ABOUT PROJECT

The project is based on networking of computers to the internet or the connection of one computer to the other private networks.

Experts in the field of networking debate whether two or more computers are connected together to some form of communications medium constitute a network. Therefore some work state that network requires three connected computers. One such source, Telecommunications: Glossary of Telecommunication Terms states that the computer network is A network of data processing nodes that are interconnected for purpose of data communication.

This article uses the definition which requires two or more computers to be connected together to form a NETWORK.

This project is based on how the computers of or one branch and its head office are interconnected internally and externally to share the information and resources.

INTRODUCTIO N
2.1 What is a Network?

A network, often simply referred to as a computer network, is a collection of computers channels and that devices facilitates connected by communications communications

among users and allows users to share resources with other users. A computer network allows sharing of resources and information among devices connected to the network.

A computer network is a group of two or more computers connected to each electronically. This means that the computers can "talk" to each other and that every computer in the network can send information to the others.

In the world of computers, networking is the practice of linking

two or more computing devices together for the purpose of sharing data. Networks are built with a mix of computer hardware and computer software.

Fig 2.1: A Computer Network Thus networking is the practice of linking two or more computers or devices with each other. The connectivity can be wired or wireless. In a nutshell computer networking is the engineering discipline concerned with the communication between computer systems or devices. Computer networking is sometimes considered a subdiscipline of telecommunications, computer science, information technology and electronics engineering since it relies heavily upon the theoretical and practical application of these scientific and engineering disciplines. 2.2 Network Classification: As a computer network is a system for communication among two or more computers. Though there are numerous ways of classifying a network, the most popular categorization is by range, functional relationship, network topology and specialized function. 2.2.1 By Range:

Local area network (LAN):

A local area network

is a

network that connects computers and devices in a limited

geographical area such as home, school, computer laboratory, office building, or closely positioned group of buildings. Each computer or device on the network is a node. Current wired LANs are most likely to be based on Ethernet technology, although new standards like ITU-T G.hn also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing home wires (coaxial cables, phone lines and power lines).

Fig 2.2: A Typical Local Area Network All interconnected devices must understand the network layer (layer 3), because they are handling multiple subnets (the different colors). Those inside the library, which have only 10/100 Mbit/s Ethernet connections to the user device and a Gigabit Ethernet connection to the central router, could be called "layer 3 switches" because they only have Ethernet interfaces and must understand IP. It would be more correct to call them access routers, where the router at the top is a distribution router that connects to the Internet and academic networks' customer access routers. The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to WANs (Wide Area Networks), include

their higher data transfer rates, smaller geographic range, and no need for leased telecommunication lines. Current Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies operate at speeds up to 10 Gbit/s. This is the data transfer rate. IEEE has projects investigating the standardization of 40 and 100 Gbit/s.

Metropolitan area network (MAN): A metropolitan area network is a large computer network that usually spans a city or a large campus. A MAN usually interconnects a number of local area networks (LANs) using a high-capacity backbone technology, such as fiber-optical links, and provides up-link services to wide area networks and the Internet. A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a large computer network that spans a metropolitan area or campus. Its geographic scope falls between a WAN and LAN. MANs provide Internet connectivity for LANs in a metropolitan region, and connect them to wider area networks like the Internet.

Fig 2.3: A Simple MAN

Wide area network (WAN): The term Wide Area Network (WAN) usually refers to a network which covers a large geographical area, and use communications circuits to connect the intermediate nodes. A major factor impacting WAN design and performance is a requirement that they lease communications circuits from telephone companies or other communications carriers. Transmission rates are typically 2 Mbps, 34 Mbps, 45 Mbps, 155 Mbps, 625 Mbps (or sometimes considerably more). Numerous WANs have been constructed, including public packet networks, large corporate networks, military networks, banking networks, stock brokerage networks, and airline reservation networks. Some WANs are very extensive, spanning the globe, but most do not provide true global coverage. Organisations supporting WANs using the Internet Protocol are known as Network Service Providers (NSPs). These form the core of the Internet. By connecting the NSP WANs together using links at Internet Packet Interchanges (sometimes called "peering points") a global communication infrastructure is formed. NSPs do not generally handle individual customer accounts (except for the major corporate customers), but instead deal with intermediate organisations whom they can charge for high capacity communications. They generally have an agreement to exchange certain volumes of data at a certain "quality of service" with other NSPs. So practically any NSP can reach any other NSP, but may require the use of one or more other NSP networks to reach the required destination. NSPs vary in terms of the transit delay, transmission rate, and connectivity offered. Since radio

communications systems do not provide a physically secure connection path, WWANs typically incorporate encryption and authentication methods to make them more secure. Unfortunately some of the early GSM encryption techniques were flawed, and security experts have issued warnings that cellular communication, including WWAN, is no longer secure. UMTS (3G) encryption was developed later and has yet to be broken.

Personal area network (PAN): A personal area network is a computer network used for communication among computer devices, including telephones and personal digital assistants, in proximity to an individual's body. The devices may or may not belong to the person in question. The reach of a PAN is typically a few meters. PANs can be used for communication among the personal devices themselves (intrapersonal communication), or for connecting to a higher level network and the Internet (an uplink). Personal area networks may be wired with computer buses such as USB and FireWire. A wireless personal area network (WPAN) can also be made possible with network technologies such as IrDA, Bluetooth, UWB, Z-Wave and ZigBee.

Fig 2.4: Personal Area Network

Virtual Private Network (VPN): A virtual private network (VPN) is a computer network in which some of the links between nodes are carried by open connections or virtual circuits in some larger network (e.g., the Internet) instead of by physical wires. The data link layer protocols of the virtual network are said to be tunnelled through the larger network when this is the case. One common application is secure communications through the public Internet, but a VPN need not have explicit security features, such as authentication or content encryption. VPNs, for example, can be used to separate the traffic of different user communities over an underlying network with strong security features. A VPN may have besteffort performance, or may have a defined service level agreement (SLA) between the VPN customer and the VPN service provider. Generally, a VPN has a topology more complex than point-to-point.

