show two different mechanism of hormone action.

Diagram A

Diagram B
(a) (i) Name the hormone A and B in the mechanism above.
Hormone A:..............................................................................
Hormone B:...............................................................................
(Level 1)
[1 marks]
(ii) Describe the characteristic of the hormone which enable it to carry out their function.
Hormone A:................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
Hormone B:................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 2)
[2 marks]
(b) Name the process A and B in diagram A.
Process A:.................................................................................
Process B:..................................................................................
(Level 1)
[1 mark]
(c) Explain the mechanism of hormone action for diagram A.
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 2)
[2 marks]
(d) Describe the detail the process that occurs in diagram B.
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................

....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 2)
[4 marks]
2. (a) Describe the roles of auxin and gibberellin acid in plant growth.

[10 marks]

(b) Discuss the ways in which plant performance can be improved by using plant
regulators.
marks]

[5

Suggested answers
(a) (i) Hormone A: Steriod hormone, Hormone B: Non-steroid hormone.
(ii) A steroid hormone (Hormone A) is lipid-soluble and diffuses through the phospholipids
layer of the plasma membrane of a target cell.
A non-steroid hormone (Hormone B) is not soluble in lipid and cannot diffuse through the
plasma membrane. It acts as first messenger and binds to a specific receptor protein in the
plasma membrane.
(b) Process A: Translation, Process B: Transcription.
(c) The lipid-soluble steroid hormone passes through the plasma membrane and binds to a
specific receptor protein present either in the cytoplasm or nucleoplasm of the target cell.
The hormone-receptor complex then binds to specific regulatory sites on DNA stimulating
expression of specific gene.
(d) The non-steroid hormone like epinephrine acts as the first messenger which binds with
a specific receptor in the plasma membrane. The hormoe-receptor complex then binds with
a relay molecule, a G protein. The G protein binds with GTP. The activated G protein in
turn stimulates the enzyme adenylyl cyclase which converts ATP to cyclic AMP. cAMP
then triggers responses of target cell, for example, the enzyme cascade reaction.
2.

Auxin induces growth by cell expansion resulting in elongation of organs such as

the stem, coleoptile, root, leaf and flower
1

It is produced in very dilute concentration in the tips of shoot, coleoptile, root and
cells of leaf and floral primordia
1

It causes tropism especially phototropism

1

Auxin stimulates production of meristem and activities meristem

1

Auxin inhibits development of lateral buds

1

Auxin induces root initiation from cuttings and calluses

1

Auxin promotes fruit growth and inhibits abscission of young fruits

1

Promote more fruiting and even parthenocarpy

1

Auxin inhibits abscission of leaves and flowers

1

Gibbrerellins promote stem elongation and vegetative growth in plants in the

presence of auxin

Break dormancy in seeds and buds especially after winter

Can promote fruiting and partheonocarpy in certain plants

Promotes fruit growth

Stimulates leaf growth

Inhibits root dormancy

Promotes flowering in long day plant

1
1
1
1
1
1
1

Inhibits apical dormancy and promotes growth of side shoots

1
17

Max:
9

Auxin can be used to prolong the storage life of potato tuber

1

Gibbrellins are used in agriculture to strengthen stems of wheat and to produce

more and bigger grapes
1

Gibbrellins can space grape flowers by extending the internode length so that the
fruits have more room to grow
1

NAA (Napthaleneacetic acid) and IBA (Indolebutyric acid) can be used as active
ingredient in rooting powders
1

Auxin and gibberellin help to stimulate fruit development and increase fruit yields
1

Promotes parthenocarpy ( seedless tomatoes and citrus fruits) seedless grape 1

Auxin prevents premature fruit drop

1

Ethene is used to stimulate ripening of some commercial fruits. Bananas,

papayas, mangoes and apples are often picked green and unripe
1

Gibberellins anc be used to stimulate growth in dwarf varieties of plant. (bean,

pea) 1

Cytokinin spray is used on cut flowers, vegetables and fruits to keep them fresh
and to extend shelf-life.
1

Break dormancy (cytokinin and gibberellin)

1

Abscisic acid can be sprayed on fruit trees to regulate fruit drop at the end of the
season
1
12
Max:

Immunity
1. Figure below shows three different T lymphocytes and the events that occur during an immune
response to an antigen.

a) Name the type of nuclear division that occurs at X in the figure.

..........................................................................................................................................................

(Level 1)

[1 mark]

b) State the term used to describe a group of identical cells, such as those shown at M in the
figure.
..........................................................................................................................................................

(Level 1)

[1 mark]

c) Explain why T lymphocyte K has responded to the antigen during the immune response, but
not T lymphocyte J and L.
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................

(Level 2)

[2 marks]

d) Describe one role of T lymphocytes in fighting an infectious disease.

..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................

(Level 2)

[3 marks]

In certain types of cancer, T cells do not mature properly, fail to develop antigen receptors on
their cell membranes and do not function normally.
e) (i) State the name given to agents that increase the chances of cancerous growth.
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................

