PROJECT REPORT ON

NETWORKING
Submitted By:-GAURAV CHANDRA ABES ENGINEERING COLLEGE

CERTIFICATE

OIL AND NATURAL GAS CORPORATION LIMITED

Project ICE, Scope Minar, Laxmi Nagar, New Delhi- 110092

Da te-27/07/2012
This is to certify that Mr. GAURAV CHANDRA , B.Tech (Electronics And Communication Engineering) student of ABES Engineering College has successfully completed his project with ONGC Ltd. During the period of 18/06/2012 to 27/07/2012. He has done his project titled NETWORKING under my guidance. I have observed that his work has been excellent and appreciate his sincere learning. He has performed the project with energy and enthusiasm.

(Signature) Mr.B.L Suthar CE (E&T) Infocom Services, ONGC, New Delhi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I take this opportunity to express my profound sense of gratitude and appreciation to all those who helped me throughout the duration of this project. First and foremost, I would like to express my thanks to Mr. B.L Suthar CE (E&T), Infocom Services for providing guidance and expert supervision for this project. I am also truly thankful to Mr. Rakesh Arora (Networks) Project ICE for encouragement, support and providing necessary facilities

CONTENTS
PAGE NO 1.INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKING 2.IP ADDRESSING 3.ROUTER 4.IP ROUTING 5.SWITCHING 6.VLAN AND ETHER CHANNEL 7.GNS3 5 15 23 29 41 47 52

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKING

A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of computers and other hardware components interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information PROPERTIES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS Computer networks: Facilitate communications Permit sharing of files, data, and other types of information Share network and computing resources May be insecure May interfere with other technologies May be difficult to set up

The communication technologies used in networks can be subdivide into wired and wireless technologies Wired technologies The order of the following wired technologies is, roughly, from slowest to fastest transmission speed.

Twisted pair wire is the most widely used medium for telecommunication. Twisted-pair cabling consist of copper wires that are twisted into pairs. Ordinary telephone wires consist of two insulated copper wires twisted into pairs. Computer networking cabling (wired Ethernet as defined by IEEE 802.3) consists of 4 pairs of copper cabling that can be utilized for both voice and data transmission. The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction. The transmission speed ranges from 2 million bits per second to 10 billion bits per second. Twisted pair cabling comes in two forms: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted-pair (STP). Each form comes in several category ratings, designed for use in various scenarios. Coaxial cable is widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and other work-sites for local area networks. The cables consist of copper or aluminum wire surrounded by an insulating layer (typically a flexible material with a high dielectric

constant), which itself is surrounded by a conductive layer. The insulation helps minimize interference and distortion. Transmission speed ranges from 200 million bits per second to more than 500 million bits per second.

An optical fiber is a glass fiber. It uses pulses of light to transmit data. Some advantages of optical fibers over metal wires are less transmission loss, immunity from electromagnetic radiation, and very fast transmission speed, up to trillions of bits per second. One can use different colors of lights to increase the number of messages being sent over a fiber optic cable.

Wireless technologies

Terrestrial microwave Terrestrial microwave communication uses Earth-based transmitters and receivers resembling satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves are in the low-gigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-of-sight. Relay stations are spaced approximately 48 km (30 mi) apart. Communications satellites The satellites communicate via microwave radio waves, which are not deflected by the Earth's atmosphere. The satellites are stationed in space, typically in geosynchronous orbit 35,400 km (22,000 mi) above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals. Infrared communication can transmit signals for small distances, typically no more than 10 meters. In most cases, line-of-sight propagation is used, which limits the physical positioning of communicating devices

Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics, such as communications protocol used, scale, topology, organizational scope and architecture. On the basis of scale it can classified into 1.Local area network A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited geographical area such as home, school, computer laboratory, office building, or closely positioned group of buildings. Each computer or device on the network is a node. Current wired LANs are most likely to be based on Ethernet technology, although new standards like ITU-T G.hn also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing home wires (coaxial [12] cables, phone lines and power lines). The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to WANs (Wide Area Networks), include their higher data transfer rates, smaller geographic range, and no need for leased telecommunication lines. Current Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies operate at data transfer rates up to 10 Gbit/s. 2.Metropolitan area network

A Metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually spans a city or a large campus 3.Wide area network A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographic area such as a city, country, or spans even intercontinental distances, using a communications channel that combines many types of media such as telephone lines, cables, and air waves. A WAN often uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers of the OSI reference model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer. A network topology is the layout of the interconnections of the nodes of a computer network. Common layouts are: On the basis of topology computer networks can be classified into:

A bus network: all nodes are connected to a common medium . A star network: all nodes are connected to a special central node. This is the typical layout found in a W ireless LAN, where each wireless client connects to the central Wireless access point. A ring network: each node is connected to its left and right neighbour node, such that all nodes are connected and that each node can reach each other node by traversing nodes left- or rightwards. A mesh network: each node is connected to an arbitrary number of neighbours in such a way that there is at least one traversal from any node to any other. A fully connected network: each node is connected to every other node in the network.

Protocol specifies a common set of rules and signals, the computers on the network use to communicate. Most networks use Ethernet, but some networks may use IBMs Token Ring protocol.

Following are some examples of protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) User Datagram Protocol (UDP) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) Post Office Protocol (POP3) File Transfer Protocol (FTP) Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) Bluetooth protocols Fibre Channel network protocols Internet Protocol Suite or TCP/IP model or TCP/IP stack OSI protocols family of information exchange standards developed jointly by the ISO and the ITU-T Routing protocols RTPS protocol, an interoperability protocol SSH Secure Shell SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol Telnet Telephone Network HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol HTTPS Secure Hyper Text Transfer Protocol SFTP Secure File Transfer Protocol SSL Secure Socket Layer

There are two major types of network architecture: Peer-to-Peer - In a Peer-to-Peer networking configuration, there is no server, and computers simply connect with each other in a workgroup to share files, printers, and Internet access. This is most commonly found in home configurations, and is only practical for workgroups of a dozen or less computers.

Client/Server In a Client/Server network, there is usually an NT Domain Controller, which all of the computers log on to. This server can provide various services, including centrally routed Internet Access, main (including e-mail), file sharing, and printer access, as well as ensuring security across the network. This is most commonly found in corporate configurations, where network security is essential.

Repeaters and hubs A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal, cleans it of unnecessary noise, regenerates it, and retransmits it at a higher power level, or to the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. In most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable that runs longer than 100 meters. A repeater with multiple ports is known as a hub. Repeaters work on the Physical Layer of the OSI model. Repeaters require a small amount of time to regenerate the signal. This can cause a propagation delay which can affect network communication when there are several repeaters in a row.

Bridges A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Bridges broadcast to all ports except the port on which the broadcast was received. However, bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports, as hubs do, but learn which MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for that address to that port only. Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source address of frames that it sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source address is stored and the bridge assumes that MAC address is associated with that port. The first time that a previously unknown destination address is seen, the bridge will forward the frame to all ports other than the one on which the frame arrived. Bridges come in three basic types:

Local bridges: Directly connect LANs Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between LANs. Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks, largely have been replaced with routers. Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations to LANs.

Switches A network switch is a device that forwards and filters OSI layer 2 datagrams (chunks of data communication) between ports (connected cables) based on the MAC addresses in the packets. A switch is distinct from a hub in that it only forwards the frames to the ports involved in the communication rather than all ports connected. A switch breaks the collision domain but represents itself as a broadcast domain. Switches make forwarding decisions of frames on the basis of MAC addresses. A switch normally has numerous ports, facilitating a star topology for devices, and cascading additional switches. Some switches are capable of routing based on Layer 3 addressing or additional logical levels; these are called multi-layer switches. Routers A router is an internetworking device that forwards packets between networks by processing information found in the datagram or packet (Internet protocol information fromLayer 3 of the OSI Model). In many situations, this information is processed in conjunction with the routing table (also known as forwarding table). Routers use routing tables to determine what interface to forward packets (this can include the "null" also known as the "black hole" interface because data can go into it, however, no further processing is done for said data).

OSI MODEL
The OSI, or Open System Interconnection, model defines a networking framework for implementing protocols in seven layers. Control is passed from one layer to the next, starting at the application layer in one station, and proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel to the next station and back up the hierarchy. Application Layer (Layer 7) The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means that both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component. Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application-layer functions typically include identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication. When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines the identity and availability of communication partners for an application with data to transmit. When determining resource availability, the application layer must decide whether sufficient network or the requested communications exist. In synchronizing communication, all communication between applications requires cooperation that is managed by the application layer. Some examples of application-layer implementations also include: On OSI stack: o o FTAM File Transfer and Access Management Protocol X.400 Mail

o Common Management Information Protocol (CMIP) On TCP/IP stack: o o o o Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP).

Presentation Layer (Layer 6) The presentation layer establishes context between application-layer entities, in which the higher-layer entities may use different syntax and semantics if the presentation service provides a mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation service data units are encapsulated into session protocol data units, and passed down the stack. This layer provides independence from data representation (e.g., encryption) by translating between application and network formats. The presentation layer transforms data into the form that the application accepts. This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network. It is sometimes called the syntax layer.

Session Layer (Layer 5) The session layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides for full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for graceful close of sessions, which is a property of the Transmission Control Protocol, and also for session checkpointing and recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet Protocol Suite. The session layer is commonly implemented explicitly in application environments that use remote procedure calls.

Transport Layer (Layer 4) This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It ensures complete data transfer. The transport layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, providing reliable data transfer services to the upper layers. The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state and connection oriented. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments and retransmit those that fail. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and sends the next data if no errors occurred. OSI defines five classes of connection-mode transport protocols ranging from class 0 (which is also known as TP0 and provides the least features) to class 4 (TP4, designed for less reliable networks, similar to the Internet). Class 0 contains no error recovery, and was designed for use on network layers that provide error-free connections. Class 4 is closest to TCP, although TCP contains functions, such as the graceful close, which OSI assigns to the session layer. Also, all OSI TP connection-mode protocol classes provide expedited data and preservation of record boundaries. Perhaps an easy way to visualize the transport layer is to compare it with a Post Office, which deals with the dispatch and classification of mail and parcels sent. Do remember, however, that a post office manages the outer envelope of mail. Higher layers may have the equivalent of double envelopes, such as cryptographic presentation services that can be read by the addressee only. Roughly speaking, tunnelling protocols operate at the transport layer, such as carrying non-IP protocols such as IBM's SNA or Novell's IPX over an IP network. Network Layer (Layer 3) The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences from a source host on one network to a destination host on a different network (in contrast to the data link layer which connects hosts within the same network), while maintaining the quality of service requested by the transport layer. The network layer performs network routing functions, and might also perform fragmentation and reassembly, and report delivery errors. Routers operate at this layer, sending data throughout the extended network and making the Internet possible. This is a logical addressing scheme - values are chosen by the network engineer. The addressing scheme is not hierarchical.