Fig 2.5: VPN used to interconnect 3 office and Remote users 2.2.2 By Functional Relationship:

Client-server: distributed

Client-server

model that

of

computing

is

a or

application

structure

partitions

tasks

workloads between service providers, called servers, and service requesters, called clients. Often clients and servers communicate over a computer network on separate hardware, but both client and server may reside in the same system. A server machine is a host that is running one or more server programs which share its resources with clients. A client does not share any of its resources, but requests a server's content or service function. Clients therefore initiate communication sessions with servers which await incoming requests. The characteristics of the transmission facilities lead to an emphasis on efficiency of communications techniques in the design of WANs. Controlling the volume of traffic and avoiding excessive delays is important. Since the topologies of WANs are likely to

be more complex than those of LANs, routing algorithms also receive more emphasis. Many WANs also implement sophisticated monitoring procedures to account for which users consume the network resources.

Fig 2.6: Client-Server Setup

Peer-to-peer: A peer-to-peer, commonly abbreviated to P2P, is any distributed network architecture composed of participants that make a portion of their resources (such as processing power, disk storage or network bandwidth) directly available to other network participants, without the need for central coordination instances (such as servers or stable hosts). Peers are both suppliers and consumers of resources, in contrast to the traditional clientserver model where only servers supply, and clients have consume. inspired Peer-to-peer was and popularized by file sharing systems like Napster. Peer-to-peer file sharing networks new structures philosophies in other areas of human interaction. In such social contexts, peer-to-peer as a meme refers to the egalitarian social networking that is currently emerging throughout society, enabled by Internet technologies in general. P2P networks are typically used for connecting nodes via largely ad

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hoc connections. Sharing content files containing audio, video, data or anything in digital format is very common, and real time data, such as telephony traffic, is also passed using P2P technology.

Fig 2.7 A Peer to Peer Network

2.3 Elements of a Network:

A network element is usually defined as a manageable logical entity uniting one or more physical devices. This allows distributed devices to be managed in a unified way using one management system. Elements of the network include the entities on which the network runs upon. This includes routers, switches, hubs, bridges, network cards, repeaters, filters, modems, connecting cables. All of these network components are discussed in detail below:

ROUTERS: A router is a device that interconnects two or more computer networks, and selectively interchanges packets of data between them. Each data packet contains address information that a router can use to determine if the source and destination are on the same network, or if the data packet must be transferred from one network to another. Where multiple routers are used in a large collection of interconnected

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networks, the routers exchange information about target system addresses, so that each router can build up a table showing the preferred paths between any two systems on the interconnected networks. A router is a networking device whose software and hardware are customized to the tasks of routing and forwarding information. A router has two or more network interfaces, which may be to different physical types of network or different network standards. Each network interface is a small computer specialized to convert electric signals from one form to another. Routers connect two or more logical subnets, which do not share a common network address. The subnets in the router do not necessarily map one-to-one to the physical interfaces of the router. The term "layer 3 switching" is used with the term "routing". The term switching is generally used to refer to data forwarding between two network devices that share a common network address. This is also called layer 2 switching or LAN switching.

Fig 2.13: Cisco 3640 Routers

SWITCHES: A network switch or switching hub is a computer networking device that connects network segments. Switches may operate at one or more OSI layers, including physical, data

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link, network, or transport (i.e., end-to-end). A device that operates simultaneously at more than one of these layers is known as a multilayer switch. In switches intended for commercial use, built-in or modular interfaces make it possible to connect different types of networks, including Ethernet, Fibre Channel, ATM, ITU-T G.hn and 802.11. This connectivity can be at any of the layers mentioned. While Layer 2 functionality is adequate for speed-shifting within one technology, interconnecting technologies such as Ethernet and token ring are easier at Layer 3. Interconnection of different Layer 3 networks is done by routers. If there are any features that characterize "Layer-3 switches" as opposed to general-purpose routers, it tends to be that they are optimized, in larger switches, for high-density Ethernet connectivity.

Fig 2.14: Cisco Catalyst Switches

HUBS: A hub, essentially an network hub is a device for connecting multiple twisted pair or fiber optic Ethernet devices together and making them act as a single network segment. Hubs work at the physical layer (layer 1) of the OSI model. The

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device is a form of multiport repeater. Repeater hubs also participate in collision detection, forwarding a jam signal to all ports if it detects a collision. A network hub is a fairly unsophisticated broadcast device. Hubs do not manage any of the traffic that comes through them, and any packet entering any port is broadcast out on all other ports. Since every packet is being sent out through all other ports, packet collisions result which greatly impedes the smooth flow of traffic. The need for hosts to be able to detect collisions limits the number of hubs and the total size of a network built using hubs (a network built using switches does not have these limitations). For 10 Mbit/s networks, up to 5 segments (4 hubs) are allowed between any two end stations. For 100 Mbit/s networks, the limit is reduced to 3 segments (2 hubs) between any two end stations, and even that is only allowed if the hubs are of the low delay variety. Some specific) hubs stack have ports special (and generally to be manufacturer allowing them

combined in a way that allows more hubs than simple chaining through Ethernet cables, but even so, a large Fast Ethernet network is likely to require switches to avoid the chaining limits of hubs.

Fig 2.15: A Simple Hub

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BRIDGES:

Network

Bridge

connects

multiple

network

segments at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model. In Ethernet networks, the term Bridge formally means a device that behaves according to the IEEE 802.1D standard. A bridge and switch are very much alike; a switch being a bridge with numerous ports. Switch or Layer 2 switch is often used interchangeably with Bridge. Bridges are similar to repeaters or network hubs, devices that connect network segments at the physical layer; however, with bridging, traffic from one network is managed rather than simply rebroadcast to adjacent network segments. Bridges are more complex than hubs or repeaters. Bridges can analyze incoming data packets to determine if the bridge is able to send the given packet to another segment of the network.

Fig 2.16: A Network Bridge

REPEATERs: A network repeater is a device used to expand the boundaries of a wired or wireless (Wi-Fi) local area network (LAN). In the past, wired network repeaters were used to join segments of Ethernet cable. The repeaters would amplify the data signals before sending them on to the uplinked segment, thereby countering signal decay that occurs over extended lengths of wire. Modern Ethernet networks use more

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sophisticated switching devices, leaving the wireless flavour of the network repeater a more popular device for use with wireless LANs (WLANs) at work and home. Another option is to setup a network repeater on the lower floor, halfway between the basement and the upstairs office. The repeater should magnify the signal enough to get good coverage in the upstairs floor. If the building is quite large, several network repeaters can be placed strategically to draw the signal where required, though this concept has its limits. Devices communicating with an intermediate network repeater will have lower performance stats than those communicating directly with the router. This becomes more of an issue as additional repeaters are used in line.

