Power Quality

Blessen Antony Francis M1 PE Department of Electrical Engineering Mar Athanasius College of Engineering

Electrical energy is the most convenient form of energy from the point of generation, transformation, transmission, consumption, control and environmental aspects. The dependence of modern life upon the continuous supply of Electrical energy makes system reliability and power quality issues of upmost importance in electric power system area Power Quality is generally used to express the quality of the voltage. This quality signies the deviation of the voltage magnitude and frequency from the rated values and the deviation of the waveform from a pure sinusoid. That is, variation of the voltage magnitude, outages, impulses, icker, inclusion of DC component, variation of the frequency, unbalances in 3-phase systems can be dened as power quality problems. Power quality can be dened at an arbitrary point of the system. However, it is more important at the consumption side. Power quality problems are created by auxiliary sources, (lightning), non-linear circuit components (saturated transformer) or non-linear loads (Rectier) Some of the problems regarding the power quality are: Blinking of incandescent lights, Power Factor Correction capacitor failure, Circuit Breakers tripping for no visible reason, Computer malfunction or Lockup or Communication failure, Conductor failure of heating, electronic equipment shutting down, ickering of uorescent lights, Fuses blowing for no apparent reason, Motor failures and over-heating, Neutral Conductor and Terminal failures, over-heating of metal enclosures, Power Interference on voice communication added noise, Transformer failures and over-heating. Some of the power quality problems and some solutions are discussed

Transients

The term transients has long been used in the analysis of power system variations to denote an event that is undesirable and momentary in nature. Another word in common usage that is often considered synonymous with transient is surge. Broadly speaking transients can be classied into two catogaries, impulsive and oscillatory.The duration of transients vary from several microseconds to few milliseconds. These variations may reach thousands of volts, even in low voltage. Transients may cause destruction of components (particularly electronic components) and of insulation materials,data processing errors or data loss, electromagnetic interference.

1.1

Impulsive transients

An impulsive transient is a sudden, non-power frequency change in the steady-state condition of voltage, current, or both that is unidirectional in polarity (primarily either positive or negative).

Impulsive transients are normally characterized by their rise and decay times, which can also be reveiled by their spectral content. A 1.2 50-s 2000-volt(V) impulsive transient normally rises from zero to its peak value of 2000V in 1.2 s and then decays to half its peak value in 50 s. Lightning and disconnection of heavy loads cause transients in lines. They can excite the natural frequency of power system circuits and produce oscillatory transients.

1.2

Oscillatory transients

An oscillatory transient is a sudden, non-power frequency change in the steady-state condition of voltage, current, or both, that includes both positive and negative polarity values. They are mainly caused by switching of lines or power factor correction capacitors (backto-back capacitor switching), ferroresonance and transformer energization.

Long-Duration Voltage Variations

Long-duration variations ecompass root mean square (rms) deviations at power frequencies for longer than 1 min. Long-duration variations can either be over-voltages or undervoltages. They are generally not due to the system faults, but are caused by load variations in the system and system switching operations.

2.1

Overvoltage

An overvoltage is an increase in the rms ac voltage greater than 110 percent at the power frequency for a duration longer than 1 min. They occur as a result of switching o of large loads, energizing capacitor bank.

2.2

Undervoltage

An undervoltage is a decrease in the rms ac voltage to less than 90 percent at the power frequency for a duration longer than 1 min. They occur as a result of switching on of large loads.The term brownout is often used to describe sustained periods of undervoltage initiated as a specic utility dispatch strategy to reduce power demand.

2.3

Sustained interruptions

When the supply voltage has been zero for a period of time in excess of 1 min, the long duration voltage variation is considered a sustained interruption.

Short-Duration Voltage Variation

Voltage variations at the power frequency for a duration lesser than 1 min come under short-duration voltage variations. They are caused by fault conditions, energization of large loads whch require high starting currents, or intermitted loose connections in power wiring. The fault can cause either temporary voltage drops (sags), voltage rises (swell), or a complete loss of voltage (interruptions). 2

3.1

Interruptions

An interruption occurs when the supply voltage or load current decreases to less than 0.1 pu for a period of time not exceeding 1 min. They are occured due to power system faults, equipment failures, and control malfunctions.