The network layer may be divided into three sub layers: 1. Subnetwork access - that considers protocols that deal with the interface to networks, such as X.25; 2. Subnetwork-dependent convergence - when it is necessary to bring the level of a transit network up to the level of networks on either side 3. Subnetwork-independent convergence - handles transfer across multiple networks. A number of layer-management protocols, a function defined in the Management Annex, ISO 7498/4, belong to the network layer. These include routing protocols, multicast group management, network-layer information and error, and network-layer address assignment. It is the function of the payload that makes these belong to the network layer, not the protocol that carries.

Data Link Layer (Layer 2) The data link layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the physical layer. Originally, this layer was intended for point-to-point and point-to-multipoint media, characteristic of wide area media in the telephone system. Local area network architecture, which included broadcast-capable multiaccess media, was developed independently of the ISO work in IEEE Project 802. IEEE work assumed sublayering and management functions not required for WAN use. In modern practice, only error detection, not flow control using sliding window, is present in data link protocols such as Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), and, on local area networks, the IEEE 802.2 LLC layer is not used for most protocols on the Ethernet, and on other local area networks, its flow control and acknowledgment mechanisms are rarely used. Sliding window flow control and acknowledgment is used at the transport layer by protocols such as TCP, but is still used in niches where X.25 offers performance advantages. Both WAN and LAN services arrange bits, from the physical layer, into logical sequences called frames. Not all physical layer bits necessarily go into frames, as some of these bits are purely intended for physical layer functions. For example, every fifth bit of the FDDI bit stream is not used by the layer Physical Layer (Layer 1) The physical layer defines electrical and physical specifications for devices. In particular, it defines the relationship between a device and a transmission medium, such as a copper or fibre optical cable. This includes the layout of pins, voltages, cable specifications, hubs, repeaters, network adapters, host bus adapters (HBA used in storage area networks) and more. The major functions and services performed by the physical layer are:

Establishment and termination of a connection to a communications medium. Participation in the process whereby the communication resources are effectively shared among multiple users. For example, contention resolution and flow control.

Modulation or conversion between the representation of digital data in user equipment and the corresponding signals transmitted over a communications channel. These are signals operating over the physical cabling (such as copper and optical fibre) or over a radio link.

Parallel SCSI buses operate in this layer, although it must be remembered that the logical SCSI protocol is a transport layer protocol that runs over this bus. Various physicallayer Ethernet standards are also in this layer; Ethernet incorporates both this layer and the data link layer. The same applies to other local-area networks, such as token ring, FDDI, ITU-T G.hn and IEEE 802.11, as well as personal area networks such as Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15.4.

IP ADDRESSING
An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device (e.g., computer, printer) participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. An IP address serves two principal functions: host or network interface identification and location addressing. In IPv4 an address consists of 32 bits which limits the address space to 4294967296 (2 ) possible unique addresses. IPv4 addresses are canonically represented in dot-decimal notation, which consists of four decimal numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots, e.g., 172.16.254.1. Each part represents a group of 8 bits (octet) of the address IP addresses are basically of two types: 1) Static IP address 2) Shared IP address Thus, using more than one site on an IP address is called a Shared IP address. If a site has its own IP address, and shares with no one else, it is called a Static IP address. The first three bits of the most significant octet of an IP address were defined as the class of the address. Three classes (A, B, and C) were defined for universal unicast addressing
32

Class

Leading bits Range of first Network Host ID Number of in address octet ID format format networks (binary) (decimal) 0 10 110 0127 128191 192223 A a.b a.b.c b.c.d c.d d
7

Number of addresses per network

24

A B C

2 = 128 2 = 16777216 14 16 2 = 16384 2 = 65536 2 21 = 8 2 = 256 2097152

There are five classes of available IP ranges: Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D and Class E, while only A, B, and C are commonly used. Each class allows for a range of valid IP addresses. Below is a listing of these addresses. Class Address Range Supports

Class 1.0.0.1 to 126.255.255.254 Supports 16 million hosts on each of 127 networks. A Class 128.1.0.1 to B 191.255.255.254 Class 192.0.1.1 to C 223.255.254.254 Class 224.0.0.0 to Supports 65,000 hosts on each of 16,000 networks. Supports 254 hosts on each of 2 million networks. Reserved for multicast groups.

239.255.255.255 Reserved for future use, or Research and Development Purposes.

Class 240.0.0.0 to E 254.255.255.254

A subnetwork, or subnet, is a logically visible subdivision of an IP network. The practice of dividing a network into two or more networks is called subnetting

The routing prefix is expressed in CIDR notation(Classless Inter-Domain Routing). It is written as the first address of a network, followed by a slash character (/), and ending with the bit-length of the prefix. For example, 192.168.1.0/24 is the prefix of the Internet Protocol Version 4 network starting at the given address, having 24 bits allocated for the network prefix, and the remaining 8 bits reserved for host addressing IP networks may be divided into subnetworks in both IPv4 and IPv6. For this purpose, an IP address is logically recognized as consisting of two parts: the network prefix and the host identifier, or interface identifier (IPv6). In general the number of available hosts on a subnet is 2 2, where n is the number of bits used for the host portion of the address. Default Subnet Mask For class a it is 255.0.0.0 For class b it is 255.255.0.0 For class c it is 255.255.255.0
n

Eg.class c subnetting IP address 192.168.5.130 Subnet mask 255.255.255.0 Network prefix 192.168.5.0 Host part 0.0.0.130 Class a subnetting

IP address 68.1.5.99 Subnet mask 255.0.0.0 Network prefix 68.0.0.0 Host part 0.1.5.99 Class b subnetting IP address 129.1.5.99 Subnet mask 255.255.0.0 Network prefix 129.1.0.0 Host part 0.0.5.99 Another Eg. of class c subnetting is:IP address 192.168.5.130 Subnet mask 255.255.255.192 Network prefix 192.168.5.128 Host part 0.0.0.2

IPV4
An IP packet consists of a header section and a data section. Header The IPv4 packet header consists of 14 fields, of which 13 are required. The 14th field is optional (red background in table) and aptly named: options. The fields in the header are packed with the most significant byte first (big endian), and for the diagram and discussion, the most significant bits are considered to come first (MSB 0 bit numbering). The most significant bit is numbered 0, so the version field is actually found in the four most significant bits of the first byte, for example. bit offset

03

47

813

14-15

1618

1931

Version

Internet Header Length

Differentiated Services Code Point

Explicit Congestion Notification

Total Length

32

Identification

Flags

Fragment Offset

64

Time to Live

Protocol

Header checksum

96

Source IP Address

128

Destination IP Address

160

Options ( if Header Length > 5 )

160 or 192+ Version

Data

The first header field in an IP packet is the four-bit version field. For IPv4, this has a value of 4 (hence the name IPv4). Internet Header Length (IHL) The second field (4 bits) is the Internet Header Length (IHL), which is the number of 32-bit words in the header. Since an IPv4 header may contain a variable number of options, this field specifies the size of the header (this also coincides with the offset to the data). The minimum value for this field is 5 (RFC 791), which is a length of 532 = 160 bits = 20 bytes. Being a 4-bit value, the maximum length is 15 words (1532 bits) or 480 bits = 60 bytes. Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP) Originally defined as the Type of Service field, this field is now defined by RFC 2474 for Differentiated services (DiffServ). New technologies are emerging that require real-time data streaming and therefore make use of the DSCP field. An example is Voice over IP (VoIP), which is used for interactive data voice exchange. Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN) This field is defined in RFC 3168 and allows end-to-end notification of network congestion without dropping packets. ECN is an optional feature that is only used when both endpoints support it and are willing to use it. It is only effective when supported by the underlying network. Total Length

This 16-bit field defines the entire packet (fragment) size, including header and data, in bytes. The minimum-length packet is 20 bytes (20-byte header + 0 bytes data) and the maximum is 65,535 bytes the maximum value of a 16-bit word. The largest datagram that any host is required to be able to reassemble is 576 bytes, but most modern hosts handle much larger packets. Sometimes subnetworks impose further restrictions on the packet size, in which case datagrams must be fragmented. Fragmentation is handled in either the host or router in IPv4. Identification This field is an identification field and is primarily used for uniquely identifying fragments of an original IP datagram. Some experimental work has suggested using the ID field for other purposes, such as for adding packet-tracing information to help trace datagrams with spoofed source addresses. Flags A three-bit field follows and is used to control or identify fragments. They are (in order, from high order to low order):

bit 0: Reserved; must be zero. bit 1: Don't Fragment (DF) bit 2: More Fragments (MF)

If the DF flag is set, and fragmentation is required to route the packet, then the packet is dropped. This can be used when sending packets to a host that does not have sufficient resources to handle fragmentation. It can also be used for Path MTU Discovery, either automatically by the host IP software, or manually using diagnostic tools such as ping ortraceroute. For unfragmented packets, the MF flag is cleared. For fragmented packets, all fragments except the last have the MF flag set. The last fragment has a non-zero Fragment Offset field, differentiating it from an unfragmented packet. Fragment Offset The fragment offset field, measured in units of eight-byte blocks, is 13 bits long and specifies the offset of a particular fragment relative to the beginning of the original unfragmented IP datagram. The first fragment has an offset of zero. This allows a maximum offset of (2 bytes). Time To Live (TTL) An eight-bit time to live field helps prevent datagrams from persisting (e.g. going in circles) on an internet. This field limits a datagram's lifetime. It is specified in seconds, but time intervals less than 1 second are rounded up to 1. In practice, the
13