Fig 2.17: Network Repeaters

MODEMS: A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates an analog carrier signal to encode digital information, and also demodulates such a carrier signal to decode the transmitted information. The goal is to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded to reproduce the original digital data. Modems can be used over any means of transmitting analog signals, from driven diodes to radio. The most familiar example is a voice band modem that turns the

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digital data of a personal computer into analog audio signals that can be transmitted over a telephone line, and once received on the other side, a modem converts the analog data back into digital. Modems are generally classified by the amount of data they can send in a given time, normally measured in bits per second (bit/s, or bps). They can also be classified by Baud, the number of times the modem changes its signal state per second. A simple type of a modem is shown below in the figure:

Fig 2.18: Modem

NETWORK Cables: Communication is the process of transferring signals from one point to another and there must be some medium to transfer those signals. In computer networking and especially in the local area networking, there are certain communication mediums. This section provides the basic overview of the network cables, LAN communication system and other transmission mediums in LAN and WAN. Today many standardized communication cables and communication devices are in use the according to the needs of a computer network. LAN data communication systems there are different types of cables are used. The most common types of the LAN

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cables are the Ethernet UTP/STP cables. An Ethernet cable is a twisted pair cable that is consist of eight cables that are paired together to make four pairs. A RJ-45 connector is joined with both ends of the cables and one end of the connector is connected with the LAN card of the computer and the other end of the cable is connected with the hub or switch. Cable testers are used to test the performance of each cable. The preferable cable in the Ethernet networking is the 100baseT, which provides the best communication speed. UTP/STP is a standardize cable in which data is transferred which provides the transmission speed of 10/100 mbps. The most commonly used cable in the star topology is the UTP/STP cable. UTP/STP cables are same in functionality only a slight difference is that an extra protective silver coated layer surrounds the cable. UPT/STP cables are further divided into straight over and cross over cables. The most common use of the UTP/STP cables is the serial transmission, Ethernet, ISDN, fixed and modular interfaces in the WAN networking. Straight over cables are used to connect the computer with thub or switch and cross over cable is used to connect hub with a hub or with switch.

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Fig 2.19: Types of Cables Coaxial cables are also used in the microwave frequencies but there not as popular as other cables. The most advanced form of the communication cables is the fiber optic cable. Fiber optic cables are designed for high speed data communication for the corporate offices and ISPs, backbones and in the telecommunication industry. Fiber optic cable acts as a backbone cable when it connects two ISPs with each other. In the internet communication, there is a major role of the fiber optic cable, which acts as a backbone. There is another type of cable which is called Twisted Pair cable that is used connect the consoles cables. of the Cisco Routers and switches and RJ-45 connectors are used to at the both ends of the twisted pair

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NETWORK MODELS
Network models define a set of network layers and how they interact. There are several different network models depending on what organization or company started them. The most important two are:

The TCP/IP Model - This model is sometimes called the DOD model since it was designed for the department of defence. It is also called the internet model because TCP/IP is the protocol used on the internet. OSI Network Model - The International Standards Organization (ISO) has defined a standard called the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model. This is a seven layer architecture listed in the next section.

2.4.1 The TCP/IP Model:

The TCP/IP model is a description framework for computer network protocols created in the 1970s by DARPA, an agency of the United States Department of Defense. It evolved from ARPANET, which were the world's first wide area network and a predecessor of the Internet. The TCP/IP Model is sometimes called the Internet Model or the DoD Model. The TCP/IP model, or Internet Protocol Suite, describes a of set of general design guidelines to and implementations end connectivity specific networking how data protocols should be enable

computers to communicate over a network. TCP/IP provides end-tospecifying formatted,

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addressed, transmitted, routed and received at the destination. Protocols exist for a variety of different types of communication services between computers.

Fig 2.20: TCP/IP Model

Layers in the TCP/IP Model:

The layers near the top are logically closer to the user

application, while those near the bottom are logically closer to the physical transmission of the data. Viewing layers as providing or consuming a service is a method of abstraction to isolate upper layer protocols from the nitty-gritty detail of transmitting bits over, for example, Ethernet and collision detection, while the lower layers avoid having to know the details of each and every application and its protocol. The following is a description of each layer in the TCP/IP networking model starting from the lowest level:
i.

Data Link Layer: The Data Link Layer is the networking scope of the local network connection to which a host is attached. This regime is called the link in Internet literature. This is the lowest component layer of the Internet protocols, as TCP/IP is designed

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to be hardware independent. As a result TCP/IP has been implemented on top of virtually any hardware networking technology in existence. The Data Link Layer is used to move packets between the Internet Layer interfaces of two different hosts on the same link. The processes of transmitting and receiving packets on a given link can be controlled both in the software device driver for the network card, as well as on firmware or specialized chipsets. These will perform data link functions such as adding a packet header to prepare it for transmission, and then actually transmit the frame over a physical medium.
ii.

Network Layer: The Network Layer solves the problem of sending packets across one or more networks. Internetworking requires sending data from the source network to the destination network. This process is called routing. In the Internet Protocol Suite, the Internet Protocol performs two basic functions: Host addressing and identification and Packet routing. IP can carry data for a number of different upper layer protocols. These protocols are each identified by a unique protocol number: for example, Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) and Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) are protocols 1 and 2, respectively.

Transport Layer: The Transport Layer's responsibilities include end-to-end message transfer capabilities independent of the underlying network, along with error control, segmentation, flow control, congestion control, and application addressing (port numbers). End to at end the message transport transmission layer can or be connecting applications

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categorized as either connection-oriented, implemented in Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), or connectionless, implemented in User Datagram Protocol (UDP). The Transport Layer can be thought of as a transport mechanism, e.g., a vehicle with the responsibility to make sure that its contents (passengers/goods) reach their destination safely and soundly, unless another protocol layer is responsible for safe delivery. The Transport Layer provides this service of connecting applications through the use of service ports. Since IP provides only a best effort delivery, the Transport Layer is the first layer of the TCP/IP stack to offer reliability. IP can run over a reliable data link protocol such as the HighLevel Data Link Control (HDLC). Protocols above transport, such as RPC, also can provide reliability. Application Layer: The TCP/IP network interface layer provides network functions such as frame synchronization, media access, and error control. It is sometimes referred to as the network access layer, and is roughly equivalent to the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model's data link layer. The network interface layer's functionality is divided between the network interface carddriver combination and the low-level protocol stack driver. Application Layer protocols generally treat the transport layer (and lower) protocols as "black boxes" which provide a stable network connection across which to communicate, although the applications are usually aware of key qualities of the transport layer connection such as the end point IP addresses and port numbers. As noted

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above, layers are not necessarily clearly defined in the Internet protocol suite.