(Level )

[1 mark]

(ii) Suggest the likely effects on the body with T cells that do not function normally.
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................

(level 2)
2.(a) Explain the humoral immune response.
(b) Explain how HIV causes AIDS.

[2 marks]

Suggested answers
1. (a) mitosis
(b) plasma cells
(c) It is because only T lymphocyte K has the antigen-binding site with the specific
configuration to bind with the epitope of the antigen to trigger off a response.
(d) Helper T cells stimulates antigen-presenting macrophages to release interleukin 1
which activates the helper T cell to start dividing and to produce inteleukin 2, which
activates cytotoxic T cells. Once activated they will interact with the class I MHCantigen on an infected cell and release a protein called perforin which forms pores
in the infected cells membrane causing it to lyse.
(e) (i) carcinogen
(ii) the body will not be able to eliminate infected cells such as those infected with
viruses, cancerous cells and transplanted tissues.
2.(a) - The humoral response involves the B lymphocytes that produce antibodies.
- Pathogens or antigens that enter into the body can be detected by specific Bcells with the corresponding receptors.
- The B-cells then engulf the antigens and then present part of the antigens as
antigen-MHC complex on their surfaces.
- The T helper cells can recognize the presented antigens and bind to the
complex.
- This causes the T helper cells to produce interleukin-2.
- The interleukin-2 and free antigens will cause the particular B-cells to
divide very fast to form clones.
- Most of the clone cells called plasma cells will produce free antibodies very
quickly to destroy the antigens.
- Some of them called memory cells will remain in the blood after the
antigens are destroyed to produce secondary response.
(b) - HIV acts to cause AIDS by entering the body through body fluid or blood
in sexual intercourse or blood contact.
- Once inside the body, it will bind with the T helper cells that have the
corresponding receptors.
- The lipoprotein membrane of the HIV fuses with that of the T-cell.
- By a process similar to endocytosis, the viral particle enters.
- The capsid (protein coat) is removed and the content of viral RNA and the
reverse transcriptase enzyme is released into the cytoplasm of the host cell.
- The reverse transcriptase converts the viral RNA into single-stranded DNA.

The host cell with its own enzyme changes the single-stranded DNA to
double-stranded DNA.
The viral DNA enters the nucleus of the host cell and incorporate into the
host DNA.
After at least 6 years and for no apparent reason the viral DNA (provirus) is
transcribed into RNA.
Some parts of the RNA are translated into proteins that assemble with the
RNA to form viral particles.
They exit the cells by budding and destroying the T helper cells and
immune system to cause AIDS

Reproduction
1. (a) Briefly explain the term hermaphrodite.
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 2)
[2 marks]
(b) Name an animal that is a hermaphrodite.
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 1)
[2 marks]
(c) What type of reproduction does their animal adopt?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 1)
[2 marks]
(d) State one advantage of this type of reproduction.
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 2)
[4 marks]

2. (a) Describe three types of asexual reproduction.

(b) Describe the sexual reproduction of a Hydra.

[6]
[7]

Suggested answers
1. (a) A hermaphrodite is an animal that acts as both the male and female during
copulation.
(b) Phretima
(c) Sexual reproduction
(d) There is increased genetic variability of the species thus enabling the species to
adapt to new environmental conditions.

2. (a) Three types of asexual reproduction are binary fission, budding and regeneration.
- Budding can be seen in Hydra. Here, miniature versions of the adult grow out of
the parent body.
- Binary fission can be seen in Paramecium. Here, an individual splits into two
individuals of equal size.
- Regeneration can be seen in Planaria.
- Here, the organism constricts in the middle and splits into two pieces. Two
individuals are formed when the missing ends of the two pieces undergo
regeneration.
(b) - Hydra are monoecious animals as each individual has the testis and ovary.
- However, protandry ensure that the testis mature earlier than the ovary thus make
sure of cross-fertilisation.
- The testis is located near the mouth and the ovary is near the base of this animal.
- When the sperms are released, they swim to the mature ovary of another Hydra.
- A zygote is formed when a sperm fertilise an ovum. This zygote develops in the
ovary.
- A cysts is formed which then sinks to pond bed.
- This cyst releases the young Hydra when environmental conditions are
favourable.

Development
1. The diagram below shows a section of pollen tube and ovary just before fertilization.

a) Which nuclei in the ovary does the male gamete fuses with to form
i)
the zygote
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 1)
[1 mark]
ii)
the endosperm
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 1)
[1 mark]
b) Which of the structures labeled is not involved in seed formation?
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 1)
[1 mark]
c) As the ovary becomes the fruit,
i)
the ovary wall becomes
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 1)
[1 mark]
ii)
the outer integument of the ovule become
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 1)
[1 mark]
d) Where does fertilization take place which eventually becomes the seed?
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 1)
[1 mark]

e) What does the embryo form as it undergoes differentiation?

