Information Science Applications of Social Cognitive Theory: An Annotated Bibliography Valerie E. Bogert and Cory L.

Johnson LI802XR Emporia State University

Social cognitive theory deals with how human beings learn by observation. The theory posits that a persons actions in most situations are influenced by actions that the person has observed in others. These observations are remembered and help shape social behaviors and cognitive processes. This theory posits that by changing how a person learns their behaviors in the early stages of mental development could have a large impact on their mental processes in later stages of development. One of the founding theorists in the field is Albert Bandura. Bandura built upon his previous studies in social learning to develop the concept of self-efficacy, which is basically a persons belief or confidence in their own competence in specific situations. Bandura describes four factors that influence self-efficacy: mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasion, and physiological factors. Banduras theory is still relevant today, as self-efficacy theory is applied to information science and technology. Banderas theory can be used to design work and learning environments that provide maximum feedback and support for individuals, allowing them to develop higher levels of self-efficacy and increasing productivity in their environments. Another theorist associated with social cognitive theory is Diane Nahl. Nahls noted work in the field is known as affective load. She describes three factors within the effective load theory: affective, cognitive, and sensor-motor. She describes the interaction of these factors as Affective describes the motivation that a person feels when they develop a plan (cognitive), and put it into action (sensorimotor). Nahls formula for affective load is defined as uncertainty multiplied by time pressure, or AL = UxTP. This bibliography compiles several articles that show how Nahls and Banduras work apply in the field of information science, as well as applications outside the field.

Self-Efficacy Theory Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84 (2), 191-215. This article is Albert Banduras own summary of his self-efficacy theory. Self-efficacy deals with peoples belief in their own competence and their ability to maintain control over themselves and the events that affect their lives. These beliefs have a direct affect on matters such as resilience to adversity, motivation, and vulnerability to stress and depression. There are four main sources that influence a persons self-efficacy. The first is mastery experiences, which is when an individual successfully accomplishes various tasks and thus builds confidence. The second is seeing people similar to oneself manage task demands successfully. This is fairly self-explanatory, as a persons confidence in their ability to do a task is strengthened when they witness someone similar to themselves accomplish the same task. Third is social persuasion that one has the capabilities to succeed in given activities, which is simply encouragement from trusted individuals that one has the capability to succeed in a task. Finally, the fourth source is physiological factors, or inferences from somatic and emotional states indicative of personal strengths and vulnerabilities. This is peoples belief that mental reactions to stress indicate their level of confidence. For example, a positive mood increases ones perceived self-efficacy, while a negative mood decreases it. There are countless setbacks and various obstacles that present themselves throughout the course of an individuals life, and a well-developed sense of self-efficacy is the key to finding the motivation to overcome them. The scope of self-efficacy changes over the course of a lifetime, as new adversities require further development of efficacy to succeed. In the realm of information science and information seeking, those with high self-efficacy are more likely to initiate information seeking on their own, and maintain motivation despite any difficulties encountered. Applications of Self-Efficacy Theory in Information Science Eastin, M. S. & LaRose, R. (2000). Internet self-efficacy and the psychology of the digital divide. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 9 (4), 1-7. This study looked at the correlation between self-efficacy and the use of the Internet. It was hypothesized that prior internet use and expected positive outcomes would be positively correlated to high self-efficacy, while internet stress and self-disparagement would lead to low self-efficacy. A sample of college students were given a survey of eight items, to be answered on a five-point scale. The results of the study supported part of the hypothesis. It was discovered that prior Internet experience was by far the strongest predictor of Internet self-efficacy. The study showed that users who had been online for two years or less encountered 3