1) 8 = 65,528 bytes, which would exceed the maximum IP

packet length of 65,535 bytes with the header length included (65,528 + 20 = 65,548

field has become a hop countwhen the datagram arrives at a router, the router decrements the TTL field by one. When the TTL field hits zero, the router discards the packet and typically sends a ICMP Time Exceeded message to the sender. The program traceroute uses these ICMP Time Exceeded messages to print the routers used by packets to go from the source to the destination. Protocol This field defines the protocol used in the data portion of the IP datagram. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority maintains a list of IP protocol numbers which was originally defined in RFC 790. Header Checksum The 16-bit checksum field is used for error-checking of the header. When a packet arrives at a router, the router calculates the checksum of the header and compares it to the checksum field. If the values do not match, the router discards the packet. Errors in the data field must be handled by the encapsulated protocol. Both UDP and TCPhave checksum fields. When a packet arrives at a router, the router decreases the TTL field. Consequently, the router must calculate a new checksum. RFC 1071 defines the checksum calculation: The checksum field is the 16-bit one's complement of the one's complement sum of all 16-bit words in the header. For purposes of computing the checksum, the value of the checksum field is zero. For example, consider Hex 4500003044224000800600008c7c19acae241e2b (20 bytes IP header): Step 1) 4500 + 0030 + 4422 + 4000 + 8006 + 0000 + 8c7c + 19ac + ae24 + 1e2b = 2BBCF (16-bit sum) Step 2) 2 + BBCF = BBD1 = 1011101111010001 (1's complement 16-bit sum) Step 3) ~BBD1 = 0100010000101110 = 442E (1's complement of 1's complement 16-bit sum) To validate a header's checksum the same algorithm may be used - the checksum of a header which contains a correct checksum field is a word containing all zeros (value 0): 2BBCF + 442E = 2FFFD. 2 + FFFD = FFFF. the 1'S of FFFF = 0. Source address This field is the IPv4 address of the sender of the packet. Note that this address may be changed in transit by a network address translation device. Destination address

This field is the IPv4 address of the receiver of the packet. As with the source address, this may be changed in transit by a network address translation device. Options The options field is not often used. Note that the value in the IHL field must include enough extra 32-bit words to hold all the options (plus any padding needed to ensure that the header contains an integral number of 32-bit words). The list of options may be terminated with an EOL (End of Options List, 0x00) option; this is only necessary if the end of the options would not otherwise coincide with the end of the header. The possible options that can be put in the header are as follows:

Field

Size (bits)

Description

Copied

Set to 1 if the options need to be copied into all fragments of a fragmented packet.

Option Class

A general options category. 0 is for "control" options, and 2 is for "debugging and measurement". 1, and 3 are reserved.

Option Number

Specifies an option.

Option Length

Indicates the size of the entire option (including this field). This field may not exist for simple options.

Option Data

Variable Option-specific data. This field may not exist for simple options.

If the header length is greater than 5, i.e. it is from 6 to 15, it means that the options field is present and must be considered. Copied, Option Class, and Option Number are sometimes referred to as a single eightbit field - the Option Type. The following two options are discouraged because they create security concerns: Loose Source and Record Route (LSRR) and Strict Source and Record Route (SSRR). Many routers block packets containing these options.

Data The data portion of the packet is not included in the packet checksum. Its contents are interpreted based on the value of the Protocol header field.

ROUTER
A router is a device that forwards data packets between computer networks, creating an overlay internetwork. A router is connected to two or more data lines from different networks. When a data packet comes in on one of the lines, the router reads the address information in the packet to determine its ultimate destination. Then, using information in its routing table or routing policy, it directs the packet to the next network on its journey. Routers perform the "traffic directing" functions on the Internet. A data packet is typically forwarded from one router to another through the networks that constitute the internetwork until it gets to its destination node. Routers may provide connectivity within enterprises, between enterprises and the Internet, and between internet service providers(ISPs) networks. The largest routers (such as the Cisco CRS-1 or Juniper T1600) interconnect the various ISPs, or may be used in large enterprise networks Smaller routers usually provide connectivity for typical home and office networks. Access routers, including 'small office/home office' (SOHO) models, are located at customer sites such as branch offices that do not need hierarchical routing of their own. Typically, they are optimized for low cost. Distribution routers aggregate traffic from multiple access routers, either at the same site, or to collect the data streams from multiple sites to a major enterprise location. Distribution routers are often responsible for enforcing quality of service across a W AN, so they may have considerable memory installed, multiple WAN interface connections, and substantial onboard data processing routines. They may also provide connectivity to groups of file servers or other external networks. In enterprises, a core router may provide a "collapsed backbone" interconnecting the distribution tier routers from multiple buildings of a campus, or large enterprise locations. They tend to be optimized for high bandwidth.

Set a console password to cisco

Router(config)#line con 0 Router(config-line)#password cisco Router(config-line)#login Router(config)#line vty 0 4 Router(config-line)#password cisco Router(config-line)#login Router(config)#line con 0 Router(config-line)#exec-timeout 0 0

Set a telnet password

Stop console timing out

Set the enable password to cisco Enable an interface To disable an interface Set the clock rate for a router with a DCE cable to 64K

Router(config)#enable password cisc o Router(config-if)#no shutdown Router(config-if)#shutdown Router(config-if)clock rate 64000

Set the enable secret password to peter. This password overrides the enable password and is encypted within the config file

Router(config)#enable secret peter

To add an IP address to a interface To set auxiliary password

Router(config-if)#ip addr 10.1.1.1 255.255.255.0 Router(config)#line aux 0 Router(config-line)#password cisco Router(config-line)#login

Setting the Banner To specify a message-of-the-day (MOTD) banner, use the banner motd global configuration command. The no form of this command deletes the MOTD banner. When someone connects to the router, the MOTD banner appears before the login prompt. Router(config)# banner motd # message # Setting system clock The system clock runs from the moment the system starts up and keeps track of the current date and time based on Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), also known as Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). The system clock can be set from a number of sources, and in turn can be used to distribute the current time through various mechanisms to other systems. To manually set the system clock, use one of the formats of the clock set EXEC command. clock set hh:mm:ss day month yyyy clock set hh:mm:ss month day yyyy in the following example ,the system clock is manually set to 1:32 pm on May 12 2012 Router# clock set 13:32:00 12 May 2012

Hardware Components There are 7 major internal components of a router:

o o o o o o o

CPU NVRAM DRAM Flash ROM Console Interfaces

CPU The CPU performs functions just as it does in a normal PC. It executes commands given by the IOS using other hardware components. High-end routers may contain multiple processors or extra slots to add more CPUs later. NVRAM Nonvolatile RAM is used to store the startup configuration files. This type of RAM does not lose its content when the router is restarted or powered off. DRAM Random Access Memory; this component is dynamic. Meaning, its content changes constantly. The main role of the RAM is to: hold the ARP cache, Store routing tables, hold fast-switching cache, performs packet buffering, and hold queues. It also provides temporary memory for the configuration file of the router while the router is powered on. However, the RAM loses content when router is restarted or powered off. This component is upgradeable Flash Flash memory is very important because it saves you if you screw up the operating system configuration. It holds the Cisco IOS image file, as well as backups. This flash memory is classified as an EEPROM. The flash ROM is upgradeable in most Cisco routers. ROM The ROM performs the same operations as a BIOS. It holds information about the systems hardware components and runs POST when the router first starts up. This component can be upgraded by "unplugging" the chip and installing a new one. Console The console consists of the physical plugs and jacks on the router. The purpose of the console is to provide access for configurations. Interfaces The interfaces provide connectivity to LAN, WAN, and Console/Aux. They can be RJ-45 jacks soldered onto the motherboard, transceiver modules, or card modules. Cisco routers, especially the higher-end models, can be configured in many different ways. They can use a combination of transceivers, card modules and onboard interfaces.

Cisco Router IOS The Cisco Internetwork Operating System (IOS) is the kernel of Cisco routers and most switches. It is the basic, indispensable part of an operating system that allocates resources and manages things such as low-level hardware interfaces and security. These are some important things that the Cisco router IOS software is responsible for:

Carrying network protocols and functions Connecting high-speed traffic between devices Adding security to control access and stop unauthorized network use Providing scalability for ease of network growth and redundancy Supplying network reliability for connecting to network resources

Connecting to a Cisco Router

We can connect to a Cisco router to configure it, verify its configuration, and check statistics. There are following different ways to do this : Console Port : usually an RJ-45 (8-pin modular) connection located at the back of the routerby default, there may or may not be a password set. The new ISR routers use cisco as the username and cisco as the password by default. Auxiliary Port : same thing as a console port, so it follows that it can be used as one. But an auxiliary port also allows to configure modem commands so that a modem can be connected to the router. This is an important feature as it lets dial up a remote router and attach to the auxiliary port if the router is down and we need to configure it out-of-band (meaning from outside of the network).

Telnet : it is a terminal emulation program that acts as though its a dumb terminal. We can use Telnet to connect to any active interface on a router, such as an Ethernet or serial port. It is an is in-band way to connect to a Cisco router, through the program Telnet. (In-band means configuring the router through the network, the opposite of out-of-band.)

CISCO 7600 SERIES FEATURES

Chassis ranges: 3-slot (240Gbit/s), 4-slot ( 320Gbit/s ), 6-slot ( 480Gbit/s), 9-slot (720Gbit/s) and 13-slot (720Gbit/s). Up to 256 Gbit/s switching fabric capacity and up to 30 Mpps forwarding performance Interface breadth: Scaling from DS0 to OC-48/STM-16; 10 Mbit/s Ethernet to 10 Gigabit Ethernet Support for Cisco 7200/7500 Port Adapters via FlexWAN module IP/MPLS features : MPLS VPN, Class-Based W eighted Fair Queuing/ Low Latency Queuing (CBWFQ/LLQ), W eighted random early detection (WRED), hierarchical traffic shaping, and Quality of Service Ethernet subscriber services: 32,000 PPPoE subscribers, 16,000 L2TP tunnels and 16,000 SSG subscribers per MWAM module

CISCO 7200 SERIES FEATURES 1.Up to 400-kpps processing capability Provides high-performance routing and processing performance 2.Maximum connectivity options Meets a variety of topology requirements with the widest range of port densities and interface options 3.Breadth of services Supports QoS, security, MPLS, broadband, multiservice, and management features for next-generation networks 4.Investment protection Low initial investment with upgrade and redeployment capability

CISCO 2500 SERIES The Cisco 2500 series of routers are a series of 19" rack mount access routers typically used to connect Ethernet or token ringnetworks via ISDN or leased serial connections (i.e. Frame Relay, T1 etc.). The routers are based on a Motorola 68EC030 CISC processor. This line of routers is no longer sold or supported by Cisco Systems. These are also known as modular routers. SPECIFICATIONS

CPU: Motorola 68EC030 20 MHz RAM: Up to 16 MB Flash: 4, 8 or 16 MB Power consumption: 40 W Dimensions: 4.44 44.45 26.82 cm (standard 19-inch rackmount - 1RU) Weight: 4.5 kg Power supplies: 110/240 V AC or 48 V DC Supported interfaces: Ethernet (10 Mbit/s), Token Ring (16 Mbit/s), ISDN BRI (128 kbit/s), Sync Serial (2 Mbit/s), Async Serial. Bandwidth: 4400 packets-per-second (using CEF) Typical throughput: 2.2 Mbit/s (64-byte packets) 6-8 Mbit (1500-byte packets)