1.4.2 OSI Reference Network Model: The Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model describes how information from a software application in one computer moves through a network medium to a software application in another computer. The OSI reference model is a conceptual model composed of seven layers, each specifying particular network functions. The model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered the primary architectural model for intercomputer communications. The OSI model divides the tasks involved with moving information between networked computers into seven smaller, more manageable task groups. A task or group of tasks is then assigned to each of the seven OSI layers. Each layer is reasonably self-contained so that the tasks assigned to each layer can be implemented independently. This enables the solutions offered by one layer to be updated without adversely affecting the other layers. The following diagram details the seven layers of the Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model:

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Fig 2.21: The OSI Reference Model Showing Seven Layers

Characteristics of the OSI Layers:

The seven layers of the OSI reference model can be divided into two categories: upper layers and lower layers. The upper layers of the OSI model deal with application issues and generally are implemented only in software. The highest layer, the application layer, is closest to the end user. Both users and application layer processes interact with software applications that contain a communications component. The term upper layer is sometimes used to refer to any layer above another layer in the OSI model. The lower layers of the OSI model handle data transport issues. The lowest layer, the physical layer, is closest to the physical network medium and is responsible for actually placing information on the medium.

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Fig 2.22: Two Sets of Layers Make Up the OSI Layers

Description of the OSI Layers:

I.

Physical

Layer: for

It

defines devices.

the In

electrical it

and

physical the

specifications

particular,

defines

relationship between a device and a physical medium. Physical layer specifications define characteristics such as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, and physical connectors. Physical layer implementations can be categorized as either LAN or WAN specifications. The major functions and services performed by the Physical Layer are establishment and termination of a connection to a communications medium, Participation in the process whereby the communication resources are effectively shared among multiple users, modulation and conversion between the representation of digital data in user equipment and the corresponding signals transmitted over a communications channel.
II.

Data Link Layer: The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical network link. Different data link layer specifications characteristics, define different network and protocol network including physical addressing,

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topology, error notification, sequencing of frames, and flow control. Physical addressing (as opposed to network addressing) defines how devices are addressed at the data link layer. Network topology consists of the data link layer specifications that often define how devices are to be physically connected, such as in a bus or a ring topology. Error notification alerts upper-layer protocols that a transmission error has occurred, and the sequencing of data frames reorders frames that are transmitted out of sequence. Finally, flow control moderates the transmission of data so that the receiving device is not overwhelmed with more traffic than it can handle at one time.
III.

Network Layer: The network layer defines the network address, which differs from the MAC address. Some network layer implementations, such as the Internet Protocol (IP), define network addresses in a way that route selection can be determined systematically by comparing the source network address with the destination network address and applying the subnet mask. Because this layer defines the logical network layout, routers can use this layer to determine how to forward packets. Because of this, much of the design and configuration work for internetworks happens at Layer 3, the network layer.

IV.

Transport Layer: The transport layer accepts data from the session layer and segments the data for transport across the network. Generally, the transport layer is responsible for making sure that the data is delivered error-free and in the proper sequence. Flow control generally occurs at the transport layer. Flow control manages data transmission between devices

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so that the transmitting device does not send more data than the receiving device can process. Multiplexing enables data from several applications to be transmitted onto a single physical link. Virtual circuits are established, maintained, and terminated by the transport layer. Error checking involves creating various mechanisms for detecting transmission errors, while error recovery involves acting, such as requesting that data be retransmitted, to resolve any errors that occur.
V.

Session Layer: The session layer establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions. Communication sessions consist of service requests and service responses that occur between applications located in different network devices. These requests and responses are coordinated by protocols implemented at the session layer. Some examples of sessionlayer implementations include Zone Information Protocol (ZIP), the AppleTalk protocol that coordinates the name binding process; and Session Control Protocol (SCP), the DECnet Phase IV session layer protocol.

VI.

Presentation

Layer:

The

system.

Some

examples

of

presentation layer coding and conversion schemes include presentation layer provides a variety of coding and conversion functions that are applied to application layer data. These functions ensure that information sent from the application layer of one system would be readable by the application layer of another common data representation formats, conversion of character representation formats, common data compression schemes, and common data encryption schemes. Common data representation formats, or the use of standard image,

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sound, and video formats, enable the interchange of application data between different types of computer systems. Conversion schemes are used to exchange information with systems by using different text and data representations, such as EBCDIC and ASCII. Standard data compression schemes enable data that is compressed at the source device to be properly decompressed at the destination. Standard data encryption schemes enable data encrypted at the source device to be properly deciphered at the destination. VII. Application Layer: The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means that both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component. Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application layer functions typically include identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication.