more stress-inducing problems and were less satisfied with their skills than veteran users. However, the study did not support the hypothesis that Internet stress and selfdisparagement would lead to low self-efficacy. To close the Digital Divide, the study recommends applying Banduras self-efficacy mechanisms of enactive mastery, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion and physiological response. If users are able to accomplish these mechanisms in the realm of Internet use, high self-efficacy in future Internet use is much more likely. Kurbanoglu, S. S. (2003). Self-efficacy: a concept closely linked to information literacy and lifelong learning. Journal of Documentation, 59 (6), 635-636. This was a study done on college students at the University of Ankara, Turkey. The purpose was to determine the students perceived self-efficacy for information and computer literacy, and if their self-efficacy in these fields varied from year to year over their college career. The students took an 89-question survey on the subject, rating each question on a five point scale. The categories consisted of topics such as defining the need for information, initiating search strategy, locating resources, assessing the information, using the information, communicating the information, evaluating the process, and recognizing the principles of intellectual freedom and equitable access to information. The results showed that students in general had high self-efficacy for information literacy. Self-efficacy was at its lowest in the first year, climbed steadily the next two, and declined slightly in the fourth year. Keep in mind that their skills and abilities did not diminish, but their perception of competence. It is hypothesized that these students may have realized how much more there is to learn, and began to doubt their abilities. The study suggests that it is not enough to only teach students knowledge and skills, it is necessary to develop their self-efficacy in order to maintain their perception of competence later in life. Ren, W. H. (2000). Library instruction and college student self-efficacy in electronic information searching. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 24 (5), 323-8. This article applies Banduras theory to a group of college students tasked to search from information using electronic sources. Before their search, the students were given a block of formal instruction on electronic information seeking methods, in an attempt to increase their self-efficacy on this particular task. This instruction included lectures, demonstrations, hands-on practice and an assignment of library electronic information searching. This study examined the relationship between library instruction, selfefficacy, emotions, and performance in the use of library information sources. The study found that self-efficacy in information seeking was significantly higher following library instruction. It also found that frequent use of the library databases was important for both acquiring and maintaining self-efficacy. Further, it was discovered 4

that the students, on the whole, had a positive attitude towards acquiring information search skills, and this attitude had a direct bearing on self-efficacy. According to this study, formal instruction by a library or other information source can greatly increase self-efficacy in patrons. The face of information technology is constantly changing, and may be intimidating to those who are unfamiliar with it. If information professionals stay abreast of new technologies, they can pass their knowledge onto patrons, easing their apprehensions and raising their self-efficacy. Savolainen, R. (2002). Network competence and information seeking on the internet: from definitions towards a social cognitive model. Journal of Documentation, 58 (2), 211-226. This descriptive article puts self-efficacy in context with network competence, or how skilled people are in everyday information seeking, and seeks to clarify the nature of competence. Two questions are addressed in this article: What are the characteristics of network competence, and how can network competence be approached as a constituent of information seeking taking place on the Internet? For the purposes of this work, competence was boiled down to two elements: knowledge and skill. Knowledge may be seen as our understanding of how our everyday world operates, and skill involves our ability to apply our knowledge in practical settings. According to this article, self-efficacy does not describe the competence one has, but instead describes the judgments of what one can do with the competence one has. For those who are reasonably familiar with Web-based systems, self-efficacy is easily maintained and built upon. But self-efficacy was shown to be particularly relevant for those not using the Internet for information seeking, but are still interested in its services. Those who are not comfortable with their Internet skills are more likely to encounter problems, and less likely to persevere through them. Still others may not get started in the first place, believing the Internet to be too complicated. Like many others, this article recommended information seeking education to raise the level of information literacy, and to identify problem areas among certain demographics, such as the elderly. Waldman, M. (2003). Freshmens use of library electronic resources and self-efficacy. Information Research, 8 (2), 1-30. In order to encourage students use of the library, especially its electronic resources, this study attempts to understand the factors that lead students to seek out information in a library setting. According to Banduras theory, people are generally more interested in performing activities in which they already have high self-efficacy. In this study, it is hypothesized that students with more computer experience are more likely to use the librarys electronic resources, students who frequent the library more often are more