The modular routers had 3 interface slots available - 2 Synchronous Serial and 1 ISDN. The ISDN modules were keyed so as not to be inserted into a Synchronous WAN module slot. The following modules were available:

2-wire, switched 56-kbit/s DSU/CSU (RJ11) 4-wire, 56/64-kbit/s DSU/CSU (RJ48S) Fractional T1/T1 DSU/CSU (RJ48C) Five-in-one synchronous serial (DB60) (Supported five signalling types - EIA/TIA-232, EIA/TIA-449, V.35, X.21 and EIA-530). ISDN BRI (S/T) (RJ45) ISDN with integrated NT1 device (U) (RJ45)

IP ROUTING
Routing is the process of selecting paths in a network along which to send network traffic Static Routing Static routing occurs when you manually add routes in each routers routing table. There are pros and cons to static routing, but thats true for all routing processes. Static routing has the following benefits: There is no overhead on the router CPU, which means you could possibly buy a cheaper router than you would use if you were using dynamic routing. There is no bandwidth usage between routers, which means you could possibly save money on WAN links. It adds security because the administrator can choose to allow routing access to certain networks only. Static routing has the following disadvantages: The administrator must really understand the internetwork and how each router is connected in order to configure routes correctly. If a network is added to the internetwork, the administrator has to add a route to it on all routersby hand. Its not feasible in large networks because maintaining it would be a full-time job in itself. Command syntax used to add a static route to a routing table: ip route [destination_network] [mask] [next-hop_address or exitinterface] [administrative_distance] [permanent] This list describes each command in the string: ip route The command used to create the static route. destination_network The network youre placing in the routing table. mask The subnet mask being used on the network. next-hop_address The address of the next-hop router that will receive the packet and forward it to the remote network. This is the IP address of a router interface thats on a directly connected network. You must be able to ping the router interface before you can successfully add the route. If you type in the wrong next-hop address or the interface to that router is down, the static route will show up in the routers configuration but not in the routing table. exitinterface Used in place of the next-hop address if you want, and shows up as a directly connected route. administrative_distance By default, static routes have an administrative distance of 1 (or even 0 if you use an exit interface instead of a next-hop address). You can change the default value by adding an administrative weight at the end of the command. Ill talk a lot more about this subject later in the chapter when we get to the section on dynamic routing. permanent If the interface is shut down or the router cant communicate to the next-hop router, the route will automatically be discarded from the routing table by default. Choosing the permanent option keeps the entry in the routing table no matter what happens

Default Routing We use default routing to send packets with a remote destination network not in the routing table to the next-hop router. One should only use default routing on stub networksthose with only one exit path out of the network. Normally, if a specific route to a particular network does not exist, a router will drop all traffic destined to that network. A default route, or gateway of last resort, allows traffic to be forwarded, even without a specific route to a particular network. The default route is identified by all zeros in both the network and subnet mask (0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0). It is the least specific route possible, and thus will only be used if a more specific route does not exist (hence gateway of last resort). To configure a default route: Router(config)# ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 172.17.1.2 It is possible to specify an entire default network on a Cisco device: Router(config)# ip default-network 172.20.0.0 The default route in Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) is designated as the zeroaddress 0.0.0.0/0 in CIDR notation, often called the quad-zero route. The subnet mask is given as /0, which effectively specifies all networks, and is the shortest match possible. A route lookup that does not match any other route, falls back to this route. Similarly, in IPv6, the default route is specified by ::/0 Dynamic Routing Dynamic routing is when protocols are used to find networks and update routing tables on routers.Dynamic routing protocols are supported by software applications running on the routing device (the router) which dynamically learn network destinations and how to get to them and also advertise those destinations to other routers. This advertisement function allows all the routers to learn about all the destination networks that exist and how to to those networks. A router using dynamic routing will 'learn' the routes to all networks that are directly connected to the device. Next, the router will learn routes from other routers that run the same routing protocol (RIP, RIP2, EIGRP, OSPF, IS-IS, BGP etc). Each router will then sort through it's list of routes and select one or more 'best' routes for each network destination the router knows or has learned. Dynamic routing protocols will then distribute this 'best route' information to other routers running the same routing protocol, thereby extending the information on what networks exist and can be reached. This gives dynamic routing protocols the ability to adapt to logical network topology changes, equipment failures or network outages 'on the fly'.

Administrative Distances The administrative distance (AD) is used to rate the trustworthiness of routing information received on a router from a neighbor router. An administrative distance is an integer from 0 to 255, where 0 is the most trusted and 255 means no traffic will be passed via this route. If a router receives two updates listing the same remote network, the first thing the router checks is the AD. If one of the advertised routes has a lower AD than the other, then the route with the lowest AD will be placed in the routing table. If both advertised routes to the same network have the same AD, then routing protocol metrics (such as hop count or bandwidth of the lines) will be used to find the best path to the remote network. The advertised route with the lowest metric will be placed in the routing table. But if both advertised routes have the same AD as well as the same metrics, then the routing protocol will load-balance to the remote network (which means that it sends packets down each link). Route Source Default AD Connected interface 0 Static route 1 EIGRP 90 IGRP 100 OSPF 110 RIP 120 External EIGRP 170 Unknown 255 (This route will never be used.)

Routing Protocols There are three classes of routing protocols: Distance vector The distance-vector protocols in use today find the best path to a remote network by judging distance. For example, in the case of RIP routing, each time a packet goes through a router, thats called a hop. The route with the least number of hops to the network is determined to be the best route. The vector indicates the direction to the remote network. Both RIP and IGRP are distance-vector routing protocols. They periodically send the entire routing table to directly connected neighbors. Link state In link-state protocols, also called shortest-path-first protocols, the routers each create three separate tables. One of these tables keeps track of directly attached neighbors, one determines the topology of the entire internetwork, and one is used as the routing table. Linkstate routers know more about the internetwork than any distance-vector routing protocol. OSPF is an IP routing protocol that is completely link state. Link-state protocols send updates containing the state of their own links to all other directly connected routers on the network, which is then propagated to their neighbors. Hybrid Hybrid protocols use aspects of both distance vector and link statefor example, EIGRP.

Distance-Vector Routing Protocols The distance-vector routing algorithm passes complete routing table contents to neighboring routers, which then combine the received routing table entries with their own routing tables to complete the routers routing table. This is called routing by rumor because a router receiving an update from

a neighbor router believes the information about remote networks without actually finding out for itself. RIP uses only hop count to determine the best path to a network. If RIP finds more than one link with the same hop count to the same remote network, it will automatically perform a round-robin load balancing. RIP can perform load balancing for up to six equal-cost links (four by default). Routing Loops Distance-vector routing protocols keep track of any changes to the internetwork by broadcasting periodic routing updates out all active interfaces. This broadcast includes the complete routing table. This works just fine, but its expensive in terms of CPU processing and link bandwidth. And if a network outage happens, real problems can occur. Plus, the slow convergence of distance-vector routing protocols can result in inconsistent routing tables and routing loops. Maximum Hop Count The routing loop problem just described can create an issue called counting to infinity, and its caused by gossip (broadcasts) and wrong information being communicated and propagated throughout the internetwork. Without some form of intervention, the hop count increases indefinitely each time a packet passes through a router. One way of solving this problem is to define a maximum hop count. RIP permits a hop count of up to 15, so anything that requires 16 hops is deemed unreachable. In other words, after a loop of 15 hops, Network 5 will be considered down. Thus, the maximum hop count will control how long it takes for a routing table entry to become invalid or questionable. Split Horizon Another solution to the routing loop problem is called split horizon. This reduces incorrect routing information and routing overhead in a distance vector network by enforcing the rule that routing information cannot be sent back in the direction from which it was received. In other words, the routing protocol differentiates which interface a network route was learned on, and once this is determined, it wont advertise the route back out that same interface. This would have prevented Router A from sending the update information it received from Router B back to Router B. Route Poisoning Another way to avoid problems caused by inconsistent updates and stop network loops is route poisoning. For example, when Network 5 goes down, Router E initiates route poisoning by advertising Network 5 with a hop count of 16, or unreachable (sometimes referred to as infinite). This poisoning of the route to Network 5 keeps Router C from being susceptible to incorrect updates about the route to Network 5. When Router C receives a route poisoning from Router E, it sends an update, called a poison reverse, back to Router E. This ensures that all routers on the segment have received the poisoned route information. Holddowns A holddown prevents regular update messages from reinstating a route that is going up and down (called flapping). Typically, this happens on a serial link thats losing connectivity and

then coming back up. If there wasnt a way to stabilize this, the network would never converge and that one flapping interface could bring the entire network down! Holddowns prevent routes from changing too rapidly by allowing time for either the downed route to come back up or the network to stabilize somewhat before changing to the next best route. These also tell routers to restrict, for a specific time period, changes that might affect recently removed routes. This prevents inoperative routes from being prematurely restored to other routers tables.

Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a true distance-vector routing protocol. RIP sends the complete routing table out to all active interfaces every 30 seconds. RIP only uses hop count to determine the best way to a remote network, but it has a maximum allowable hop count of 15 by default, meaning that 16 is deemed unreachable. RIP works well in small networks, but its inefficient on large networks with slow WAN links or on networks with a large number of routers installed. RIP version 1 uses only classful routing, which means that all devices in the network must use the same subnet mask. This is because RIP version 1 doesnt send updates with subnet mask information in tow. RIP version 2 provides something called prefix routing and does send subnet mask information with the route updates. This is called classless routing. RIP Timers RIP uses four different kinds of timers to regulate its performance: Route update timer Sets the interval (typically 30 seconds) between periodic routing updates in which the router sends a complete copy of its routing table out to all neighbors. Route invalid timer Determines the length of time that must elapse (180 seconds) before a router determines that a route has become invalid. It will come to this conclusion if it hasnt heard any updates about a particular route for that period. When that happens, the router will send out updates to all its neighbors letting them know that the route is invalid. Holddown timer This sets the amount of time during which routing information is suppressed. Routes will enter into the holddown state when an update packet is received that indicates the route is unreachable. This continues either until an update packet is received with a better metric, the original route comes back up, or the holddown timer expires. The default is 180 seconds. Route flush timer Sets the time between a route becoming invalid and its removal from the routing table (240 seconds). Before its removed from the table, the router notifies its neighbors of that routes impending demise. The value of the route invalid timer must be less than that of the route flush timer. This gives the router enough time to tell its neighbors about the invalid route before the local routing table is updated. Differences between RIPv1 and RIPv2 RIPv1 Distance vector Maximum hop count of 15 Classful Broadcast based No support for VLSM No authentication RIPv2 Distance vector Maximum hop count of 15 Classless Uses multicast 224.0.0.9 Supports VLSM networks Allows for MD5 authentication