4.5 Major Routing Protocols:

4.5.1 RIP The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a dynamic routing

protocol used in local and wide area networks. As such it is classified as an interior gateway protocol (IGP). It uses the distance-vector routing algorithm. It was first defined in RFC 1058 (1988). The

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protocol has since been extended several times, resulting in RIP Version 2 (RFC 2453). Both versions are still in use today, however, they are considered to have been made technically obsolete by more advanced techniques such as Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) and the OSI protocol IS-IS. RIP has also been adapted for use in IPv6 networks, a standard known as RIPng (RIP next generation), published in RFC 2080 (19974.5.1.3 Versions There are three versions of the Routing Information

Protocol: RIPv1, RIPv2, and RIPng. RIP version 1 The original specification of RIP, defined in RFC

1058, uses classful routing. The periodic routing updates do not carry subnet information, lacking support for variable length subnet masks (VLSM). This limitation makes it impossible to have differentsized subnets inside of the same network class. In other words, all subnets in a network class must have the same size. There is also no support for router authentication, making RIP vulnerable to various attacks. The RIP version 1 works when there is only 16 hop counts (0-15).If there is more than 16 hops between two routers it fails to send data packets to the destination address. RIP version 2 Due to the deficiencies of the original RIP specification, RIP version 2 (RIPv2) was developed in 1993 and last standardized in 1998. It included the ability to carry subnet information, thus supporting Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR). To maintain backward compatibility, the hop count limit of 15 remained. RIPv2

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has facilities to fully interoperate with the earlier specification if all Must Be Zero protocol fields in the RIPv1 messages are properly specified. In addition, a compatibility switch feature allows finegrained interoperability adjustments. In an effort to avoid unnecessary load on hosts that do not participate in routing, RIPv2 multicasts the entire routing table to all adjacent routers at the address 224.0.0.9, as opposed to RIPv1 which uses broadcast. Unicast addressing is still allowed for special applications.

RIPng RIPng (RIP next generation), defined in RFC 2080, is an extension of RIPv2 for support of IPv6, the next generation Internet Protocol. The main differences between RIPv2 and RIPng are:

Support of IPv6 networking. While RIPv2 supports RIPv1 updates authentication, RIPng does not. IPv6 routers were, at the time, supposed to use IPSec for authentication.

RIPv2 allows attaching arbitrary tags to routes, RIPng does not; RIPv2 encodes the next-hop into each route entries; RIPng requires specific encoding of the next hop for a set of route entries. 4.5.2 Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP)

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Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) is a distance vector interior routing protocol (IGP) invented by Cisco. It is used by routers to exchange routing data within an autonomous system. IGRP is a proprietary protocol. IGRP was created in part to overcome the limitations of RIP (maximum hop count of only 15, and a single routing metric) when used within large networks. IGRP supports multiple metrics for each route, including bandwidth, delay, load, MTU, and reliability; to compare two routes these metrics are combined together into a single metric, using a formula which can be adjusted through the use of pre-set constants. The maximum hop count of IGRP-routed packets is 255 (default 100), and routing updates are broadcast every 90 seconds (by default). IGRP is considered a classful routing protocol. Because the protocol has no field for a subnet mask, the router assumes that all interface addresses within the same Class A, Class B, or Class C network have the same subnet mask as the subnet mask configured for the interfaces in question. This contrasts with classless routing protocols that can use variable length subnet masks. Classful protocols have become less popular as they are wasteful of IP address space

4.5.3 OPEN SHORTEST PATH FIRST (OSPF): Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a dynamic routing protocol for use in Internet Protocol (IP) networks. Specifically, it is a linkstate routing protocol and falls into the group of interior gateway protocols, operating within a single autonomous system (AS). It is defined as OSPF Version 2 in RFC 2328 (1998) for IPv4. The updates for IPv6 are specified as OSPF Version 3 in RFC 5340 (2008).

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4.5.3.2 Neighbour relationships

Routers in the same broadcast domain or at each end of a point-to-point telecommunications link form adjacencies when they have detected each other. This detection occurs when a router identifies itself in a hello OSPF protocol packet. This is called a two way state and is the most basic relationship. The routers in an Ethernet or frame relay network select a designated router (DR) and a backup designated router (BDR) which act as a hub to reduce traffic between routers. OSPF uses both Unicast and multicast to send "hello packets" and link state updates. As a link state routing protocol, OSPF establishes and maintains neighbour relationships in order to exchange routing updates with other routers. The neighbour relationship table is called an adjacency database in OSPF. Provided that OSPF is configured correctly, OSPF forms neighbour relationships only with the routers directly connected to it. In order to form a neighbour relationship between two routers, the interfaces used to form the relationship must be in the same area. An interface can only belong to a single area.

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4.5.3.3 Area types in OSPF:

Backbone area The backbone area (also known as area 0 or area 0.0.0.0) forms the core of an OSPF network. All other areas are connected to it, and inter-area routing happens via routers connected to the backbone area and to their own associated areas. It is the logical and physical structure for the 'OSPF domain' and is attached to all nonzero areas in the OSPF domain. Note that in OSPF the term Autonomous System Boundary Router (ASBR) is historic, in the sense that many OSPF domains can coexist in the same Internetvisible autonomous system, RFC1996.

Stub area A stub area is an area which does not receive route advertisements external to the autonomous system (AS) and routing from within the area is based entirely on a default route. This reduces the size of the routing databases for the area's internal routers.

ROUTING:
4.1 Definition:

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Routing (or routeing) is the process of selecting paths in a network along which to send network traffic. Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including the telephone network, electronic data networks (such as the Internet), and transportation networks. Here we are concerned primarily with routing in electronic data networks using packet switching technology In packet switching networks, routing directs packet forwarding, the transit of logically addressed packets from their source toward their ultimate destination through intermediate nodes; typically hardware devices called routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or switches. Generalpurpose computers with multiple network cards can also forward packets and perform routing, though they are not specialized hardware and may suffer from limited performance. The routing process usually directs forwarding on the basis of routing tables which maintain a record of the routes to various network destinations. Thus, constructing routing tables, which are held in the routers' memory, is very important for efficient routing. Most routing algorithms use only one network path at a time, but multipath routing techniques enable the use of multiple alternative paths. In more narrow sense its of term, Routing is often contrasted with bridging in assumption that network addresses are

structured and that similar addresses imply proximity within the network. Because structured addresses allow a single routing table entry to represent the route to a group of devices, structured addressing (routing, in the narrow sense) outperforms unstructured addressing (bridging) in large networks, and has become the dominant form of addressing on the Internet, though bridging is still widely used within localized environment

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4.2 Routing Schemes:

There are the following types of schemes with which we can select the routes from our source to the destination network. They are as follows: Any cast delivers a message to any one out of a group of nodes, typically the one nearest to the system

Fig 4.1: Any cast Broadcast delivers a message to all nodes in the network

Fig 4.2: Broadcast Multicast delivers a message to a group of nodes that have expressed interest in receiving the message

Fig 4.3: Multicast Unicast delivers a message to a single specified node

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Fig 4.4: Unicast Geocast sends or delivers data packets into all nodes in a specified geographic area.