likely to use the librarys electronic resources, and students who fit the previous criteria are more likely to have high self-efficacy. After completing a survey, it was discovered that significant evidence supported the hypothesis that students who frequent the library more often have a greater likelihood of using the librarys electronic resources. A smaller amount of evidence supported the hypothesis that students with more computer experience would be more likely to use electronic resources and have higher self-efficacy. The results of this study can be used to design new initiatives that could improve students use of the library and its resources. Yi, M. Y., & Hwang, Y. (2003). Predicting the use of web-based information systems: self-efficacy, enjoyment, learning goal orientation, and the technology acceptance model. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 59, 441-449. This article applies Banduras theory to user acceptance of technology. Specifically, it studies motivation variables of self-efficacy, enjoyment and learning goal orientation to predict the use of Web-based information systems, and if there is any correlation between self-efficacy and the use of a new information system. The study introduced the Blackboard system to one hundred and nine students at the Moore School of Business at the University of South Carolina. This study determined how comfortable the students were in attempting to use Blackboard for the first time and how readily they adapted to the system once they got started. A survey was provided to the students after a 2 week trial period, and the actual use of the system was recorded by Blackboard over 8 weeks. The results of the study indicated that self-efficacy positively influenced the decision to use a new Web-based technology; that is, students with high self-efficacy in other Web-based or similar electronic information technology were more likely to adopt a new technology and continue to use it. The study discovered that application-specific self-efficacy (self-efficacy that pertains to a specific subject. A person may have high self-efficacy in English but low self-efficacy in mathematics) exerts a significant effect on system use, much more than behavioral intention. In other words, some individuals may not clearly form intent to use the new system, but were still much more certain of their ability to use the system. Self-efficacy was also found to determine the students perceived ease of use. Enjoyment was found to be a determinant of usefulness, while ease of use was not determined to be as significant a factor. This indicates that enjoyment is a stronger predictor of usefulness than ease of use. The study found a significant relationship between learning goal orientation and application-specific selfefficacy. This indicates that users who are oriented towards learning and mastery of content are more likely to develop a higher sense of confidence in using the target system.

As before, the study indicated training in a new and unfamiliar technology would increase the self-efficacy of a user. The higher a users self-efficacy, the more likely the user is to adopt a new technology.

Use Self-Efficacy Theory in Other Applications Bandura, A., Adams, N. E., Hardy, A. B. & Howells, G. N. (1980). Tests of the generality of self-efficacy theory. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 4 (1), 39-66. This study was conducted to test Banduras theory across different treatment and behavioral domains. The study was intended to increase the sense of efficacy in persons suffering from phobias, and try to predict their performance on tasks that contained specific levels of threats related to their phobias. The subjects, in this case, those with a severe snake phobia, were provided with a list of various tasks related to interacting with a boa constrictor. They were asked to rate each task according to their efficacy on an 100-point scale, and were assigned tasks, involving a real snake, that they felt most capable of dealing with. It was found in this case, that the perception of ones coping ability affected emotional arousal as well as ones behavior. The study discovered that the perceived lack of efficacy in a certain task was what made the task seem fearsome. It was also discovered that being able to wield behavioral control, such as choosing tasks, results in less autonomic fear arousal and performance impairment than those who believe they lack this same personal control. This study provides evidence that perceived efficacy can predict fear arousal, which adds some measure of generality to the social learning formula. Brown, S.P., Ganesan, S., & Challagalla, G. (2001). Self-efficacy as a moderator of information-seeking effectiveness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86 (5), 10431051. This article examines the ability of employees to self-regulate themselves in a work environment, using information seeking to direct, evaluate, and adjust their efforts. In this study, self-efficacy is applied to employee performance. Self-efficacy beliefs moderate the effectiveness with which employees use information seeking to improve understanding of their role and the performance of that role. The study hypothesized that employees with high self-efficacy are better able to push past distractions, biases and distortions and are better able to seek out information on their own to clarify their role. In contrast, employees with low self-efficacy are likely to doubt their ability to interpret feedback and new information. When they do seek out new information, it often is limited to that which is already in line with their personal views. They also are more easily distracted by perceived weaknesses and failures, which consume cognitive resources better used in the performance of their job.