....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 2)
[2 marks]
(f) Explain the process of double fertilisation which occurs in the formation of seed.
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 2)
[2 marks]

2. a) Give an account of the events which occur after fertilization from cleavage to
organogenesis in humans.
[ 8 marks]
(b) With the aid of labeled diagram describe the function of placenta.
[7 marks ]

Suggested answers
1a)
i) G
ii) D and E
b) A, B, C, F and H
c)
i) Pericarp
ii) testa
d) Ovule
e) As it undergoes differentiation, it forms a plumule, a radicle and a cotyledon in
monocotyledons and two cotyledons in cotyledons.
(f) One male gamete (nuclei) fuses with G (egg) to form a diploid zygote, while the other
male gamete fuses with the two polar nuclei to form a triploid endosperm.
2a)
o Cleavage is a succession of rapid mitotic divisions that follow fertilization.
o The cytoplasm of the zygote is partitioned into blastomeras without growth.
o 4 days after fertilization, the zygote develops into solid mass of cells
called a morula.
o The morula continues to divided to form a hollow fluid filled ball
of 100 cell called a blastula.
o 7 days after fertilization, the blastular becomes a blastocyst and
implants into the uterine lining.
o 9 days after fertilization, a blastocyst migrate inwards/ move to
interior location / invaginate.
o Gastrula has three embryonic germ layers- ectoderm,
mesoderm and endoderm.
o The germ layers develop into rediments of organ during organogenesis.

-1mark
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-1mark

mak : 8 marks
b)
o Allows the exchange of substances such as oxygen, carbon dioxide,
nutrients, hormones and urea.
o Does not allow blood from the mother and fetus to mix.
This prevents incompatible blood from mixing and clotting / agglutinating.
o Acts as a partial barrier to the passage of Harmful pathogens/
microorganisms /harmful substances.
o However, viruses(HIV),nicotine, alcohol, certain drugs can cross
the placenta.
o Permits the maternal and fetal blood systems to function at differing
pressures with harming either the mother or the fetus.

-1mark

-1mark
-1mark
-1mark
-1mark

o Acts as a temporary endorine organ, producing HCG, estrogen and

progesterone. This prevents ovulation and menstruation.
o Permits certain maternal antibodies to be transferred to the fetus,
providing fetus with immunity to certain diseases.

-1mark
-1mark
mak : 7 marks

Growth
1. The diagram below shows the phases of embryonic development.
Cleavage
M
Organogenesis
(a) What phase is M?
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 1)
[1 mark]
(b) Briefly describe each phase.
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 2)
[6 marks]
(c) Why are the parameters, size or fresh mass, preferred over dry mass?
[3]
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 3)
[3 marks]

2. (a) Explain what is meant by growth.

(b) Using sketch graphs, explain the following terms:
(i) absolute growth curve
(ii) absolute growth rate curve
(iii) relative growth rate curve

[3]

[6]

(c) Describe the different growth patterns exhibited by different organisms.

[6]

Suggested answers
1. (a) Gastrulation
(b) - During cleavage, the zygote undergoes repeated mitotic divisions but there is no
increase in mass.
- During gastrulation, there is a rearrangement of cells into distinct layers.
- During organogenesis, the cells develop into tissues and organs.
(c) Dry mass can only be measured by killing and drying the organism. This method
is not always possible and not ethical. The parameters (size and fresh mass) are
easy and convenient and there is no need to kill the organism.
2. (a) The permanent and irreversible increase in the size of an organism is known as
growth.
- This increase in size could be the increase in dry mass, solid matter or the
amount of cytoplasm in an organism.
- The parameters used to measure growth are dry mass fresh mass or size, such as
height or weight.
(b) (i)

The graph shows the absolute growth rate curve of a young maize plant. Here, increase in
growth is plotted per unit time.
(ii)

The graph shows the absolute growth curve of a young maize plant. Here, the total growth
at successive intervals of time are plotted per unit time.

(iii)

The graph shows the relative growth rate curve. Here, the growth rate is expressed as the
percentage of the size obtained at each period of time to the initial size.
(c) - The different growth patterns are limited growth, unlimited growth, isometric
growth, allometric growth and intermittent growth.
- Limited growth is exhibited by humans and mammals as growth ceases at maturity.
The growth curve flattens out or even declines just before the animals die.
- Invertebrates, fish and reptiles exhibit unlimited growth as they continue to grow
throughout their lives.
- In fish and locusts, the organs grow at the same rate as the rest of the body. This
growth pattern is isometric growth.
- In most animals, the organs grow at different rates from the entire body. This growth
pattern is allometric growth.

- Arthropods exhibit intermittent growth as they usually have a number of periods of

extremely rapid growth followed y periods in which there appears to be little or no growth.