3.2

Sags (Dips)

A sag is a decrease to between 0.1 and 0.9 pu in rms voltage or current at the power frequency for durations fom 0.5 cycle to 1 min. They can be caused due to faults on the transmission or distribution network (most of the times on parallel feeders), faults in consumers installation, connection of heavy loads and start-up of large motors. They can cause malfunction of information technology equipment, namely microprocessor-based control systems (PCs, PLCs, ASDs, etc) that may lead to a process stoppage, tripping of contactors and electromechanical relays, disconnection and loss of eciency in electric rotating machines.

3.3

Swells

A swell is an increase to between 1.1 and 1.8 pu in rms voltage or current at the power frequency for durations fom 0.5 cycle to 1 min. Caused due to start/stop of heavy loads, badly dimensioned power sources, badly regulated transformers (mainly during o-peak hours).

Voltage Imbalance

Also called as voltage unbalance is sometimes dened as the maximum deviation from the average of the three phase voltages or current per average three-phase voltages or current. They are caused due to large single-phase loads (induction furnaces, traction loads), incorrect distribution of all single-phase loads by the three phases of the system (this may be also due to a fault). Unbalanced systems imply the existence of a negative sequence that is harmful to all three phase loads. The most aected loads are three-phase induction machines.

Voltage Fluctuations

Voltage uctuations are systematic variations of the voltage envelope or a series of random voltage variation between 0.9 to 1.1 pu. They are caused due to furnaces, frequent start/stop of electric motors (for instance elevators), oscillating loads. Most consequences are common to undervoltages. The most perceptible consequence is the ickering of lighting and screens, giving the impression of unsteadiness of visual perception.

Waveform Distortion

Waveform distortion is dened as a steady state deviation from an ideal power frequency principally characterised by the spectral content of the deviation

6.1

DC oset

The presence of a dc voltage or current in an ac power ac system is termed as dc oset. They can have a detrimental eect by biasing transformer cores so they saturate in normal operation. This causes additional heating and loss of tranformer life. 3

6.2

Harmonics

Voltage or current waveforms assume non-sinusoidal shape. The waveform corresponds to the sum of dierent sine-waves with dierent magnitude and phase, having frequencies that are multiples of power-system frequency, and the system is said to contain harmonic components. The Classic sources are electric machines working above the knee of the magnetization curve (magnetic saturation), arc furnaces, welding machines, rectiers, and DC brush motors. The Modern sources are all non-linear loads, such as power electronics equipment including ASDs, switched mode power supplies, data processing equipment, high eciency lighting. Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is a measure of eective value of harmonic distortion from the pure sinusoidal waveform, I1 being the fundamental component. T HD = The problems due to harmonics phenomena: 1. Over heating of transformers and other electromagnetic devices such as motors, relays, and coils (due to the inductive heating eects of eddy currents, skin eect, and hystersis). 2. Over heating of conductors, breakers, fuses, and all other devices that carry current (because of eddy currents, skin eect, and hystersis). 3. Inductive heating of metal parts such as raceways, metal enclosures, and other ferrous (iron or steel) metal parts (because of eddy currents and hystersis). 4. Voltage distortion resulting in unpredictable equipment operation because of harmonics. 5. Excessive neutral current resulting in equipment overheating of failure because of additive harmonic currents, excessive voltage drop, and distortion. 6. Malfunction of generators and UPS systems due to voltage distortion resulting in unpredictable behavior of electric variable.
40 2 n=2 In I1 2 1/2

6.3

Interharmonics

Voltages or currents having frequency components that are not integer multiples of the supply frequency. They can appear as descrete or as a wide band spectrum. The main sources are static frequency converters, cyclo-converters, induction furnaces and arcing devices.

6.4

Notching

Notching is a periodic voltage disturbance caused by the normal operation of power electronic devices when current is commuted from one phase to other.

6.5

Noise

Noise consists os superimposing of high frequency signals on the waveform of the powersystem frequency. Noises enter power system by electromagnetic interferences provoked by Hertzian waves such as microwaves, television diusion, and radiation due to welding machines, arc furnaces, and electronic equipment. Improper grounding may also be a cause. They may cause disturbances on sensitive electronic equipment, usually not destructive. May cause data loss and data processing errors. 4

Power Frequency Variations

Power frequency variations are dened as the power system fundamental frequency from its specied nominal value (50 Hz). The permissible change is 1 percent change. Frequency variations indicate unbalance of generated power and load connected which is to be avoided.