The study found that employees with high self-efficacy are more likely to seek out and integrate new information to increase clarity and performance. Those with low selfefficacy tended not to use information seeking methods to increase their clarity. Stajkovic, A. D. & Luthans, F. (1998). Self-efficacy and work-related performance: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 124 (4), 240-261. This study hypothesizes that there is an overall positive relationship between selfefficacy and work-related performance. This study differed from many other studies in that it included task complexity into the factors that determined self-efficacy. Complex tasks differ from simple tasks in that they place greater demands on required knowledge, cognitive ability, memory capacity, behavioral facility, information processing, persistence, and physical effort. The study then hypothesizes that the relationship between self-efficacy and performance is moderated by the level of task complexity. Therefore, the higher the task complexity, the weaker the relationship between self-efficacy and performance. The study synthesizes several other studies of self-efficacy to reach its conclusion. The collection of studies was initiated by a computerized search of specialized databases, using the keywords self-efficacy, perceived self-efficacy, self-efficacy beliefs, self-efficacy expectations, social cognitive theory, and social learning theory. Searches of relevant articles not covered in computerized databases, books, and unpublished articles were made using the same criteria. To be included in this meta-analysis, a study was required to have self-efficacy operationalized according to the conceptual premises defined by Bandura. Studies were excluded if they were unrelated to organizational settings, if they were related to sports psychology and medicine, and if the study included participants who cannot enter the workforce due to age. Out of almost 2,100 studies identified in the initial search, 202 met the selection criteria. Of those, another 88 were excluded for various methodological or conceptual reasons. The final sample consisted of 114 studies. The results of the analysis provide supporting evidence that task complexity moderates the relationship between self-efficacy and work performance. While the relationship between self-efficacy and performance was significant for each level of task complexity, the magnitude of the relationship was strongest for simple tasks, decreasing for moderate and high levels of task complexity. This study was done with the workplace in mind, and had several suggestions for practical applications that would serve to increase employee self-efficacy. These included providing clear and accurate descriptions of the tasks they are asked to perform, instructing employees on what means are necessary to accomplish their tasks, removing undesirable factors from the workplace, and providing training and programs to assist in coping with more challenging tasks and raising self-efficacy.

Affective Load TheoryNahl, D. (2004). Measuring the affective information environment of web searchers. Proceedings of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 41, 191197. doi: 10.1002/meet.1450410122 This article introduces and defines affective load theory along with user coping skills and uncertainty. In this article Nahl focuses on the how affect in information behavior influences cognitive operations (1). These states are observed as users work with information, particularly information acquired from web searching. The three components of human behavior are described as affective, cognitive and sensorimotor. Affective describes the motivation that a person feels when they develop a plan (cognitive) and put it to action (sensorimotor). (2) Finally she moves to Operational definitions of affective measures. Each component is described and examples are given of how it relates to affective behavior. For example, affective load is defined as uncertainty multiplied by time pressure. Nahl gets her data from senior college students enrolled in a psychology seminar, where web research reports are required. The method she uses employs a rating form with twenty six questions at the start of the session and again at the end. This way the results can be compared. Each question has a rating scale and results are broken down into tables. She also uses ANOVA analysis to reveal interaction of the affective components. Nahl determines that the students had high levels of affect (positive) and low uncertainty levels. She recognizes the need to further explore the concept of affective load and user coping skills. However, it is determined that uncertainty is defined by the affective measures. Affective load is added when there are inadequate coping skills. This article provides very thorough descriptions and research regarding the affective theory. Affective measures are described and related to her research in a very thorough manner. While this is a starting point to her research, it is a good basis for the rest of the articles in the bibliography. Supportive WorksJames, L. & Nahl, D. (1996). Achieving focus, engagement, and acceptance: Three phases of adapting to internet use. Electronic Journal on Virtual Culture, 4(1). Retrieved from http://www2.hawaii.edu/~nahl/articles/ejvc.html This article presents a study of 20 college seniors enrolled in a 3 month course called Social Psychology of Learning Internet. The focus of the study was to make an inventory of feelings and thoughts while searching for information in a library setting. (1) Students were asked to record bi-weekly reports on their internet activities. They covered three