Transmission Genetics
1. Haemophilia is condition where the blood does not clot normally. Haemophiliacs with
Haemophilia A lack Factor VIII.
The gene for blood clotting is on the X chromosome:
XH = the allele for normal blood clotting
Xh = the allele for haemophilia
(a)(i) Why is haemophilia is described as a sex-linked characteristic?
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 1)
[1 mark]
(ii) Explain why man has a higher chance to be inflicted with haemophilia compared to
woman.
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 2)
[2 marks]
H h
(b) Aliahs genotype is X X . Rahim, her husband, does not have the haemophilia gene.
What is his genotype?
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 1)
[1 mark]
(c) What is the ratio of their having carriers to normal children to haemphiliacs?
Use the help of a Punnet square to show the genotype and phenotype for the F1 generation.
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 2)
[4 marks]
(d) Name one other sex linked diseases in humans and one in Drosophila melanogaster.
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 1)
[2 marks]

2. (a) What is the difference between a back cross and a test cross?
(b) Explain the following:
(i) Polygenes

[5]
[5]

(ii) lethal alleles

[5]

Suggested answers
1. (a) (i) Haemophilia is a sex linked characteristic because the gene for this condition is on
a sex chromosome.
(ii) The gene for blood clotting is on an X chromosome and has two alleles, XH, the
dominant allele which causes the normal blood-clotting mechanism to form and Xh, the
recessive allele which does not.
- As the woman always has two X chromosomes, she will have a pair of alleles for
this gene but as the man only has one X chromosome, he has only one allele for this gene.
(b) XHY
(c)
XH
Xh
XH
XHXH
XHXh
Normal female
Female carrier
H
Y
XY
XhY
Normal male
Haemophiliac male
Offspring phenotype: 1 carrier, 2 normal children, 1 haemopiliac
Ratio : 1 : 2 : 1
(d) Colour blindness in human and eye colour in Drosophila melanogaster.
2. (a) - A test cross is done to show whether a particular allele is present or not. Here, an
organism with the dominant characteristic (TT or Tt) is crossed with another organism that
is homozygous recessive (tt). If the organism with the dominant characteristic is
homozygous, it will not produce any dwarf plant. If it is heterozygous, it will produce
dwarf and tall plants.
- A back cross is used to obtain plants with homozygous alleles. This is used in
inbreeding. An offspring is crossed with either of the parents.
(b) (i) In the phenomena polygenes, the character of the organism is controlled by
more than one gene.
- The cumulative effect of many genes influences quantitive characteristics lik
height, weight and skin colour.
- When inbreeding among F1 is done, the phenotypic ratio is 1:4:6:4:1
(ii) - Mortality is caused in the phenomena lethal alleles.
- The gene that causes this can be either dominant or recessive.
- This phenomena is exhibited by the gene controlling coat colour in mice.
- The allele for a mouse with yellow fur, Y is dominant to the allele for
mouse with gray fur (aguti), y.
- Sometimes a yellow-coloured mouse is born.
- When a self cross is done between mice with yellowed fur, offspring in the
ratio of two yellowed fur to one agouti is produced.

Y
y
-

Y
YY
Not conceived
or dies
Yy
Yellow

y
Yy
Yellow
yy
agouti

It was found that all live yellowed mice are heterozygous and the
homozygotes are either not conceived or die in the uterus.
So, although the Y allele is dominant for fur colour, it is lethal for the
recessive condition.

Mutation

1. The diagram above shows the different types of mutation.

(a) What is mutation?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 1)
[2 marks]
(b) What are Type X mutation and Type Y mutation?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 1)
[2 marks]
(c) What are A, B,C D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, and L?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 1)
[6 marks]
2. (a) Explain the terms chromosome mutation and gene mutation and its causes. [ 10 ]
(b) Compare the mutation for cystic fibrosis and Klinefelters syndrome, and the
effect of each disease.
[5]

Suggested answers
1. (a) Mutation is the permanent alteration in the genetic material of a cell. Mutations
introduce changes in protein structure, protein function, or both. These changes
may lead to small or large differences in traits among individuals.
(b) Type X mutation: Gene mutation
Type Y mutation: Chromosomal mutation
(c) A:
B:
C:
D:
E:
F:
G:
H:
I:
J:
K:
L:

Substitution
Insertion / addition
Deletion
Inversion
Chromosome number
Chromosome structure
Aneuploidy
Euploidy
Inversion
Translocation
Deletion
Duplication

2. (a) - mutations occur randomly and spontaneously but can be artificially induced by
mutagens eg. X-rays, gamma rays, UV light, colchicines, formaldehyde etc.
- two types of mutations occur ie. chromosome mutation and gene mutation.
- chromosome mutation is the change in number or structure of the chromosomes.
- change in the number is caused by non-disjunction occurring during meiosis.
- this results in aneuploidy or euploidy
- aneuploidy occur when one or more chromosome is added or removed from the
complete set resulting in trisomy eg. Down Syndrome ( trisomy 21 ) and
Klinefelter syndrome ( XXY ) or monosomy eg. Turner syndrome ( XO )
- other conditions include tetrasomy, pentasomy, double trisomy etc.
- euploidy occur when three or more complete sets of chromosomes appear in cells
eg. triploid (3n), tetraploid (4n), pentaploid (5n) etc.
- two types of polyploidy occur namely autopolyploids if in the same species,
and allopolyploid if it is derived from different species.
- polyploidy is relatively commom in plants eg. bread wheat ( Triticum aestivum )
- structural change in the chromosomes includes deletion, translocation, inversion,
duplication
- can be seen under microscope as loops.
- Cri-du-chat syndrome is an example of chromosomal deletion in human on
chromosome number 5
- gene mutation, is brought about by a change in the sequence of nucleotide bases
of the DNA of a particular gene.
- these includes insertion, deletion, substitution and inversion.
- insertion is a type of frameshift mutation which often results in the production of

a non-functional protein or enzyme.