Fig 4.5 Geocast

4.3 Classification of Routing:

Routing can be classified on the basis of route telling scheme to the router about neighbouring networks. This can be done in two ways, either we can tell the router about the neighbouring networks statically or they can be told dynamically. Hence the classification comes out to be: Static routing and dynamic routing 4.3.1 Static routing: Small networks may involve manually configured routing tables (static routing) or Non-Adaptive routing, while larger networks involve complex topologies and may change rapidly, making the manual construction of routing tables unfeasible. Nevertheless, most of the public switched telephone network (PSTN) uses pre-computed

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routing tables, with fallback routes if the most direct route becomes blocked (see routing in the PSTN). For (static routing) or NonAdaptive routing there is no algorithm, and is manually engineered. The advantage of this routing type is maximum computing resources are saved but are conditioned. Networks have to be prepared for disaster, by additional planning.

4.3.2 Dynamic routing:

Adaptive routing or Dynamic routing attempts to solve this problem by constructing routing tables automatically, based on information carried by routing protocols, and allowing the network to act nearly autonomously in avoiding network failures and blockages. For larger networks, static routing is avoided. Examples for (Dynamic routing) or Adaptive routing algorithms are Routing Information Protocol (RIP), Open Shortest Path First (OSPF). Dynamic routing dominates the Internet. However, the configuration of the routing protocols often requires a skilled touch; one should not suppose that networking technology has developed to the point of the complete automation of routing. Dynamic routing is further classified into different algorithms which can be classified on the basis of the method on which any routing protocol decides the path either on the basis of distance or on the basis of processing done by CPU. This classification is as follows:

4.3.2.1 Distance vector algorithms:

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Distance

vector

algorithms use

the Bellman-Ford algorithm.

This approach assigns a number, the cost, to each of the links between each node in the network. Nodes will send information from point A to point B via the path that results in the lowest total cost (i.e. the sum of the costs of the links between the nodes used). The algorithm operates in a very simple manner. When a node first starts, it only knows of its immediate neighbours, and the direct cost involved in reaching them. Each node, on a regular basis, sends to each neighbour its own current idea of the total cost to get to all the destinations it knows of. The neighbouring node(s) examine this information, and compare it to what they already 'know'; anything which represents an improvement on what they already have, they insert in their own routing table(s). Over time, all the nodes in the network will discover the best next hop for all destinations, and the best total cost. When one of the nodes involved goes down, those nodes which used it as their next hop for certain destinations discard those entries, and create new routing-table information. They then pass this information to all adjacent nodes, which then repeat the process. 4.3.2.2 Link-state algorithms: When applying link-state algorithms, each node uses as its fundamental data a map of the network in the form of a graph. To produce this, each node floods the entire network with information about what other nodes it can connect to, and each node then independently assembles this information into a map. Using this map, each router then independently determines the least-cost path from itself to every such other node using a standard shortest The result is paths algorithm as Dijkstra's algorithm.

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a tree rooted at the current node such that the path through the tree from the root to any other node is the least-cost path to that node. This tree then serves to construct the routing table, which specifies the best next hop to get from the current node to any other node.

4.3.3 Comparison of routing algorithms

Distance-vector routing protocols are simple and efficient in small networks, and require little, if any management. However, distance-vector algorithms do not scale well (due to the count-toinfinity problem), have poor convergence properties and are based on a 'hop count' metric rather than a 'link-state' metric thus they ignore bandwidth (a major drawback) when calculating the best path. This has led to the development of more complex but more scalable algorithms for use in large networks. Interior routing mostly uses link-state routing protocols such as OSPF and IS-IS. A more recent development is that of loop-free distance-vector protocols (e.g. EIGRP). Loop-free distance-vector protocols are as robust and manageable as distance-vector protocols, while avoiding counting to infinity and hence having good worst-case convergence times. Path selection involves applying a routing metric to multiple routes, in order to select (or predict) the best route. In the case of computer delay, hop networking, count, the metric cost, is computed load, MTU, by a routing and algorithm, and can cover such information as bandwidth, network path reliability,

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communication cost (see e.g. this survey for a list of proposed routing metrics). The routing table stores only the best possible routes, while link-state or topological databases may store all other information as well. Because a routing metric is specific to a given routing protocol, multi-protocol routers must use some external heuristic in order to select between routes learned from different routing protocols. Cisco's routers, for example, attribute a value known as the administrative distance to each route, where smaller administrative distances indicate routes learned from a supposedly more reliable protocol. A local network administrator, in special cases, can set up host-specific routes to a particular machine which provides more control over network usage, permits testing and better overall security. In some networks, routing is complicated by the fact that no single entity is responsible for selecting paths: instead, multiple entities are involved in selecting paths or even parts of a single path. Complications or inefficiency can result if these entities choose may paths to selfishly with the optimize objectives their of own other objectives, which conflict

participants. A classic example involves traffic in a road system, in which each driver selfishly picks a path which minimizes their own travel time. With such selfish routing, the equilibrium routes can be longer all than optimal The for all is drivers. In particular, Braess into autonomous paradox shows that adding a new road can lengthen travel times for drivers. Internet partitioned systems (ASs) such as internet service providers (ISPs), each of which has control over routes involving its network, at multiple levels. First, AS-level paths are selected via the BGP protocol, which

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produces a sequence of ASs through which packets will flow. Each AS may have multiple paths, offered by neighboring ASs, from which to choose. Its decision often involves business relationships with this neighboring ASs, which may be unrelated to path quality or latency. Second, once an AS-level path has been selected, there are often multiple corresponding router-level paths, in part because two ISPs may be connected in multiple locations. In choosing the single router-level path, it is common practice for each ISP to employ hotpotato routing: sending traffic along the path that minimizes the distance through the ISP's own networkeven if that path lengthens the total distance to the destination.