main points: affective, cognitive and sensor-motor. Emphasis on motivation was expressed when students were informed that their responses would benefit future students. Students also had the opportunity for class discussion of the required reports. Benefits of learning and sharing as a group are also noted within the study. The data collected was used to detect patterns on how people learn and adapt while using the internet. The technique of content analysis was used in the evaluations to measure affective and cognitive learning. Twelve distinct learner variables were observed and explained within the study. These were then compared to previous taxonomic work and three stages of internet adaptation were observed. James concludes that the social learning as a group helped the students succeed. He also concludes that groups involved in the early stages of adaptation helped in acquiring affective skills which then built cognitive skills. Lastly, he observes that users need to personalize the internet to become lifelong users. The article builds upon earlier studies by Nahl and James on information seeking. While some of the material is dated, the theories and methods are solid and could still be applied to a modern setting. Nahl, D. (2005). Affective and cognitive information behavior: Interaction effects in internet use. In 68th Annual Meeting of the American Society for Information Science and Technology (ASIST), Charlotte (US), 28, [Conference Paper]. Retrieved from: http://eprints.rclis.org/handle/10760/6856 In her article, Nahl re-examines Affective load theory (ALT), that she first presented in 2004. Using 55 senior college students enrolled in an upper level social science course, she seeks to test the stability of her previous findings and to examine predictions effecting affective load and how they interact with cognitive information behaviors. Students were presented with various information intensive tasks or projects using various technology and programs at the beginning of the semester. A self-report questionnaire was used to measure affective behavior, cognitive behavior and optimism during the second week of the semester. The questionnaire was presented to the students in a rating scale format. Students were also given a cognitive performance task to measure skills needed to succeed in the intensive tasks/projects. The findings and results are shown in 6 tables comparing these new results with those found from the study in 2004. Nahl concludes that the findings are measurable, stable and significant in relation to the 2004 study. Also despite the differences between the two, the affective dynamics are very similar. Lastly she notes that affective load theory reacts with cognitive information behaviors resulting in higher affective coping skills (self efficacy and optimism), that creates an advantage for students with lower cognitive skills. While the current study is well explained, references back to the 2004 study can be confusing. Previous readings of that study are almost required to understand the 10

comparisons. However, Nahl also mentions the need for further study regarding affective load and cognitive interaction which will help shed light on some of the complexities of this study. Nahl, D. (2001). A conceptual framework for defining information behavior. Studies in Multimedia Information Literacy Education. 1(2), 1-15. doi: 10.3138/sim.1.001 This article addresses three theoretical approaches (Taxonomic, Psychodynamic, and Ethno-methodological) that are used to measure and define information behaviors in social and information sciences. The Taxonomic approach seeks to measure affective behaviors in feelings, preferences, and values. It also contrasts this approach by measuring cognitive behaviors through interpretation/memory. Sensor-motor is evaluated though how a user identifies items. Psychodynamic is the drive to search for information based on need. Affective behavior uses personal relevance, cognitive uses personality structure and together these behaviors combine to produce the sensomotor behavior to complete the information outcome. Ethno-methodological represents social and political dynamics in acquiring information since the information in turn will provide social standing. Next three compatible theories from Nahl (Self Monitoring integrated model), Kuhlthau (Diagnosis and intervention orientation), and Dervin (Sense making communication theory) are presented to explain the key concepts of behavioral approaches information behavior. In addition to the concepts presented, librarians and information specialists are given ways in which they can respond to each. Nahl goes on to explore how technophobia plays a key role in the developing of information seeking behaviors good and bad. She then presents ways in which affective information counseling can be useful to librarians and other information specialists to determine areas where users may need assistance. She concludes her article by blending all of the above concepts and theories as an important way to address the demands of a technological society. She addresses the importance of applying them to the information seeking process. This article is very well articulated. Nahl uses good examples of each theory and approach, making her article easily understood and applicable. She also includes ways for librarians and information specialists to apply the ideas in a real world setting. She uses several tables to highlight her research and drive her points home. This is a good article that helps further explain affective and cognitive behaviors highlighted in her later articles.

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Nahl, D. (1996). Affective monitoring of internet learners: Perceived self-efficacy and success. Proceedings of the 59th ASIS Annual Meeting, 3, 100-109. Retrieved from: http://www2.hawaii.edu/~nahl/articles/monitoring/monitoring.html In this article Nahl focuses on 18 senior college students in a social psychology course. The students were asked to predict how well they could the internet and use various internet utilities. During the course of the study 6 affective components were measured: degree of difficulty experienced, amount of negative emotions experienced, how valuable are the skills acquired, likelihood of getting good at it, degree of satisfaction, and degree of effort. (2) Students completed weekly ratings and reports on each of the six components. They were also required to provide explanations of the ratings they chose. This data was then collected weekly for 8 weeks. At the end, students were asked to fill out the same questionnaire and use it to rate the entire course. By evaluation of the results for the initial questionnaires, Nahl was able to predict and see that those with higher self efficacy were successful and completed the course. She also saw how lower self efficacy resulted in students that dropped out. The study and figures provided show how over time, students reported an overall increase in their satisfaction with the internet (5). Feelings also remained high and value was retained. Nahl then addresses how this study can help information instructors design more user friendly environments and programming. She also suggests ways in which this data can be used in a group learning setting and how more interactive online facilities can help users. This article is a bit dated as it was published in 1996. However, the evaluation process supports some of her later findings when she delves into affective load. The basic evaluation process is there and can be applied to similar situations such as older persons with no internet experience. The article is not meant to be used as a broad general study but mainly for smaller groups of inexperienced internet users. Nahl, D. (1998, June). Strategic research: problem solving through systematic assessment. Keynote speech at the American Library Association/ Association of College and Research Libraries Annual Meeting, Instructional Section, Washington, DC. Retrieved from: http://www2.hawaii.edu/~nahl/articles/ISspeech98.htm During an instructional conference at the 1998 ALA College and Research Libraries annual meeting, Dr. Nahl presents problem solving tips using systematic assessment.