- deletion is also a type of frameshift mutation, eg Thalassemia Major in human
- substitution a type of point mutation or missence mutation. Sickle-cell anemia is
one such example in human.
[ 10 ]
(b) - cystic fibrosis most common in white north Americans
- gets its name from fibrous cysts that appear in the pancreas
- caused by a recessive gene on chromosome number 7
- the gene codes for a protein called cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator, which
is 1480 amino acids long, which allows diffusion of chloride ions into and out of
epithelial cells.
- deletion of three base pairs from the gene, resulting in amino acid phenylalanine
missing from protein produced.
- in patients of CF , mucus becomes abnormally thick and sticky because normal
outflow of chloride ions from cells is prevented. Sodium ions then enters cells to
balance charge.
- the thick mucus clogs up the airways of lungs and branches of pancreatic duct
and the bile duct
- most deaths results from lung complications.
- Klinefelters syndrome is due to an extra X chromosome, genotype is therefore
XXY instead of XY and the sufferer has 47 chromosome instead of 46.
- a type of aneuploidy or trisomy, as a result of non-disjunction during meiosis
- may occur during spermatogenesis or oogenesis
- patients are described as feminised males with typical characteristics such as,
infertility, breast development, smaller testes than normal, higher FSH secretion,
little facial hair, high pitched voice.
[5]

Gene Regulation and Expression

1. The diagram shows a lactose operon in Escherica coli.
X

Y
III

X-lactose

Outcome of gene
X

IV
mRNA
M+N

V
II
Lactose
a) Name the gene

B-galactosidase
represented by :

X :...
Y::..
Z :.......
(Level 1)
[3 marks]
b)When lactose is present, the operon will be activated. What is the function of lactose in
this operon?
..............................
(Level 1)
[1 mark]
c) Explain briefly, what happen at :
III :
IV : ....
V :
(Level 2)
[3 marks]
d) Name products M and N

....
(Level 1)
[2 marks]
e) Give an example of a bacteria in which the lactose operon can be found.

(Level 1)
[1 mark]

2. a) Explain the lactose operon that exists in bacteria E. coli.

b) Explain the effect of the absence and presence of lactose on it.

[ 7 marks]
[ 8 marks]

Suggested answers
1.a) X: Regulatory gene
Y: operator
Z: Structural genes

-1 mark
-1 mark
-1 mark

b) - Lactose wil act as a anti repressor . It will change to isomer

-1 mark
allolactose and bind to repressor and make it inactive.
- The operon is switched on.
- RNA polymerase attaches to promoter and transcribes the structural genes.
The enzyme for lactose metabolism are produced.
c)
III- Allolactose and repressor will bind together become
-1 mark
allolactose-repressor complex.
IV- Transcription take place, a long and single RNA
-1 mark
polymerase is produced.
V- Translaction take place, B- galactosidase is given out.
-1 mark
d) Galactose and glucose

- 2 marks

e) Tryptophan operon

- 1 mark

2.a) The lactose operon is as shown in the diagram below:

diagram lactose operon
- It consists of regulator gene (I), promoter (P), operator (O)
-1 mark
and structural genes that code for enzymes required metabolizing lactose.
- The regulator gene is the segment of DNA that can be transcribed -1 mark
in to a mRNA molecule and then translated into a protein called repressor.
- The repressor is active, it binds to operator and bloks the binding -1 mark
of RNA polymerase to stop (switches off) the transcription of
the structural gene.
- The promoter is the segment of DNA that allows the binding
-1 mark
of structural gene can occur.
- A single promoter is used to control the production of three
enzymes required for lactose breakdown.
- The operator is the segment of DNA that allows the binding of
-1 mark
an active repressor.
- One the operator is bound, the repressor block the binding
- 1 mark
of RNA polymerase to the promoter and transcription of the

structural gene are not possible.

- It switches on when it is not attached with a repressor
and production of enzymes can occur.

-1 mark

b) The absence of lactose ;

- No enzymes for its metabolism are produced.
- The regulatory gene is transcribed into a mRNA that is
translated into protein, an active repressor.
- The repressor binds to the operator and blocking the
RNA polymerase from binding to the promoter.
- When the RNA polymerase cannot bind to the promoter,
there is no transcription of enzymes and enzymes are not
produced as shown in the diagram below :
-

- 1 mark
- 1 mark
- 1 mark
- 1 mark

diagram The absence of lactose-

The presence of lactose :

- lactose binds to the repressor in activating it, causing it
to lose affinity for the operator.
- RNA polymerase bind to promoter and transcription of
structural gene can start.
- mRNA is produced.
- Translation : enzymes
- B-galactosidase, permease and transcetylase produced.