No support for discontiguous networks

Supports discontiguous networks

EIGRP
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) is a proprietary Cisco protocol that runs on Cisco routers. Enhanced IGRP (EIGRP) is a classless, enhanced distance-vector protocol that uses the concept of an autonomous system to describe the set of contiguous routers that run the same routing protocol and share routing information. EIGRP includes the subnet mask in its route updates because it is considered classless EIGRP is sometimes referred to as a hybrid routing protocol because it has characteristics of both distance-vector and link-state protocols. There are a number of powerful features that make EIGRP a real standout from other protocols. The main ones are listed here: Support for IP and IPv6 (and some other useless routed protocols) via protocoldependent modules Considered classless (same as RIPv2 and OSPF) Support for VLSM/CIDR Support for summaries and discontiguous networks Efficient neighbor discovery Communication via Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP) Best path selection via Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) One of the most interesting features of EIGRP is that it provides routing support for multiple Network layer protocols: IP, IPX, AppleTalk, and now IPv6. Feasible distance (FD) This is the best metric among all paths to a remote network, including the metric to the neighbor that is advertising that remote network. The route with the lowest FD is the route that you will find in the routing table because it is considered the best path. The metric of a feasible distance is the metric reported by the neighbor (called reported or advertised distance) plus the metric to the neighbour reporting the route. Reported/advertised distance (AD) This is the metric of a remote network, as reported by a neighbor. It is also the routing table metric of the neighbor and is the same as the second number in parentheses as displayed in the topology table, the first number being the feasible distance. Neighbor table Each router keeps state information about adjacent neighbors. When a newly discovered neighbor is learned, the address and interface of the neighbor are recorded, and this information is held in the neighbor table, stored in RAM. There is one neighbor table for each protocol-dependent module. Sequence numbers are used to match acknowledgments with update packets. The last sequence number received from the neighbor is recorded so that out-of-order packets can be detected. Topology table The topology table is populated by the protocol-dependent modules and acted upon by the Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL). It contains all destinations advertised

by neighboring routers, holding each destination address and a list of neighbors that have advertised the destination. For each neighbor, the advertised metric (distance), which comes only from the neighbors routing table, is recorded as well as the FD. If the neighbor is advertising this destination, it must be using the route to forward packets. Feasible successor A feasible successor is a path whose advertised distance is less than the feasible distance of the current successor, and it is considered a backup route. EIGRP will keep up to 16 feasible successors in the topology table. Only the one with the best metric (the successor) is copied and placed in the routing table. The show ip eigrp topology command will display all the EIGRP feasible successor routes known to a router. Successor A successor route (think successful!) is the best route to a remote network. A successor route is used by EIGRP to forward traffic to a destination and is stored in the routing table. It is backed up by a feasible successor route that is stored in the topology tableif one is available. EIGRP uses a proprietary protocol called Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP) to manage the communication of messages between EIGRP speaking routers. EIGRP uses Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) for selecting and maintaining the best path to each remote network. This algorithm allows for the following: Backup route determination if one is available Support of VLSMs Dynamic route recoveries Queries for an alternate route if no feasible successor route can be found

OSPF
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is an open standard routing protocol thats been implemented by a wide variety of network vendors, including Cisco. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is an adaptive routing protocol for Internet Protocol (IP) networks. It uses a link state routing algorithm and falls into the group of interior routing protocols, operating within a single autonomous system In OSPF ,first a shortest path tree is constructed, and then the routing table is populated with the resulting best paths. OSPF converges quickly, although perhaps not as quickly as EIGRP, and it supports multiple, equal-cost routes to the same destination. Like EIGRP, it does support both IP and IPv6 routed protocols. OSPF provides the following features: Consists of areas and autonomous systems Minimizes routing update traffic Allows scalability Supports VLSM/CIDR Has unlimited hop count Allows multi-vendor deployment (open standard)

OSPF TERMINOLOGY Link A link is a network or router interface assigned to any given network. When an interface is added to the OSPF process, its considered by OSPF to be a link. This link, or interface, will have state information associated with it (up or down) as well as one or more IP addresses. Router ID The Router ID (RID) is an IP address used to identify the router. Cisco chooses the Router ID by using the highest IP address of all configured loopback interfaces. If no loopback interfaces are configured with addresses, OSPF will choose the highest IP address of all active physical interfaces. Neighbor Neighbors are two or more routers that have an interface on a common network, such as two routers connected on a point-to-point serial link. Adjacency An adjacency is a relationship between two OSPF routers that permits the direct exchange of route updates. OSPF is really picky about sharing routing informationunlike EIGRP, which directly shares routes with all of its neighbors. Instead, OSPF directly shares routes only with neighbors that have also established adjacencies. And not all neighbors will become adjacentthis depends upon both the type of network and the configuration of the routers. Hello protocol The OSPF Hello protocol provides dynamic neighbor discovery and maintains neighbor relationships. Hello packets and Link State Advertisements (LSAs) build and maintain the topological database. Hello packets are addressed to multicast address 224.0.0.5. Neighborship database The neighborship database is a list of all OSPF routers for which Hello packets have been seen. A variety of details, including the Router ID and state, are maintained on each router in the neighborship database. Topological database The topological database contains information from all of the Link State Advertisement packets that have been received for an area. The router uses the

information from the topology database as input into the Dijkstra algorithm that computes the shortest path to every network. Link State Advertisement A Link State Advertisement (LSA) is an OSPF data packet containing link-state and routing information thats shared among OSPF routers. There are different types of LSA packets, and Ill go into these shortly. An OSPF router will exchange LSA packets only with routers to which it has established adjacencies. Designated router A designated router (DR) is elected whenever OSPF routers are connected to the same multi-access network. Cisco likes to call these broadcast networks, but really, they are networks that have multiple recipients. Try not to confuse multi-access with multipoint, which can be easy to do sometimes. A prime example is an Ethernet LAN. To minimize the number of adjacencies formed, a DR is chosen (elected) to disseminate/receive routing information to/from the remaining routers on the broadcast network or link. This ensures that their topology tables are synchronized. All routers on the shared network will establish adjacencies with the DR and backup designated router (BDR)Ill define this next. The election is won by the router with the highest priority, and the highest Router ID is used as a tiebreaker if the priority of more than one router turns out to be the same. Backup designated router A backup designated router (BDR) is a hot standby for the DR on multi-access links (remember that Cisco sometimes likes to call these broadcast networks). The BDR receives all routing updates from OSPF adjacent routers but doesnt flood LSA updates. OSPF areas An OSPF area is a grouping of contiguous networks and routers. All routers in the same area share a common Area ID.Because a router can be a member of more than one area at a time, the Area ID is associated with specific interfaces on the router. This would allow some interfaces to belong to area 1 while the remaining interfaces can belong to area 0. All of the routers within the same area have the same topology table. When configuring OSPF, youve got to remember that there must be an area 0 and that this is typically considered the backbone area. Areas also play a role in establishing a hierarchical network organizationsomething that really enhances the scalability of OSPF! Broadcast (multi-access) Broadcast (multi-access) networks such as Ethernet allow multiple devices to connect to (or access) the same network as well as provide a broadcast ability in which a single packet is delivered to all nodes on the network. In OSPF, a DR and a BDR must be elected for each broadcast multi-access network. Non-broadcast multi-access Non-broadcast multi-access (NBMA) networks are types such as Frame Relay, X.25, and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). These networks allow for multi-access but have no broadcast ability like Ethernet. So, NBMA networks require special OSPF configuration to function properly and neighbor relationships must be defined. AREA TYPES An OSPF domain is divided into areas that are labelled with 32-bit area identifiers. The area identifiers are commonly, but not always, written in the dot-decimal notation of an IPv4 address. However, they are not IP addresses and may duplicate, without conflict, any IPv4 address. While most OSPF implementations will right-justify an area number written in a format other than dotted decimal format (e.g., area 1). Most implementations expand area 1 to the area identifier 0.0.0.1, but some have been known to expand it as 1.0.0.0. Areas are logical groupings of hosts and networks, including their routers having interfaces connected to any of the included networks. Each area maintains a separate link state database whose information may be summarized towards the rest of the network by the connecting router. Thus, the topology of an area is unknown outside of the area. This reduces the amount of routing traffic between parts of an autonomous system.

Several special area types are defined. Backbone area The backbone area (also known as area 0 or area 0.0.0.0) forms the core of an OSPF network. All other areas are connected to it, and inter-area routing happens via routers connected to the backbone area and to their own associated areas. It is the logical and physical structure for the 'OSPF domain' and is attached to all nonzero areas in the OSPF domain. The backbone area is responsible for distributing routing information between non-backbone areas. The backbone must be contiguous, but it does not need to be physically contiguous; backbone connectivity can be established and maintained through the configuration of virtual links. All OSPF areas must connect to the backbone area. This connection, however, can be through a virtual link. For example, assume area 0.0.0.1 has a physical connection to area 0.0.0.0. Further assume that area 0.0.0.2 has no direct connection to the backbone, but this area does have a connection to area 0.0.0.1. Area 0.0.0.2 can use a virtual link through the transit area 0.0.0.1 to reach the backbone. To be a transit area, an area has to have the transit attribute, so it cannot be stubby in any way. Stub area A stub area is an area which does not receive route advertisements external to the autonomous system (AS) and routing from within the area is based entirely on a default route. A Stub Area simulation shows how an ABR deletes type 4, 5 LSAs from internal routers, sends them a default route of 0.0.0.0 and turns itself into a default gateway. This reduces LSDB and routing table size for internal routers. Modifications to the basic concept of stub areas exist in the not-so-stubby area (NSSA). In addition, several other proprietary variations have been implemented by systems vendors, such as the totally stubby area (TSA) and the NSSA not so stubby area, both an extension in Cisco Systems routing equipment. Transit area A transit area is an area with two or more OSPF border routers and is used to pass network traffic from one adjacent area to another. The transit area does not originate this traffic and is not the destination of such traffic. DR and BDR Elections DR and BDR election is accomplished via the Hello protocol. Hello packets are exchanged via IP multicast packets on each segment. However,only segments that are broadcast and non-broadcast multi-access networks (such as Ethernet and Frame Relay) will perform DR and BDR elections. Point-to-point links, like a serial WAN for example, will not have a DR/BDR election process.On a broadcast or non-broadcast multi-access network, the router with the highest OSPF priority on a segment will become the DR for that segment. This priority is shown with the show ip ospf interface command and is set to 1 by default. If all routers have the default priority set, the router with the highest Router ID (RID) will win. A designated router (DR) is the router interface elected among all routers on a particular multiaccess network segment, generally assumed to be broadcast multi access. A DR Election Simulation visualizes the basic neighbor discovery process (Hello), flooding (224.0.0.6), DR election (priority, RID). Special techniques, often vendor-dependent, may be needed to support the DR function on nonbroadcast multiaccess (NBMA) media. It is usually wise to configure the individual virtual circuits of a NBMA subnet as individual point-to-point lines; the techniques used are implementation-dependent.