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She focuses on creating and evaluating lessons then using that data to measure what students have learned. Then she gives examples other research methods used to facilitate learning. Nahl introduces conference goers to the nine preliminary stages of research projects and then describes in detail four strategic research methods. She brings in examples of research she has conducted and gives recommendations on further readings to help users apply and understand her methods. She then goes through a step-by-step analysis of CD-ROM instruction, T-logs, using Transaction Log Analysis to improve OPAC retrieval results and navigating online menus using quantitative experimentation. She ties all of this together by asking her audience to complete exercises in groups to further explain her points. This is an excellent article that brings in Nahls previous research and uses it to explain how it can be facilitated in real situations. She informs her audience of key strategies and gives them an opportunity to practice what they have learned. This speech can help readers apply theories learning in the other articles presented in this bibliography. Supportive works by other authorsArapakis, I., Jose, J.M. & Gray, P.D.G. (2008, January). Affective feedback: An investigation into the role of emotions in the information seeking process. In 31st Annual International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information, Singapore. Retrieved from: http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/4825/ The goal of this article is to provide a starting point when exploring emotions in the information seeking process and how they tie into theories like affective load. Unique ways to evaluate the data are set up and explained in great detail throughout the article. The focus is on using a facial expression recognization system to observe spontaneous emotional behavior. The variables used in this study measured task, search process and emotional experience. The study uses 24 participants of mixed age and demographics, that claimed to have used search services in the past. Each apparatus employed is explained in the article as it relates to the study. The methodology approach used in this study did the following: employed facial recognition systems, applied hidden recording to capture spontaneous behavior and made the researchers presence in the lab as minimal as possible. The article then explains task, search process and emotional experience using statistics and tables to detail the results. The authors conclude that emotions interweave within the 13

search process, blending with cognitive psychological and physiological processes. Patterns also emerge during this process that help determine the users knowledge status and the information need. The authors also state that further analysis is needed to fully validate the results. This article is a good beginning in the study of analyzing emotions in an information seeking process. It is weighed down by statistical data that can be tough to wade through. However, the discussions and conclusions made seem sound. This article seeks to add another facet into the study of affective and cognitive behavior. Bilal, D, (2005). Children's information seeking and the design of digital interfaces in the affective paradigm. Library Trends 54(2), 197-208. doi: 10.1353/lib.2006.0013 In this article, Bilal introduces readers to affective paradigm and how it applies to research in information science. She notes that there is little research on how this paradigm affects children using information technology. Bilal goes on to explore how various researchers (Nahl, Kuhlthau, Dervin, and Ingwersen) have concluded that information seeking involves the whole person. She draws attention to the fact that only a few models exist that incorporate a users feelings, thoughts and actions and that those models reflect an older age range and not younger subjects. Bilal goes on to review some limited studies on children seeking information on the web. She makes a point that children are on a different emotional level than adults and they need ways to develop their skill when seeking information. She also concludes that strategies are needed to help them deal with the complexities of the web itself. The purpose of this article is to address some of the unanswered questions regarding children and technology. She also points out the need to further research into how children apply to some of the theories on affective load and paradigm. This is a good article that summarized research done with children regarding information seeking. Bilal does a fair job of applying the way children use the web to affective paradigm. She stresses the need for further research in this field and makes good reference to other articles for the reader to follow up with. She brings in the research from Nahl and other theorists to show how some theories still apply to the younger age groups.