4.4 Routing Protocol Basics:

4.4.1 Administrative distance
The administrative distance (AD) is used to rate the trustworthiness of routing information received on a router from a neighbour router. An administrative distance is an integer from 0 to 255, where 0 is the most trusted and 255 means no traffic will be passed via this route. If a router receives two updates listing the same remote network, the first thing the router checks is the AD. If one of the advertised routes has a lower AD than the other, then the

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route with the lowest AD will be placed in the routing table. If both advertised routes to the same network have the same AD, then routing protocol metrics will be used to find the best path to the remote network. The advertised route with the lowest metric will be placed in the routing table. Route source Connected Static route EIGRP RIP IGRP OSPF External EIGRP Unknown Default AD 0 1 90 120 100 110 170 255 (this route will never be used) Table 4.1: Administrative Distances 4.5 Major Routing Protocols: 4.5.1 RIP The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a dynamic routing protocol used in local and wide area networks. As such it is classified as an interior gateway protocol (IGP). It uses the distance-vector routing algorithm. It was first defined in RFC 1058 (1988). The protocol has since been extended several times, resulting in RIP Version 2 (RFC 2453). Both versions are still in use today, however, they are considered to have been made technically obsolete by more advanced techniques such as Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

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and the OSI protocol IS-IS. RIP has also been adapted for use in IPv6 networks, a standard known as RIPng (RIP next generation), published in RFC 2080 (1997).

4.5.1.1 History
The routing algorithm used in RIP, the Bellman-Ford algorithm, was first deployed in a computer network in 1967, as the initial routing algorithm of the ARPANET. The earliest version of the specific protocol that became RIP was the Gateway Information Protocol, part of the PARC Universal Packet internetworking protocol suite, developed at Xerox Parc. A later version, named the Routing Information Protocol, was part of Xerox Network Systems. A version of RIP which supported the Internet Protocol (IP) was later included in the Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) of the UNIX operating system. It was known as the routed daemon. Various other vendors would create their own implementations of the routing protocol. Eventually, RFC 1058 unified the various implementations under a single standard. 4.5.1.2 Technical details RIP is a distance-vector routing protocol, which employs

the hop count as a routing metric. The hold down time is 180 seconds. RIP prevents routing loops by implementing a limit on the number of hops allowed in a path from the source to a destination. The maximum number of hops allowed for RIP is 15. This hop limit, however, also limits the size of networks that RIP can support. A hop count of 16 is considered an infinite distance and used to deprecate inaccessible, inoperable, or otherwise undesirable routes in the

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selection

process.

RIP

implements

the split

horizon, route

poisoning and hold down mechanisms to prevent incorrect routing information from being propagated. These are some of the stability features of RIP. It is also possible to use the so called RIP-MTI algorithm to cope with the count to infinity problem. With its help, it's possible to detect every possible loop with a very small computation effort. Originally each RIP router transmitted full updates every 30 seconds. In the early deployments, routing tables were small enough that the traffic was not significant. As networks grew in size, however, it became evident there could be a massive traffic burst every 30 seconds, even if the routers had been initialized at random times. RIP is implemented on top of the User Datagram Protocol as its transport protocol. It is assigned the reserved port number 520. 4.5.1.3 Versions There are three versions of the Routing Information

Protocol: RIPv1, RIPv2, and RIPng. RIP version 1 The original specification of RIP, defined in RFC

1058, uses classful routing. The periodic routing updates do not carry subnet information, lacking support for variable length subnet masks (VLSM). This limitation makes it impossible to have differentsized subnets inside of the same network class. In other words, all subnets in a network class must have the same size. There is also no support for router authentication, making RIP vulnerable to various attacks. The RIP version 1 works when there is only 16 hop counts

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(0-15).If there is more than 16 hops between two routers it fails to send data packets to the destination address. RIP version 2 Due to the deficiencies of the original RIP specification, RIP version 2 (RIPv2) was developed in 1993 and last standardized in 1998. It included the ability to carry subnet information, thus supporting Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR). To maintain backward compatibility, the hop count limit of 15 remained. RIPv2 has facilities to fully interoperate with the earlier specification if all Must Be Zero protocol fields in the RIPv1 messages are properly specified. In addition, a compatibility switch feature allows finegrained interoperability adjustments. In an effort to avoid unnecessary load on hosts that do not participate in routing, RIPv2 multicasts the entire routing table to all adjacent routers at the address 224.0.0.9, as opposed to RIPv1 which uses broadcast. Unicast addressing is still allowed for special applications. RIPng RIPng (RIP next generation), defined in RFC 2080, is an extension of RIPv2 for support of IPv6, the next generation Internet Protocol. The main differences between RIPv2 and RIPng are:

Support of IPv6 networking. While RIPv2 supports RIPv1 updates authentication, RIPng does not. IPv6 routers were, at the time, supposed to use IPSec for authentication.

RIPv2 allows attaching arbitrary tags to routes, RIPng does not;

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RIPv2 encodes the next-hop into each route entries; RIPng requires specific encoding of the next hop for a set of route entries.

4.5.1.4 Limitations

Without using RIP-MTI, Hop count cannot exceed 15, in case if it exceeds it will be considered invalid.

Most RIP networks are flat. There is no concept of areas or boundaries in RIP networks.

Variable Length Subnet Masks were not supported by RIP version 1.

Without using RIP-MTI, RIP has slow convergence and count to infinity problems.

4.5.1.5 Implementations

Routed, included in most BSD Unix systems. Routing and Remote Access, a Windows Server feature,

contains RIP support.

Quagga,

a free open

source routing

software

suite

based

on GNU Zebra.

OpenBSD, includes a RIP implementation Cisco IOS, software used in Cisco routers (supports version 1, version 2 and RIPng)

Cisco NX-OS software used in Cisco Nexus data center switches (supports RIPv1 and RIPv2)

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4.5.2 Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) is a distance vector interior routing protocol (IGP) invented by Cisco. It is used by routers to exchange routing data within an autonomous system. IGRP is a proprietary protocol. IGRP was created in part to overcome the limitations of RIP (maximum hop count of only 15, and a single routing metric) when used within large networks. IGRP supports multiple metrics for each route, including bandwidth, delay, load, MTU, and reliability; to compare two routes these metrics are combined together into a single metric, using a formula which can be adjusted through the use of pre-set constants. The maximum hop count of IGRP-routed packets is 255 (default 100), and routing updates are broadcast every 90 seconds (by default). IGRP is considered a classful routing protocol. Because the protocol has no field for a subnet mask, the router assumes that all interface addresses within the same Class A, Class B, or Class C network have the same subnet mask as the subnet mask configured for the interfaces in question. This contrasts with classless routing protocols that can use variable length subnet masks. Classful protocols have become less popular as they are wasteful of IP address space. 4.5.2.1 Advancement: In order to address the issues of address space and other factors, Cisco created EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol). EIGRP adds support for VLSM (variable length subnet mask) and adds the Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) in order to improve routing and provide a loop less environment. EIGRP has

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completely replaced IGRP, making IGRP an obsolete routing protocol. In Cisco IOS versions 12.3 and greater, IGRP is completely unsupported. In the new Cisco CCNA curriculum (version 4), IGRP is mentioned only briefly, as an "obsolete protocol".