-1 mark
- 1 mark
- 1 mark
- 1 mark

Modern Genetics Technology

1. Restriction enzyme occur naturally in bacterial. The diagram below shows two
restriction enzymes and the base sequences where they cut the DNA.
Restriction enzymes
H pal

Base sequence
GTT AAC
CAA TTG
Cut here

EcoR1
G TTAAC
CAATT

Cut here

a)
Suggest why bacterial cells posses restriction enzyme in nature.

(Level 1)
[1 mark]
b)
Many different restriction enzymes have been purified and are widely used in
genetic engineering. Explain the following :
(i)
Incubating DNA with a particular restriction enzyme cuts the DNA into
fragments of different lengths.

(Level 1)
[1 mark]
(ii)
Restriction enzymes like EcoR1 are more useful in genetic engineering than
others like H pal.

(Level 2)
[1 mark]
The diagrams below show a bacterial plasmid before and after a foreign DNA sequence has
been spliced into it

Only a small percentage of plasmids accept the foreign DNA. Additionally, only a small
percentage of bacteria take up a plasmid of any kind. A genetic engineer need to know
which bacterial cells contain plasmids with the required DNA sequence before cloning
them. This is done by growing colonies on suitable media.
First, all the bacteria are spread on to a medium containing ampicillin, an antibiotic.
Second, samples of the resulting bacterial colonies are transferred to a medium containing
another antibiotic tetracycline.
c) Explain why bacteria which grow on medium containing ampicilling but do not grow on
tetracycline are used for cloning.
...

(Level 3)
[3 mark]
d)A gene library is defined as a mixed collection of bacteria which houses many different
cloned DNA fragments. There are two types of gene libraries: genomic library and cDNA
library.
i)

Define genomic library.

....

(Level 2)
[2 mark]
ii)
Define cDNA library
(level 2)
....

(Level 2)
[2 mark]

2.a) State the differences between a cDNA library and gene bank.
[4 marks]
b) Describe the use of bacteria in genetic engineering.
[6 marks]
c) The carcasses of mammoths have been found in Arctic region and the
[5 marks]
bone fossils of dinosaurs have been found in some deserts.
Explain why until now, scientists still have not cloned a mammoth or dinosaur?

Suggested answers
1a). To proctect bacterial cells from invasion by foreign or
viral DNA by cleaving it.
b) i) Because the same restriction site occurs many times or at various
intervals along the length of the DNA molecule.
ii) Because sraggered ends or sticky ends are complementary or can
complementary base pair, whereas blunt ends require DNA linker.

-1mark
-1mark
-1mark

c) Resistance to ampicillin shows that bacteria have taken up plasmid.

Lack of tetracycline resistance shows that this plasmid has foreign
DNA inserted or insertion of foreign DNA destroy tetracycline resistance gene.
d)
i) A genomic library can be defined as collection of all DNA fragments
of a given species that have been taken from one organism and
inserted into a vector, either a plasmid forming plasmid library or phage
forming a phage library.
ii) A cDNA library can be defined as a collection of cDNA dervided
from mRNA of a given species that have been taken from one organism
and inserted into a vector, either a plasmid forming a plasmid library
or phage forming s phage library.
2a)
cDNA
i.) A collection of bacterial clones with
plasmid vectors or recombinant
bacteriophages which contain cDNA
fragments copied from mRNA.
ii) Usually it doesnot respresent the complet
genome of an organism. Only certain
genetic information is used to produce
cDNA fragments. Smaller size, easily
formed, cloned in laboratory and stored.

-1mark
-1mark
-1mark
-2mark

-2mark

Gene bank
i) A collection of various types of genetic
material. Example; seeds, embryo, sperm,
frozen meristematic tissues, cDNA libraries.
ii) May represent the complete or
incomplete genome of an organism. Large
resource centre, more complex and usually
established in developed countries.
Accepts,stores and distributes genetic
information for various types of organisms
in scientific research and agricultur.

4 marks
b)
o Some type of bacteria have plasmids that can be used as cloning vectors.
-1mark
o Restriction endonucleases prodused by bacteria are used to cut
-1marks
DNA needed from donor cells and vectors DNA. The binding of
foreign DNA to vectors DNA produces recombination DNA.
o Recombination DNA inserted into bacteria causing them to be transformed.
-1mark
o Bacteria are cultured and amplified to produce more clone.
-1mark

o Bacteria clones produce useful substance such insulin,

human growth hormone, bovine growth hormone (BST),
antibiotics and antibodies.
o Transgenic bacteria such as oil-decomposing bacteria are
used to secrete oil-decomposing enzymes in oil spills.
o Nitrogen fixing bacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen.
o To produce transgenic crops and animal. Example : Ti plasmid
is used to produce herbicide resistant and pest-resistant plants.