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Bilal, D. & Kirby, J. (2002). Differences and similarities in information seeking: Children and adults as web users. Information and Processing Management. 38(5), 648670. Retrieved from http://ithreads.pbworks.com/f/differences.pdf The purpose of this article is to investigate the similarities and differences between children and adults as they search the web. The study examined the thoughts, feelings, and actions as participants used the Yahooligans! Web search engine. (650) Both authors state that the main objectives are: how successful participants were at finding a correct answer to a task, exploring cognitive, physical and affective behaviors and to apply previous research by Bilal that measures the effectiveness and efficiency in using the web. (650) The results gained from the research will be used to improve future web training lessons. The participants in this study are a group of 7th grade students and an equal group of senior graduate students. The method used in the study includes both quantitative and qualitative inquiry. Each group is set up in a study format in a library. Both were given a task to research and Lotus Screen cam was used to capture the groups activities. The children were given exit interviews to capture effective states, while the grad students were required to keep journals on the tasks presented. The authors conclude that grad students do share common information seeking behaviors with children. However, there are three key differences that they mention. Age and experience are noted as factors that play a part. Both groups did struggle with using the Yahooligans, and it was noted that system designers need to make improvements. This is a very detailed article. It gives good descriptions of previous studies and how they factor into this new research. Each group of students is evaluated in separate sections which makes the results easy to follow. The article also ties together cognitive, affective and physical behaviors noted in other research. Mentis, H. M. (2007). Memory of frustrating experiences. In D. Nahl and D. Bilal (Eds.), Information and emotion: The emergent paradigm in information behavior research and theory, (pp. 197-210). Medford, NJ: Information Today. In the Memory of Frustrating Experiences, Mentis seeks to show how frustrating experiences play a part in how people use the internet. She then designs a method for categorizing these experiences so they can be better understood. Mentis highlights several theories regarding goals and frustrations from a psychological perspective. She then discusses the studies of library users prior to the

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internet boom and moves on to briefly describe Nahls study on affective load. She talks about studies performed on computer users and how frustration has a large impact on efficiency. The purpose of her study is to challenge assumptions and determine the types of interactions that lead to the most frustration in interactive internet systems. Using 70 undergrad students taking communication classes, Mentis devises four goals to focus on; frustration vs. thwarted goals, real examples of frustration, frustrations with the most impact, and lastly to determine at exactly what point in the task frustration occurs. Mentis uses qualitative methodology for data generation and coding. She then analyzed the data through descriptive and inferential statistics. (200) To determine which frustrations occurred, Mentis used open ended questionnaires to collect memory data of frustrating experiences. She also uses several tables and graphs in the text to show the data analysis in detail. Mentis concludes that frustration greatly affects user experiences. She also explains how these frustrations can be used to create design guidelines that make the experience of internet use a better one. This article uses real life examples to explain and measure user frustrations. This is very helpful in understanding her theories presented in this work. It is a well-rounded article and easy to apply and understand. Mentis takes Nahls idea of affective load and expands on it to show real life issues. Parker, N. & Berryman, J. (2007). The role of affect in judging 'what is enough?' In D. Nahl and D. Bilal (Eds.), Information and emotion: The emergent paradigm in information behavior research and theory, (pp. 243-254). Medford, NJ: Information Today. The importance of information literacy education, feelings, skill and the role of the library in this process is the focus of this article. The article also shows the importance of affect as an often overlooked variable. The studies done by Nahl are noted as important factors on affective states. The research method employed by this article uses face to face interviews to gather information on Canadian Public library patrons and how they experience information literacy. Twenty-five men and women were used to complete this study. The interviews were recorded and analysis of the data used a grounded-theory approach. The results varied based on how literate patrons viewed themselves. If the literacy level was viewed as high, patrons had more confidence and feelings of empowerment. The patrons that viewed themselves on a lower scale reported frustration and

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discouragement. Based on these observations as well as answers to other questions in the survey the authors conclude that emotion helps shape information behavior. They note that cognitive perspective is not solely used in information seeking. In addition, the authors mention that library staff can benefit from knowing how emotion plays a part in the process and how better to help and train patrons. By acknowledging emotion staff can create information counseling activities suggested in a previous study by Nahl. This is an excellent article that focuses on how emotions play a part in previous theories on affective and cognitive behavior. It provides specific examples and addresses the need for libraries and information specialists to pay close attention.

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