Do not confuse the DR with an OSPF router type. A given physical router can have some interfaces that are designated (DR), others that are backup designated (BDR), and others that are non-designated. If no router is DR or BDR on a given subnet, the DR is first elected, and then a second election is held if there is more than one BDR. (A DR Election Detail Simulation shows a step-by-step DR election example: How neighbor list, neighbor state, DR, and BDR are changed when receiving Hello) The DR is elected based on the following default criteria:

If the priority setting on an OSPF router is set to 0, that means it can NEVER become a DR or BDR (Backup Designated Router). When a DR fails and the BDR takes over, there is another election to see who becomes the replacement BDR. The router sending the Hello packets with the highest priority wins the election. If two or more routers tie with the highest priority setting, the router sending the Hello with the highest RID (Router ID) wins. NOTE: a RID is the highest logical (loopback) IP address configured on a router, if no logical/loopback IP address is set then the Router uses the highest IP address configured on its active interfaces. (e.g. 192.168.0.1 would be higher than 10.1.1.2). Usually the router with the second highest priority number becomes the BDR. The priority values range between 0 - 255, with a higher value increasing its chances of becoming DR or BDR. IF a HIGHER priority OSPF router comes online AFTER the election has taken place, it will not become DR or BDR until (at least) the DR and BDR fail. If the current DR 'goes down' the current BDR becomes the new DR and a new election takes place to find another BDR. If the new DR then 'goes down' and the original DR is now available, still previously chosen BDR will become DR.

DR's exist for the purpose of reducing network traffic by providing a source for routing updates. The DR maintains a complete topology table of the network and sends the updates to the other routers via multicast. All routers in a multi-access network segment will form a slave/master relationship with the DR. They will form adjacencies with the DR and BDR only. Every time a router sends an update, it sends it to the DR and BDR on the multicast address 224.0.0.6. The DR will then send the update out to all other routers in the area, to the multicast address 224.0.0.5. This way all the routers do not have to constantly update each other, and can rather get all their updates from a single source. The use of multicasting further reduces the network load. DRs and BDRs are always setup/elected on OSPF broadcast networks. DR's can also be elected on NBMA (Non-Broadcast Multi-Access) networks such as Frame Relay or ATM. DRs or BDRs are not elected on point-to-point links (such as a point-to-point WAN connection) because the two routers on either sides of the link must become fully adjacent and the bandwidth between them cannot be further optimized. DR LSDB Synch Simulation shows how DR and non-DR routers evolve from 2way to full adjacency relationships by exchanging DD, Request, and Update.

Backup designated router A backup designated router (BDR) is a router that becomes the designated router if the current designated router has a problem or fails. The BDR is the OSPF router with second highest priority at the time of the last election.

OSPF Configuration The two basic elements for OSPF configuration are: X Enabling OSPF X Configuring OSPF areas The command for activating OSPF routing process is: Lab_A(config)#router ospf ? <1-65535> A value in the range 1-65,535 identifies the OSPF process ID For configuring OSPF areas: Lab_A#config t Lab_A(config)#router ospf 1 Lab_A(config)#network 10.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0 Here 10.0.0.0 is the network number and 0.255.255.255 is the wildcard mask. The combination is useful for identifying the interfaces that OSPF will operate on.

SWITCHING
Basic concepts of Switching Switches are layer 2 devices that can link up four, six, eight or even more networks. Switches are the only devices that allow for microsegmentation. Cut-through switches run faster because when a packet comes in, it forwards it right after looking at the destination address only. A store-and-forward switch inspects the entire packet before forwarding. Most switches cannot stop broadcast traffic. Switches are considered dedicated data link device because they are close to a 100 % of the bandwidth. While bridging does its most of its work by software, switches use ASICS hardware to handle most of its work. A switch can be thought of as a multi-port bridge. Layer 2 switching breaks up collision domains making a flatter network than an ordinary 10baseT network

Store-and-forward The entire frame is received before any forwarding takes place. The destination and/or the source addresses are read and filters are applied before the frame is forwarded. Latency occurs while the frame is being received; the latency is greater with larger frames because the entire frame takes longer to read. Error detection is high because of the time available to the switch to check for errors while waiting for the entire frame to be received. This method discards frames smaller than 64 bytes (runts) and frames larger than 1518 bytes (giants). Cut-Through The switch reads the destination address before receiving the entire frame. The frame is then forwarded before the entire frame arrives. This mode decreases the latency of the

transmission and has poor error detection. This method has two forms, Fast-forward and fragment-free. Fast-forward switching Fast-forward switching offers the lowest level of latency by immediately forwarding a packet after receiving the destination address. Because fast-forward switching does not check for errors, there may be times when frames are relayed with errors. Although this occurs infrequently and the destination network adapter discards the fault frame upon receipt. In networks with high collision rates, this can negatively affect available bandwidth. Fragment Free Switching Use the fragment-free option to reduce the number of collisions frames forwarded with errors. In fast-forward mode, latency is measured from the first bit received to the first bit transmitted, or first in, first out (FIFO). Fragment-free switching filters out collision fragments, which are the majority of packets errors, before forwarding begins. In a properly functioning network, collision fragments must be smaller than 64 bytes. Anything greater than 64 bytes is a valid packet and is usually received without error. Fragment-free switching waits until the received packet has been determined not to be a collision fragment before forwarding the packet. In fragment-free, latency is measured as FIFO. Advantages of switching: Bandwidth---LAN switches provide excellent performance for individual users by allocating dedicated bandwidth to each switch port (for example, each network segment). This technique is known as microsegmenting. VLANs---LAN switches can group individual ports into logical switched workgroups called VLANs, thereby restricting the broadcast domain to designated VLAN member ports. VLANs are also known as switched domains and autonomous switching domains. Communication between VLANs requires a router.

Disadvantages of switching: Not as good as a router in limiting Broadcasts. Communication b/w VLAN's need interVLAN routing [Router], but these days there are a number of Multilayer switches available in the market. Handling Multicast packets needs quite a bit of configuration & proper designing.

Spanning-Tree Protocol
Spanning-Tree Protocol is a link management protocol that provides path redundancy while preventing undesirable loops in the network. For an Ethernet network to function properly, only one active path can exist between two stations. Multiple active paths between stations cause loops in the network. If a loop exists in the network topology, the potential exists for duplication of messages. When loops occur,some switches see stations appear on both sides of the switch. This condition confuses the forwarding algorithm and allows duplicate frames to be forwarded. To provide path redundancy, Spanning-Tree Protocol defines a tree that spans all switches in an extended network. Spanning-Tree Protocol forces certain redundant data paths into a standby (blocked) state. If one network segment in the Spanning-Tree Protocol becomes unreachable, or if Spanning-Tree Protocol costs change, the spanning-tree algorithm

reconfigures the spanning-tree topology and re-establishes the link by activating the standby path. Election of the Root Switch All switches in an extended LAN participating in Spanning-Tree Protocol gather information on other switches in the network through an exchange of data messages. These messages are bridge protocol data units (BPDUs). This exchange of messages results in the following: The election of a unique root switch for the stable spanning-tree network topology. The election of a designated switch for every switched LAN segment. The removal of loops in the switched network by placing redundant switch ports in a backup state. The Spanning-Tree Protocol root switch is the logical centre of the spanning-tree topology in a switched network. All paths that are not needed to reach the root switch from anywhere in the switched network are placed in Spanning-Tree Protocol backup mode. BPDUs contain information about the transmitting switch and its ports, including switch and port Media Access Control (MAC) addresses, switch priority, port priority, and port cost. The Spanning-Tree Protocol uses this information to elect the root switch and root port for the switched network, as well as the root port and designated port for each switched segment.

Figure : BPDUs Enabling a Stable Spanning-Tree Protocol Topology Bridge Protocol Data Units The stable active topology of a switched network is determined by the following: The unique switch identifier (MAC address) associated with each switch. The path cost to the root associated with each switch port. The port identifier (MAC address) associated with each switch port.

Each configuration BPDU contains the following minimal information: The unique identifier of the switch that the transmitting switch believes to be the root switch. The cost of the path to the root from the transmitting port. The identifier of the transmitting port.

The switch sends configuration BPDUs to communicate and compute the spanning-tree topology. A MAC frame conveying a BPDU sends the switch group address to the destination address field. All switches connected to the LAN on which the frame is transmitted receive the BPDU. BPDUs are not directly forwarded by the switch, but the

information contained in the frame can be used to calculate a BPDU by the receiving switch, and, if the topology changes, instigate a BPDU transmission. A BPDU exchange results in the following: One switch is elected as the root switch. The shortest distance to the root switch is calculated for each switch. A designated switch is selected. This is the switch closest to the root switch through which frames will be forwarded to the root. A port for each switch is selected. This is the port providing the best path from the switch to the root switch. Ports included in the Spanning-Tree Protocol are selected

Spanning-Tree Protocol Port States Propagation delays can occur when protocol information is passed through a switched LAN. As a result, topology changes can take place at different times and at different places in a switched network. When a switch port transitions directly from non-participation in the stable topology to the forwarding state, it can create temporary data loops. Ports must wait for new topology information to propagate through the switched LAN before starting to forward frames. They must also allow the frame lifetime to expire for frames that have been forwarded using the old topology Each port on a switch using Spanning-Tree Protocol exists in one of the following five states: Blocking Listening Learning Forwarding Disabled

A port moves through these five states as follows: From initialization to blocking From blocking to listening or to disabled From listening to learning or to disabled From learning to forwarding or to disabled From forwarding to disabled

Figure : Spanning-Tree Protocol Port States

You can modify each port state by using management software. When Spanning-Tree Protocol is enabled, every switch in the network goes through the blocking state and the transitory states of listening and learning at power up. If properly configured, the ports then stabilize to the forwarding or blocking state. When the spanning-tree algorithm determines that a port should be placed in the forwarding state, the following occurs: The port is put into the listening state while it waits for protocol information that suggests it should go to the blocking state. The port waits for the expiration of a protocol timer that moves the port to the learning state. In the learning state, the port continues to block frame forwarding as it learns station location information for the forwarding database. The expiration of a protocol timer moves the port to the forwarding state, where both learning and forwarding are enabled.