-1mark
-1mark
-1mark
-1mark

mak 6 marks
c)
o After thousands or millions of years, body cells have decayed and
-1mark
chromosome broken down.
o Scientists only managed to extract DNA fragments with incomplete
-1mark
base sequences.
o Animal cloning requires the injection of a nucleus containing a complete
-1mark
chromosome set into a suitable ovum.
o The development of a complete embryo to maturation cannot be carried -1mark
out in the laboratory.
o The weather has become warmer and there are fewer plants that are
-2marks
suitable for food. If scientists were to successfully clone a mammoth or
a dinosaur, the animal would not be able to adapt to the altered environment.
mak- 5 mark

Variation and Theory of Evolution

1The diagram below shown the type of natural selection:

Phenotype class

duals

indivi

Numb

Phenotype class

er of

Graph C

duals

indivi

er of

Numb

Graph B

duals

indivi

er of

Numb

Graph A

Phenotype class

- selective pressure

a) Name the type of natural selection which is shown in graph A, B and C

..
(Level 1)
[2 mark]
b) (i) Give an example of a type of selection as shown in graph B.

(Level 2)
[1 mark]
(ii) Using the example in (b) (i), describe the role of natural selection in determining its
characteristics.
....

(Level 2)
[4 mark]
c) What will happen to the new generations as a result of the types of selection which are
shown in graph A, B and C?
A:...
...
B:

C:

(Level 2)
[3 mark]

2a) Define the following terminologies:

i)
Speciation
ii)
Gene pool
[ 3 marks]
b) Describe the importance of following mechanisms in genetic divergence:
i)
geographical isolation
ii)
pre-zygotic and post-zygotic isolation.
[ 12 marks]

Suggested answers
1a) Graph A Disruptive selection
b) Graph B Directional selection

-1 mark
-1 mark

Example
The phenomenom as industrial melanism.
-It also shows features of polymorphism and adaptive dispersion

-1 mark

-Before the mid 19th century, pale Biston betularia moths

-1 mark
-dominan with white spots in Manchester, England
-1 mark
-After the industrial revolution, most of the moths were dark
colour. In the industrial areas, the dust and smoke had darkened
the tree.
- Natural directional selection pressure had increased the frequency - 1 mark
of alleles to produce dark moths with melanin.
-The dark coloured moths were able to camouflage themselves better
-1 mark
among predator birds.
c)
Graph A:
- Disruptive selection favours the two extreme phenotypic groups
and suppresses the in-between group.
Graph B :
- Directional selection favours one extreme phenotypic group and
suppresses the other extreme and in-between groups.
Graph C:
- Stabilising selection favours the in-between phenotypic group.
Natural selection pressure destroys/reduces the two extreme phenotypic
group.

- 1 mark

- 1 mark

- 1 mark

2a) Speciation :
o A process of formation of one ore more species
o From preexisting species / as a result of a result of isolation,
natural selection, genetic drift or hybridization.

-1 mark
-1 mark

Gene pool:
o The gene pool is the total of all the genes and alleles which are
present in a sexually reproducing population.

- 1 mark

b) i) Geographical isolation:
o Example geographical isolation / extrinsic isolation are
- 1 mark
geographical barriers like desert, mountains, oceans and river.
o These barriers separate the demes and prevent them from
meeting and breeding with each other.
o This mode of speciation is called allopatric speciation /
- 1 mark
population sepration by geographical barrier.
o (if isolation is complete ) there is no longer a gene flow
- 1 mark
between the demes.
o Mutation, selection pressures, genetic drift and adaptive
- 1 mark
dispersion result in the production of different genotypes for each demes.
o the 2 isolated demes are not able to interbreed.
ii) pre-zygotic
o prevent mating / fertilization between species.
o ecological isolation / habitat isolation-species live in different habitats.
o temporal isolation- species have different breeding season time.
o behavioural isolation species have different mating behaviour
o mechanical isolation-morphological or structural differences in
the reproductive organ / physiological differences prevent normal
mating for animal or pollination for plants.
o gametic isolation female and male gametes not compatible /
fertilization does not occur.

-1 mark
-1 mark
-1 mark
-1 mark

Post-zygotic
o Barriers operate after hybrid zygotes are formed.
- 1 mark
o Hybrid inviability gene of two parent species are not complitable
- 1 mark
and the hybrids do not survive.
o Hybrid sterility hybrids are sterile
- 1 mark
o (There are unable to bring about gene flow between the parent species.)
o Hybrid breakdown-hybrids are fertile but the offspring are infertile.
- 1 mark

Ecosystem
1. Figure shows a pyramid of biomass for a coral reef community.

a) State altenative descriptive names that may be used for each of the three trophic levels.
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 1)
[1 mark]
b) What is the essential difference in the mode of nutrition between the bottom level and
the two top levels ?
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 2)
[2 marks]
c) Account for the changes in the biomass between each level.
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 2)
[2 marks]
(d) Name two other types of ecological pyramid.
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 1)
[2 marks]
(e) Why is energy pyramid considered the most accurate of the three types of ecological
pyramid.. Explain.
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
(Level 3)
[3 marks]

2. (a) Describe how energy flows through an ecosystem.