4.5.3 OPEN SHORTEST PATH FIRST (OSPF): Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a dynamic routing protocol for use in Internet Protocol (IP) networks. Specifically, it is a linkstate routing protocol and falls into the group of interior gateway protocols, operating within a single autonomous system (AS). It is defined as OSPF Version 2 in RFC 2328 (1998) for IPv4. The updates for IPv6 are specified as OSPF Version 3 in RFC 5340 (2008).

4.5.3.1 Overview
OSPF is an interior gateway protocol that routes Internet Protocol (IP) packets solely within a single routing domain from (autonomous system). It gathers link state information

available routers and constructs a topology map of the network. The topology determines the routing table presented to the Internet Layer which makes routing decisions based solely on the destination IP address found in IP datagrams. OSPF was designed to support variable-length subnet masking (VLSM) or Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) addressing models. OSPF detects changes in the topology, such as link failures, very quickly and converges on a new

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loop-free routing structure within seconds. It computes the shortest path tree for each route using a method based on Dijkstra's algorithm, a shortest path first algorithm. The link-state information is maintained on each router as a link-state database (LSDB) which is a tree-image of the entire network topology. Identical copies of the LSDB are periodically updated through flooding on all OSPF routers. An OSPF network may be structured, or subdivided, into routing areas to simplify administration and optimize traffic and resource utilization. Areas are identified by 32-bit numbers, expressed either simply in decimal, or often in octet-based dot-decimal notation, familiar from IPv4 address notation. By convention, area 0 (zero) or 0.0.0.0 represents the core or backbone region of an OSPF network. The identifications of other areas may be chosen at will, often, administrators select the IP address of a main router in an area as the area's identification. Each additional area must have a direct or virtual connection to the backbone OSPF area. Such connections are maintained by an interconnecting router, known as area border router (ABR). An ABR maintains separate link state databases for each area it serves and maintains summarized routes for all areas in the network.

4.5.3.2 Neighbour relationships

Routers in the same broadcast domain or at each end of a point-to-point telecommunications link form adjacencies when they have detected each other. This detection occurs when a router identifies itself in a hello OSPF protocol packet. This is called a two way state and is the most basic relationship. The routers in an

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Ethernet or frame relay network select a designated router (DR) and a backup designated router (BDR) which act as a hub to reduce traffic between routers. OSPF uses both Unicast and multicast to send "hello packets" and link state updates. As a link state routing protocol, OSPF establishes and maintains neighbour relationships in order to exchange routing updates with other routers. The neighbour relationship table is called an adjacency database in OSPF. Provided that OSPF is configured correctly, OSPF forms neighbour relationships only with the routers directly connected to it. In order to form a neighbour relationship between two routers, the interfaces used to form the relationship must be in the same area. An interface can only belong to a single area.

4.5.3.3 Area types in OSPF: Backbone area

The backbone area (also known as area 0 or area 0.0.0.0) forms the core of an OSPF network. All other areas are connected to it, and inter-area routing happens via routers connected to the backbone area and to their own associated areas. It is the logical and physical structure for the 'OSPF domain' and is attached to all nonzero areas in the OSPF domain. Note that in OSPF the term Autonomous System Boundary Router (ASBR) is historic, in the sense that many OSPF domains can coexist in the same Internetvisible autonomous system, RFC1996.

Stub area 51

A stub area is an area which does not receive route advertisements external to the autonomous system (AS) and routing from within the area is based entirely on a default route. This reduces the size of the routing databases for the area's internal routers. Modifications to the basic concept of stub areas exist in the not-sostubby area (NSSA). In addition, several other proprietary variation have been implemented by systems vendors, such as the totally stubby area (TSA) and the NSSA totally stubby area, both an extension in Cisco Systems routing equipment.

Not-so-stubby area
A not-so-stubby area (NSSA) is a type of stub area that can import autonomous system external routes and send them to other areas, but still cannot receive AS external routes from other areas. NSSA is an extension of the stub area feature that allows the injection of external routes in a limited fashion into the stub area.

Transit area
A transit area is an area with two or more OSPF border routers and is used to pass network traffic from one adjacent area to another. The transit area does not originate this traffic and is not the destination of such traffic.

4.5.3.4 Applications

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OSPF was the first widely deployed routing protocol that could converge a network in the low seconds, and guarantee loop-free paths. It has many features that allow the imposition of policies about the propagation of routes that it may be appropriate to keep local, for load sharing, and for selective route importing more than IS-IS. IS-IS, in contrast, can be tuned for lower overhead in a stable network, the sort more common in ISP than enterprise networks.

4.5.4 IS-IS
Intermediate system to intermediate system (IS-IS), is a protocol used by network devices (routers) to determine the best way to forward datagrams through a packet-switched network, a process called routing. The protocol was defined in ISO/IEC 10589:2002 as an international standard within the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference design. IS-IS is not an Internet standard, however IETF republished the standard in RFC 1142 for the Internet community.

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DESIGNING NETWORK

54

OF HEAD OFFICE WITH ITS BRANCH

55

Pencil sketch of purposed network

Snap shot of project while designing

56

Configuring router interfaces

57

58

Configuring ip addresses of pc1,pc2,pc, respectively

Configure server ip address

59

60

PICTORIAL REPERSENTATION OF running NETWORK TOPOLGY IS SHOWN IN THIS PICTURE

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CONCLUSION
The developed system is flexible and changes whenever can be made easy. The speed and accuracy are maintained in proper way. The user friendly nature of this gns3 software is very easy to work with both for the higher management as well as other employees with little knowledge of computer . The system is run with an insight into the necessary modifications that may require in the future.

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LIST OF REFERENCES

1. CCNA: Cisco Certified Network Associate Study Guide: By todd lammle

2. www.cisconetworking.com

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www.wikipedia.com

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