Blocking State A port in the blocking state does not participate in frame forwarding, as shown in Figure C-5. After initialization, a BPDU is sent to each port in the switch. A switch initially assumes it is the root until it exchanges BPDUs with other switches. This exchange establishes which switch in the network is really the root. If only one switch resides in the network, no exchange occurs, the forward delay timer expires, and the ports move to the listening state. A switch always enters the blocking state following switch initialization. A port in the blocking state performs as follows: Discards frames received from the attached segment. Discards frames switched from another port for forwarding. Does not incorporate station location into its address database. (There is no learning at this point, so there is no address database update.) Receives BPDUs and directs them to the system module. Does not transmit BPDUs received from the system module. Receives and responds to network management messages.

Listening State The listening state is the first transitional state a port enters after the blocking state, when Spanning-Tree Protocol determines that the port should participate in frame forwarding. Learning is disabled in the listening state. A port in the listening state performs as follows: Discards frames received from the attached segment. Discards frames switched from another port for forwarding. Does not incorporate station location into its address database. (There is no learning at this point, so there is no address database update.) Receives BPDUs and directs them to the system module. Processes BPDUs received from the system module. Receives and responds to network management messages.

Learning State A port in the learning state is preparing to participate in frame forwarding. This is the second transitional state through which a port moves in anticipation of frame forwarding. The port enters the learning state from the listening state through the operation of Spanning-Tree Protocol. A port in the learning state performs as follows: Discards frames received from the attached segment. Discards frames switched from another port for forwarding. Incorporates station location into its address database. Receives BPDUs and directs them to the system module. Receives, processes, and transmits BPDUs received from the system module. Receives and responds to network management messages. Forwarding State A port in the forwarding state forwards frames, as shown in Figure C-5. The port enters the forwarding state from the learning state through the operation of Spanning-Tree Protocol. A port in the forwarding state performs as follows: Forwards frames received from the attached segment. Forwards frames switched from another port for forwarding. Incorporates station location information into its address database. Receives BPDUs and directs them to the system module. Processes BPDUs received from the system module. Receives and responds to network management messages.

Virtual Network and Ether channel

A Local Area Network (LAN) was originally defined as a network of computers located within the same area. Today, Local Area Networks are defined as a single broadcast domain. This means that if a user broadcasts information on his/her LAN, the broadcast will be received by every other user on the LAN. Broadcasts are prevented from leaving a LAN by using a router. The disadvantage of this method is routers usually take more time to process incoming data compared to a bridge or a switch. More importantly, the formation of broadcast domains depends on the physical connection of the devices in the network. Virtual Local Area Networks (VLAN's) were developed as an alternative solution to using routers to contain broadcast traffic. The workstations, hubs, and repeaters together form a LAN segment. A LAN segment is also known as a collision domain since collisions remain within the segment. The area within which broadcasts and multicasts are confined is called a broadcast domain or LAN. Thus a LAN can consist of one or more LAN segments. Defining broadcast and collision domains in a LAN depends on how the workstations, hubs, switches, and routers are physically connected together. This means that everyone on a LAN must be located in the same area. VLAN's allow a network manager to logically segment a LAN into different broadcast domains . Since this is a logical segmentation and not a physical one, workstations do not have to be physically located together. Users on different floors of the same building, or even in different buildings can now belong to the same LAN. VLAN's also allow broadcast domains to be defined without using routers. Bridging software is used instead to define which workstations are to be included in the broadcast domain. Routers would only have to be used to communicate between two VLAN's. VLAN's offer a number of advantages over traditional LAN's. They are: 1) Performance In networks where traffic consists of a high percentage of broadcasts and multicasts, VLAN's can reduce the need to send such traffic to unnecessary destinations. For example, in a broadcast domain consisting of 10 users, if the broadcast traffic is intended only for 5 of the users, then placing those 5 users on a separate VLAN can reduce traffic Compared to switches, routers require more processing of incoming traffic. 2) Formation of Virtual Workgroups Nowadays, it is common to find cross-functional product development teams with members from different departments such as marketing, sales, accounting, and research. These workgroups are usually formed for a short period of time. During this period, communication between members of the workgroup will be high. To contain broadcasts and multicasts within the workgroup, a VLAN can be set up for them. With VLAN's it is easier to place members of a workgroup together. Without VLAN's, the only way this would be possible is to physically move all the members of the workgroup closer together. 3) Simplified Administration Seventy percent of network costs are a result of adds, moves, and changes of users in the network. Every time a user is moved in a LAN, recabling, new station addressing, and reconfiguration of hubs and routers becomes necessary. Some of these tasks can be simplified with the use of VLAN's. If a user is moved within a VLAN, reconfiguration of routers is unnecessary. In addition, depending on the type of VLAN, other administrative work can be reduced or eliminated. However the full power of VLAN's will only

really be felt when good management tools are created which can allow network managers to drag and drop users into different VLAN's or to set up aliases. 4) Security Periodically, sensitive data may be broadcast on a network. In such cases, placing only those users who can have access to that data on a VLAN can reduce the chances of an outsider gaining access to the data. VLAN's can also be used to control broadcast domains, set up firewalls, restrict access, and inform the network manager of an intrusion. Types of VLAN's 1) Membership by Port Membership in a VLAN can be defined based on the ports that belong to the VLAN. For example, in a bridge with four ports, ports 1, 2, and 4 belong to VLAN 1 and port 3 belongs to VLAN 2. 2) Membership by MAC Address Here, membership in a VLAN is based on the MAC address of the workstation. The switch tracks the MAC addresses which belong to each VLAN. Since MAC addresses form a part of the workstation's network interface card, when a workstation is moved, no reconfiguration is needed to allow the workstation to remain in the same VLAN. This is unlike Layer 1 VLAN's where membership tables must be reconfigured. MAC address 1534657987368 1267276378839 3457882782008 2363738300380 VLAN 1 2 2 1

3) Membership by IP Subnet Address Membership is based on the Layer 3 header. The network IP subnet address can be used to classify VLAN membership. IP Subnet 23.2.24 26.21.35 VLAN 1 2

Types of Connections Devices on a VLAN can be connected in three ways based on whether the connected devices are VLAN-aware or VLAN-unaware. Recall that a VLAN-aware device is one which understands VLAN memberships (i.e. which users belong to a VLAN) and VLAN formats. 1) Trunk Link All the devices connected to a trunk link, including workstations, must be VLAN-aware. All frames on a trunk link must have a special header attached. These special frames are called tagged frames. 2) Access Link An access link connects a VLAN-unaware device to the port of a VLANaware bridge. All frames on access links must be implicitly tagged (untagged). The VLANunaware device can be a LAN segment with VLAN-unaware workstations or it can be a number of LAN segments containing VLAN-unaware devices (legacy LAN).

i)

Static Entries Static information is added, modified, and deleted by management only. Entries are not automatically removed after some time (ageing), but must be explicitly removed by management. There are two types of static entries: a) Static Filtering Entries: which specify for every port whether frames to be sent to a specific MAC address or group address and on a specific VLAN should be forwarded or discarded, or should follow the dynamic entry, and b) Static Registration Entries: which specify whether frames to be sent to a specific VLAN are to be tagged or untagged and which ports are registered for that VLAN. Dynamic Entries Dynamic entries are learned by the bridge and cannot be created or updated by management. The learning process observes the port from which a frame, with a given source address and VLAN ID (VID), is received, and updates the filtering database. The entry is updated only if all the following three conditions are satisfied: a) This port allows learning, b) The source address is a workstation address and not a group address, and c) There is space available in the database.

ii)

Ether Channel
EtherChannel is a port link aggregation technology or port-channel architecture used primarily on Cisco switches. It allows grouping several physical Ethernet links to create one logical Ethernet link for the purpose of providing fault-tolerance and high-speed links between switches, routers and servers. An EtherChannel can be created from between two and eight active Fast, Gigabit or 10-Gigabit Ethernet ports, with an additional one to eight inactive (failover) ports which become active as the other active ports fail. EtherChannel is primarily used in the backbone network, but can also be used to connect end user machines.

Benefits: Using the maximum of 8 active ports a total bandwidth of 800 Mbit/s, 8 Gbit/s or 80 Gbit/s is possible depending on port speed. This assumes there is a traffic mixture, as those speeds do not apply to a single application only. It can be used with Ethernet running on twisted pair wiring, single-mode and multimode fibre. Because EtherChannel takes advantage of existing wiring it makes it very scalable. It can be used at all levels of the network to create higher bandwidth links as the traffic needs of the network increase. All Cisco switches have the ability to support EtherChannel. When an EtherChannel is configured all adapters that are part of the channel share the same Layer 2 (MAC) address. This makes the EtherChannel transparent to network applications and users because they only see the one logical connection; they have no knowledge of the individual links. EtherChannel aggregates the traffic across all the available active ports in the channel. The port is selected using a Cisco-proprietary hash algorithm, based on source or destination MAC addresses, IP addresses or TCP and UDP port numbers. The hash function gives a number between 0 and 7, and the following table shows how the 8 numbers are distributed among the 2 to 8 physical ports. In the hypothesis of real random hash algorithm, 2, 4 or 8

ports configurations lead to fair load-balancing, whereas other configurations lead to unfair load-balancing. Fault-tolerance is another key aspect of EtherChannel. Should a link fail, the EtherChannel technology will automatically redistribute traffic across the remaining links. This automatic recovery takes less than one second and is transparent to network applications and the end user. This makes it very resilient and desirable for mission-critical applications. Spanning tree protocol can be used with an EtherChannel. STP treats all the links as a single one and BPDUs are only sent down one of the links. Without the use of an EtherChannel, STP would effectively shut down any redundant links between switches until one connection goes down. This is where an EtherChannel is most desirable; it allows full use of all available links between two devices. EtherChannel can be also configured as VLAN trunks. If any single link of an EtherChannel is configured as a VLAN trunk, the entire EtherChannel will act as a VLAN trunk. Cisco ISL, VTP and IEEE 802.1Q are compatible with EtherChannel. Limitations: A limitation of EtherChannel is that all the physical ports in the aggregation group must reside on the same switch. Avaya's SMLT protocol removes this limitation by allowing the physical ports to be split between two switches in a triangle configuration or 4 or more switches in a mesh configuration. Cisco's Virtual Switching System allows the creation of a Multichassis EtherChannel (MEC) similar to the DMLT protocol allowing ports to be aggregated towards different physical chassis that conform a single "virtual switch" entity. Components: EtherChannel is made up of the following key elements:

Intel PRO/1000 MT Server Adapter that supports EtherChannel Ethernet links EtherChannel works over links defined by the IEEE 802.3 standard, including all sub-standards. All links in a single EtherChannel must be the same speed. Compatible hardware The entire line of Cisco Catalyst switches as well as Cisco IOS software-based routers support EtherChannel. Configuring an EtherChannel between a switch and a computer would either require special network interface cards (NICs) such as the model pictured here, or support built into the operating system. FreeBSD, for example, supports EtherChannel via LACP on standard NICs. Multiple EtherChannel per device are supported; the number depends on the type of equipment. Catalyst 6500 and 6000 switches support a maximum of 64 EtherChannel. Configuration An EtherChannel must be configured using the Cisco IOS on switches and router, and using specific drivers when connecting a server. There are two main ways an EtherChannel can be set up. The first is by manually issuing a command on each port of the device that is part of the EtherChannel. This must be

done for the corresponding ports on both sides of the EtherChannel. The second way is using Cisco Port Aggregation Protocol for the automated aggregation of Ethernet ports.