Standards
1. IEEE 1159.1 Provide guidelines for instrumentation requirements associated with dierent types of power quality phenomena. These requirements address issues like sampling rate requirements, synchronization, A/D sampling accuracy and number of cycles to sample. 2. IEEE 1159.2 Provide guidelines for characterizing dierent power quality phenomena. This includes defenition of important characteristics that may relate to power quality variations (such as minimum magitude, duration, phase shift, and number of phases for voltage sags) 3. IEC 61000-4-30 Provide detailed requirements for the testing and measurement procedures and the accuracy requirements of the measurement.

Power Quality Monitoring

Power quality monitoring is done based on the standards including the mentioned. Digital Fault Recorders (DFR) are instruments used to measure the same. SCADA (Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition) is a software to monitor power ow in a power system, detect and report faults.

10

Solutions to Power Quality Problems

The mitigation of PQ problems may take place at dierent levels: transmission, distribution and the enduse equipment.Many PQ problems have origin in the transmission or distribution grid. Thus, a proper transmission and distribution grid, with adequate planning and maintenance, is essential to minimize the occurrence of PQ problems. Some of the technologies are discussed below.

10.1

Energy Storage Systems

Energy storage systems, also known as restoring technologies, are used to provide the electric loads with ride-through capability in poor PQ environment. The recent advancements in power electronics has improved the restoring technologies. The rst energy storage technology used in the eld of PQ, yet the most used today, is

Figure 1: Restoring technologies principle electrochemical battery. Although new technologies, such as ywheels, supercapacitors and 5

superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) present many advantages, electrochemical batteries still rule due to their low price and mature technology. 10.1.1 Flywheels

A ywheel is an electromechanical device that couples a rotating electric machine (motor/generator) with a rotating mass to store energy for short durations. The motor/generator draws power provided by the grid to keep the rotor of the ywheel spinning. During a power disturbance, the kinetic energy stored in the rotor is transformed to DC electric energy by the generator, and the energy is delivered at a constant frequency and voltage through an inverter and a control system. Traditional ywheel rotors are usually constructed of steel and are limited to a spin rate of a few thousand revolutions per minute (RPM). Advanced ywheels constructed from carbon bre materials and magnetic bearings can spin in vacuum at speeds up to 40,000 to 60,000 RPM. The stored energy is proportional to the moment of inertia and to the square of the rotational speed. High speed ywheels can store much more energy than the conventional ywheels The ywheel provides power during a period between the loss of utility supplied power and either the return of utility power or the start of a back-up power system (i.e., diesel generator). Flywheels typically provide 1-100 seconds of ride-through time, and back-up generators are able to get online within 5-20 seconds. 10.1.2 Supercapacitors

Supercapacitors (also known as ultracapacitors) are DC energy sources and must be interfaced to the electric grid with a static power conditioner, providing energy output at the grid frequency. A supercapacitor provides power during short duration interruptions or voltage sags. Medium size supercapacitors (1 MJoule) are commercially available to implement ridethrough capability in small electronic equipment, but large supercapacitors are still in development, but may soon become a viable component of the energy storage eld. Capacitance is very large because the distance between the plates is very small (several angstroms), and because the area of conductor surface (for instance of the activated carbon) reaches 1500-2000 m2 /g (16000-21500 ft2 /g). Thus, the energy stored by such capacitors may reach 50-60 J/g. 10.1.3 SMES

A magnetic eld is created by circulating a DC current in a closed coil of superconducting wire. The path of the coil circulating current can be opened with a solid-state switch, which is modulated on and o. Due to the high inductance of the coil, when the switch is o (open), the magnetic coil behaves as a current source and will force current into the power converter which will charge to some voltage level. Proper modulation of the solidstate switch can hold the voltage within the proper operating range of the inverter, which converts the DC voltage into AC power. Low temperature SMES cooled by liquid helium is commercially available. High temperature SMES cooled by liquid nitrogen is still in the development stage and may become a viable commercial energy storage source in the future due to its potentially lower costs. SMES systems are large and generally used for short durations, such as utility switching events.