(b) Distinguish between pyramids of biomass and pyramids of energy.

[9]
[6]

Suggested answers
1. Altenative names may be as follows :
Producers = autotrophs
Herbivores = primary consumers
Carnivores = secondary consumers
b) the mode of nutrition differs essentially between the bottom level and the top levels in
terms fo how the food is obtained. Organisms at the bottom level, being autotrophs, can
produce their own food through photosynthesis. However, organisms at the top levels,
being hetrotrophs, cannot photosynthsise and need to consume other organisms as food.
c) the biomass gets less as the trophic levels get higher, therefore the biomass of the
producers are the most. This is due to incomplete consumption of a large number of the
autotrophs by the primary consumers. The primary consumers are also not all eaten by the
secondary consumers. In addition, energy and mass that is lost via excretion, metabolism
and death of the organisms reduces the biomass between each level.
(d) Pyramid of numbers and pyramid of energy.
(e)

The pyramid of energy shows the total energy production at each trophic level. It
takes into account all the organisms at each trophic level, regardless of size,
biomass or number. It is always an upright pyramid because it takes into account
the energy loss during respiration, excretion, heat loss and etc. at each trophic level.
Unlike pyramid of biomass which is dependent on the life span and seasonal
change. Therefore, it can result in an inverted pyramid.
On the other hand, the pyramid of number is dependent on the size of each trophic
level and this can again lead to an inverted pyramid.

2.(a) - energy for the functioning of ecosystem comes from the sun
- the energy can be changed from one form into another
- only about 2.5% - 5% of the total amount of solar energy which reaches the earth
can be used by plants for photosynthesis.
- solar energy enters the biotic component of the ecosystems through primary
producers.
- transfer of energy can be shown in a food chain
- primary producers (green plants), primary consumers (herbivores), secondary
consumers (carnivores) and tertiary consumers (larger carnivores) make up the
trophic levels in a food chain.
- decomposers such as saprotrophic fungi and bacteria break down bodies of dead
producers and consumers.
- detritivores such as earthworm feed on detritus, fragments of organic matter from

dead or decomposing organisms.

- energy is loss at each trophic level in the form of heat released from respiration,
feaces and excretory wastes in primary and secondary consumers.
- energy loss at each level results in each trophic level receiving less energy than
the trophic level before it.
- seldom more than 5 trophic levels as there would be insufficient energy after the
fifth to support the next level.
- food web is a more stable form of relationship between the various trophic levels
[9]
(b) - pyramid of biomass shows the amount of organic matter (biomass) at different
levels of a food chain in an ecosystem.
- in most ecosystems the amount of biomass decreases with each trophic level thus
pyramid is often upright.
- better indication of energy flow through trophic levels of a food chain than pyramid
of numbers.
- however determining biomass involves killing and drying of organism, may thus
encounter problem.
- also in aquatic ecosystems shorter life cycle of phytoplankton compared to that of
zooplankton can lead to inverted pyramid when the dry mass at one particular
moment (standing crop) is constructed.
- pyramid of energy shows the total amount of energy flow and rate of production at
each trophic level in the food chain.
- is the most accurate way of representing feeding relationship as inverted pyramids
are not obtained for any ecosystem.
- however, difficulty in obtaining energy data will be encountered whereby
combustion of samples need to be carried out.

Jadual Analisis Soalan Peperiksaan Biologi STPM 964/2

Topik

1996
P2

Basic Chemistry of a cell

1997
P2

1998
P2

2a,4a,4b

5b

Structure of Cells and Organells

Control in Cell

2a

6a

3a,3b,3c

2a

2000
P2

2001
P2

2002
P2

2003
P2

2004
P2

1b

Photosynthesis
Respiration

1999
P2

5a,5b

7a,7c

Transport
7b

Nervous System

6b

Hormone/Chemical Coordiination

Immunity

1a

5
2

3a

2a,2b

1,4

7b

8a

8
2

7a,7b

8b

8c

7a,7b

3b

6b

6a
3
9a
9b

2b,5c

7
4

3a

4b
3
6

7a,7b

6a

Mutation

7a

9
4c

5a,7c

Taxonomy

4a

4
5a,5b

Variation and Theory of Evolution

Ecosystem
JUMLAH

3
6

Transmission Genetics

Quantitative Ecology

6b

6a,6b

Growth

Biodiversity

1
2

2a,2b
1

5a,5b

3b

4a,4b

Modern Genetic Tecnology

5
1

Development

Gene regulation and Expression

1
7

10
5b

9a,9b

5a

10a,10b

9a,9b

10

10

10a

9
4

7a,7b
7

Spot 07
P2

1
6

Reproduction

Population Genetic

1a,1b
6

Homeostasis

2006
P2

Nutrition
Gaseous Exchange

2005
P2

10

10a
10b

10

10

10b

10

10

10

10

10