GNS3 is a graphical network simulator that allows simulation of complex networks. To provide complete and accurate simulations, GNS3 is strongly linked with:

Dynamips, a Cisco IOS emulator. Dynagen, a text-based front end for Dynamips. Qemu, a generic and open source machine emulator and virtualizer. VirtualBox, a free and powerful virtualization software.

GNS3 is an excellent complementary tool to real labs for network engineers, administrators and people wanting to study for certifications such as Cisco CCNA, CCNP, CCIP and CCIE as well as Juniper JNCIA, JNCIS and JNCIE. It can also be used to experiment features of Cisco IOS, Juniper JunOS or to check configurations that need to be deployed later on real routers. Thanks to VirtualBox integration, now even system engineers and administrators can take advantage of GNS3 to make labs and study for Redhat (RHCE, RHCT), Microsoft (MSCE, MSCA), Novell (CLP) and many other vendor certifications. This project is an open source, free program that may be used on multiple operating systems, including Windows, Linux, and MacOS X. Features overview

Design of high quality and complex network topologies. Emulation of many Cisco IOS router platforms, IPS, PIX and ASA firewalls, JunOS. Simulation of simple Ethernet, ATM and Frame Relay switches. Connection of the simulated network to the real world! Packet capture using Wireshark.

INSTALLING GNS3
Step 1 Download GNS3 The easiest way to install GNS3 in a Windows environment is to download the all-in-one version. The file is a little under 16 MB in size and will take less than a minute to download on a DSL or cable connection. Dial-up connections will take somewhat longer. Step 2 Install GNS3

Find the file you download and double-click on it to begin installing GNS3.

The GNS3 Setup Wizard will begin. Everything else is a matter of clicking on next or agree buttons. GNS3 depends on several other programs to operate. Those dependencies include WinPCAP, Dynamips and Qemu and these components along with GNS3 are all chosen by default for installation. The default location to install GNS3 is also chosen for you. Moreover note that if needed, WinPcap Setup Wizard will be launched for you to install it, this dependency is required for GNS3 to communicate with real networks through a physical network internal controller. The installation for WinPcap will begin. However, if you have a previous version of WinPcap on your computer, the wizard will ask to remove the older version and will then install the newer version. You have now completed the installation of GNS3. Click the Start button,All Programs, GNS3, and then choose GNS3 out of the list of applications installed. Youll see the main GNS3 window. Well discuss its panes in a later step, but first we have to configure the location for a Cisco IOS.

Step 3 Defining Cisco IOS files

As mentioned earlier, you must provide your own Cisco IOS to use with GNS3 due to licensing issues. GNS3 is meant to be used in a lab environment for testing and learning. Once you have obtained your own copy of a Cisco IOS for one of the supported platforms, you are ready to continue. Supported platforms are Cisco 7200, 3600 series (3620, 3640 and 3660), 3700 series (3725, 3745) and 2600 series (2610 to 2650XM, 2691). On the Edit menu, choose IOS image and hypervisors. Then under the IOS Images tab, click and then find your Cisco IOS file and click Open. The file will appear as your Image file. Next, click the drop-down arrow next toPlatform and choose the platform that corresponds to your IOS file. Now click the drop-down arrow next to Model and choose the model corresponding to your IOS file. For now, well accept the default values that remain. However, there is a very important value called the IDLE PC value that we will want to include. Well get to that later. Click the Savebutton and then the Close button. This will return you to the default GNS3 window. Its time to create our very first simple topology.

First Network Topology

R1, R2, R3,R6: Routers respectively

Configuring The routers CISCO Router Models:

Various CISCO Router Models are: Cisco Cisco Cisco Cisco Cisco Cisco Cisco 7600 7200 3900 3800 2900 2800 1900 Series Series Series Series Series Series Series Routers Routers Integrated Integrated Integrated Integrated Integrated

Services Services Services Services Services

Router Router Router Router Router

Cisco Router IOS

Cisco IOS (originally Internetwork Operating System) is software used on most Cisco Systems routers and current Cisco network switches. (Earlier switches ran CatOS.) IOS is a package of routing, switching, internetworking and telecommunications functions integrated into a multitasking operating system. The IOS command line interface provides a fixed set of multiple- word commands. The set available is determined by the "mode" and the privilege level of the current user. "Global configuration mode" provides commands to change the system's configuration, and "interface configuration mode" provides commands to change the configuration of a specific interface. All commands are assigned a privilege level, from 0 to 15, and can only be accessed by users with the necessary privilege. Through the CLI, the commands available to each privilege level can be defined. These are some important things that the Cisco router IOS software is responsible for: Carrying network protocols and functions Connecting high-speed traffic between devices Adding security to control access and stop unauthorized network use

 Providing scalability for ease of network growth and redundancy

Cisco Router Hostname Setup

Cisco Router Auxiliary, Console and Telnet Passwords Setup

There are five passwords used to secure your Cisco routers: console, auxiliary, telnet (VTY), enable password, and enable secret.

Cisco Router Auxiliary Password Setup

To configure the auxiliary password, go into global configuration mode and type line aux ?.You can see here that you only get a choice of 00.
Router#config t Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z. //Router(config)#line aux ? //<0-0> First Line number Router(config)#line aux 0 Router(config-line)#password admin(admin is the password) Router(config-line)#login

Cisco Router Console Password Setup

To set the console password, use the line console 0 command.
Router(config-line)#line console ? % Unrecognized command Router(config-line)#exit Router(config)#line console ? <0-0> First Line number Router(config)#line console 0 Router(config-line)# password admin1 Router(config-line)# login

Cisco Router Telnet Password Setup

To set the user-mode password for Telnet access into the router, use the line vty command. Routers that arent running the Enterprise edition of the Cisco IOS default to five VTY lines, 0 through 4. But if you have the Enterprise edition, youll have significantly more. The best way to find out how many lines you have is to use that question mark
Router(config-line)#line vty 0 ? <1-4> Last Line Number

Router(config-line)#line vty 0 4 Router(config-line)# password admin2 Router(config-line)# login

Cisco Router Configuration Commands

Requirement
Set a console password to cisco Set a telnet password

Cisco Command
Router(config)#line con 0 Router(config-line)#password cisco Router(config-line)#login Router(config)#line vty 0 4 Router(config-line)#password cisco Router(config-line)#login Router(config)#line con 0 Router(config-line)#exec-timeout 0 0 Router(config)#enable password cisco

Stop console timing out Set the enable password to cisco Set the enable secret password to peter. This password overrides the enable password and is encypted within Enable an interface

Router(config)#enable secret peter Router(config)->router(configif)=command #interface fastethernet 0/0

Router(config-if)#no shutdown

To disable an interface Router(config-if)#shutdown

Router(config-if)#ip addr 10.1.1.1 To add an IP 255.255.255.0 address to a interface Cisco Router Show Commands

View version information View current configuration (DRAM)

show version show running-config

View startup configuration (NVRAM) Show IOS file and flash space

show startup-config

show flash

show log Shows all logs that the router has in its memory Cisco Router Basic Operations

Enable Return to user mode from privileged Exit Router Recall last command Recall next command Suspend or abort

Enter privileged mode Disable

Logout or exit or quit up arrow or <Ctrl-P> down arrow or <Ctrl-N> <Shift> and <Ctrl> and 6 then x

Refresh screen output <Ctrl-R> Complete Command

TAB

Setting Up Banners on Cisco Router

There are four types of banners available in Cisco Routers: exec process creation banner incoming terminal line banner login banner message of the day banner
Router(config)#banner ? LINE c banner-text c, where c is a delimiting character exec Set EXEC process creation banner incoming Set incoming terminal line banner login Set login banner motd Set Message of the Day banner

Message of the day (MOTD) is the most extensively used banner. It gives a message to every person dialing into or connecting to the router via Telnet or auxiliary port, or even through a console port as seen here:
Router(config)#banner motd ? LINE c banner-text c, where c is a delimiting character Router(config)#banner motd # Enter TEXT message. End with the character #. $ Type your motd banner here. # Router(config)#^Z Router# 00:25:12: %SYS-5-CONFIG_I: Configured from console by console Router#exit Router con0 is now available Press RETURN to get started.

For example, a banner can be set on one line as shown:

Router(config)#banner motd x Unauthorized access prohibited! x

Set the time on a Cisco router manually

Setting the internal clock in a Cisco router allows timestamping of logging information which makes troubleshooting much easier. If you do not have an NTP server running, you can set the time manually with a simple command. To set the time, use this command in enable mode (not configuration mode):
Router# clock set 22:10:35 June 20 2012

The time is in 24 hour mode. To see the information about the clock settings, use:
Router# show clock detail 22:56:07.136 PDT Wed Jun 20 2012 Time source is user configuration

This will show the current date and time and the source of the time configuration (in this case showing that the time was manually set).

Configuration of the interface of the Cisco Routers

The f0/0 denotes the interface of the router,Where f denotes fast Ethernet. Firstly each interface is assigned an ip address along with a subnet mask The command that facilitates the desired is :
Raveena(config-line)#int f0/0 Raveena(config-if)#ip addr 10.1.1.1 255.255.255.0 Lastly the command no shutdown, changes the state of the router to up. Raveena(config-if)#no shutdown

The communication between interfaces This calls for the use of the very famous and useful command called the ping command . Ping is a computer network administration utility used to test the reachability of a host on an Internet Protocol (IP) network and to measure the round-trip time for messages sent from the originating host to a destination computer So we begin by pinging the router itself , to see whether its up or not. The following screenshot depicts the command and its aftereffect

. When pinging to the other node r2 in the same network i.e connected to the same interface the delivery ratio was 0.8