Figure 2: SMES system

10.2

Enhanced Interface Devices

Using proper interface devices, one can isolate the loads from disturbances deriving from the grid. 10.2.1 Dynamic Voltage Restorer

A dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) acts like a voltage source connected in series with the load. The output voltage of the DVR is kept approximately constant voltage at the load terminals by using a step-up transformer and/or stored energy to inject active and reactive power in the output supply trough a voltage converter. 10.2.2 Transient Voltage Surge suppressors (TVSS)

Transient voltage surge suppressors are used as interface between the power source and sensitive loads, so that the transient voltage is clamped by the TVSS before it reaches the load. TVSSs usually contain a component with a nonlinear resistance (a metal oxide varistor or a zener diode) that limits excessive line voltage and conduct any excess impulse energy to ground. 10.2.3 Constant Voltage Transformers

Constant voltage transformers (CVT) were one of the rst PQ solutions used to mitigate the eects of voltage sags and transients. To maintain the voltage constant, they use two principles that are normally avoided: resonance and core saturation. When the resonance

Figure 3: Constant voltage transformer occurs, the current will increase to a point that causes the saturation of the magnetic core of the transformer. If the magnetic core is saturated, then the magnetic ux will remain roughly constant and the transformer will produce an approximately constant voltage output. If not properly used, a CVT will originate more PQ problems than the ones mitigated. It can produce transients, harmonics (voltage wave clipped on the top and sides) and 7

it is inecient (about 80% at full load). Its application is becoming uncommon due to technological advances in other areas. 10.2.4 Noise Filters

Noise lters are used to avoid unwanted frequency current or voltage signals (noise) from reaching sensitive equipment. This can be accomplished by using a combination of capacitors and inductances that creates a low impedance path to the fundamental frequency and high impedance to higher frequencies, that is, a low-pass lter. They should be used when noise with frequency in the kHz range is considerable. 10.2.5 Isolation Transformers

Isolation transformers are used to isolate sensitive loads from transients and noise deriving from the mains. In some cases (Delta-Wye connection) isolation transformers keep harmonic currents generated by loads from getting upstream the transformer. The particularity of isolation transformers is a grounded shield made of nonmagnetic foil located between the primary and the secondary. Any noise or transient that come from the source in transmitted through the capacitance between the primary and the shield and on to the ground and does not reach the load.

Figure 4: Isolation transformer.

10.2.6

Static VAR Compensators

Static VAR compensators (SVR) use a combination of capacitors and reactors to regulate the voltage quickly. Solid-state switches control the insertion of the capacitors and reactors at the right magnitude to prevent the voltage from uctuating. The main application of SVR is the voltage regulation in high voltage and the elimination of icker caused by large loads (such as induction furnaces). 10.2.7 Harmonic Filters

Harmonic lters are used to reduce undesirable harmonics. They can be divided in two groups: passive lters and active lters. Passive lters consist a low impedance path to the frequencies of the harmonics to be attenuated using passive components (inductors, capacitors and resistors). Several passive lters connected in parallel may be necessary to eliminate several harmonic components. If the system varies (change of harmonic components), passive lters may become ineective and cause resonance. Active lters analyse the current consumed by the load and create a current that cancel the harmonic current generated by the loads. Active lters were expensive in the past, but they are now becoming cost eective compensating for unknown or changing harmonics. 8

Figure 5: Harmonic lters

11

Conclusion

Power quality broadly encompasses the study of deviations in current and voltage waveforms from ideal sinewaves. The presence of these variations in the power-system can cause the destruction of the system or to the equipments connected to the system. So it is of prime importance to improve the power quality of the system. Energy storage systems and enhanced interface devices help to improve power quality or isolate the system from faults.

References
[1] Roger C.Dugan, Mark F. McGranaghan, Surya Santoso, H. Wayne Beaty Electrical Power Systems Quality, 2nd edition, TMH, New Delhi, 2008,pp. 11-31, pp. 518-520. [2] A. de Almeida, L. Moreira. J. Delgado, Power Quality Problems and New Solutions, ISR Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Coimbra, Portugal. [3] Masoud Aliakbar Golkar, Power Quality in Electric Networks: Monitoring, and Standards, Department of Electrical Engineering K N Toosi University of Technology, Tehran- Iran.